FLUID MECHANICS

Department of Aeronautics

Finite Control Volume Analysis

Dr. Bui Van Tuan

Finite Control Volume Analysis

• Select an appropriate nite control volume to solve a uid mechanic

problem

• Apply conversation of mass and energy and Newton’s second law

to the contents of a nite control volume

• How velocity changes and energy transfers in uid ows are related
to forces and torques

• Why designing for minimum loss of energy in uid ows is so

important.
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Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation
• Conservation of mass: Time rate of change of the system mass = 0
DMsys
• =0
Dt
• The the Reynolds transport theorem for B=mass and b=1:
D ∂
Dt ∫sys ∂t ∫cv ∫cs
ρd = ρd + ̂
ρV . ndA
|{z} |{z}
time rate of change of mass of
the contents of CV
net rate ow of mass through cs
𝒱
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Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation
• When the ow is steady all eld properties including density
remain constant with time and the time rate of change of the
mass of the contents of cv is 0.

∂
• ∂t ∫
ρd =0
cv
𝒱
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Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation
• The net mass owrate through the control surface:

∫cs
̂ = m· out − m· in (1)
∑
ρV . ndA

· is mass ow rate
where m

• (1)> 0: net ow is out of control volume, (1) < 0 net ow is into the
CV

• Conservation of mass (continuity equation):

∂
∂t ∫cv ∫cv
ρd + ̂ =0
ρV . ndA
𝒱
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 Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume

• Dot product of V . n ̂ is “+” for ow out of control volume, and “-“ for
ow into CV.

• Mass owrate out of the control volume is +, and vive versa.

• Flow is steady:
m· out − m· in = 0
∑ ∑
• Net mass owrate:

• Net volume owrate Q = 0: ∑ Qout − ∑ Qin = 0

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Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume
• For unsteady ow, the instantaneous time rate of
change of the mass of the contents of the control
volume is ≠ 0:

• When the ow is uniformly distributed over the

· = ρAV
opening in the control surface: m

• With steady ow involving only one stream of a

speci c uid owing through the CV at sections (1)
· = ρ A V̄ = ρ A V̄
and (2): m 1 1 1 2 2 2

• For incompressible ow: Q = A1V̄1 = A2V̄2

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 Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume
• Example 5.1. A great danger to workers in con ned spaces involves
the consumption of breathable air (oxygen) and its replacement with
other gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2). To prevent this from
happening, con ned spaces need to be ventilated. Although there is
no standard for air exchange rates, a complete change of the air
every 3 minutes has been accepted by industry as providing
e ective ventilation. A worker is performing maintenance in a small
rectangular tank with a height of 10 ft and a square base 6 ft by 6 ft.
Fresh air enters through an 8-in.-diameter hose and exits through a
4-in.- diameter port on the tank wall. The ow is assumed steady
and incompressible. Determine:

• The exchange rate needed (ft3/min) for this tank

• The velocity of the air entering and exiting the tank at this
exchange rate.
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 Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Moving, non deforming CV
• Example: a gas turbine engine on a plane in ight, the exhaust stack
of a ship at sea

• W: uid velocity relative to the moving control volume as seen by an

observer moving with CV

• Control volume velocity Vcv is the velocity of the control volume as

seen from a xed coordinate system.

• Absolute velocity V: is the uid velocity seen by a stationary

observer in a xed coordinate system V = W + Vcv
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Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Moving, non deforming CV
• The Reynolds transport theorem for a moving CV:
DMsys ∂
∂t ∫cv ∫cs
= ρd + ρW . ndA ̂
Dt
∂
∂t ∫cv ∫cv
Continuity equation: ρd + ̂ =0
ρW . ndA
•
𝒱
𝒱
Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Moving, non deforming CV
• Example 5.6: Estimate the mass ow rate of fuel into the engine in
kg/hr. A1 = 0.8 m2, entering air density is 0.736 kg/m3. The engine
exhaust area is 0.558 m2, the the exhaust gas density is 0.515 kg/
m3

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Conservation of mass - Continuity equation
Deforming CV
• A deforming control volume involves changing volume size and control
surface movement

• The Reynolds transport theorem can be used in this case as:

DMsys ∂
∂t ∫cv ∫cs
= ρd + ̂ =0
ρW . ndA
Dt

• The rst term is normally nonzero and is carefully evaluated due to the
geometry and extent of CV vary with time

• Second term is determined with relative velocity W - referenced to the cs.

• The control surface velocity is not necessarily uniform and identical to the
control volume velocity Vcs: V = W+Vcs

• In general, uid ows through the control surface, it is advisable to make

the control surface perpendicular to the ow
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 Newton’s second law - The linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation
• Newton’s second law of motion for a system: Time rate of change
of the linear momentum equal sum of external forces acting on
the system

• Momentum (product of mass times velocity): p = mV —> The

momentum of a small particle of mass ρd is Vρd

D
Dt ∫sys ∑
Momentum of the whole system: Vρd = Fsys
•
• Any reference or coordinate system for
which this statement is true is called inertial.

• A coordinate system that moves in a straight

line with constant velocity and without
acceleration is also inertial.
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Newton’s second law - The linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation
• When a CV is coincident with a system at time t: forces acting on
the system and the forces acting on the contents of the coincident
CV are identical: Fsys = Fcontents of the coincident CV

• Applying the Reynolds transport theorem with b=V:

D ∂
Dt ∫sys ∂t ∫cv ∫cs
Vρd = Vρd + VρV . ndA ̂
𝒱
𝒱
Newton’s second law - The linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation
• For a control volume is xed and and nondeforming, we
have the linear momentum equation:
∂
∂t ∫cv ∫cs
̂ =
∑
Vρd + VρV . ndA Fcontents of the CV

• The forces involved in this are body (Weight) and

surface forces that act on what is contained in the CV.

• The surface forces are basically exerted on the

contents of the CV by material just outside the control
volume in contact with material just inside the control
volume.

• For example: a wall in contact with uid can exert a

reaction surface force on the uid it bounds.
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Newton’s second law - The linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
• Example 5.10: A horizontal jet of water exits a nozzle with a uniform
speed of V1 = 10 ft/s, strikes a vane, and is turned through an angle
θ.

• Determine the anchoring force needed to hold the vane stationary if

gravity and viscous e ects are negligible.
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Newton’s second law - The linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
• Some notes about the application of the linear momentum equation
are considered:

• When the ow is uniformly distributed over a section of the

control surface where ow into or out of the control volume
occurs, the integral operations are simpli ed

• Linear momentum is directional; it can have components in as

many as three orthogonal coordinate directions.

• The ow of positive or negative linear momentum into a control

volume involves a negative V . n̂ product. Momentum ow out of
the control volume involves a positive V . n̂ product

• The time rate of change of the linear momentum of the contents

of a nondeforming control volume is zero for steady ow.
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Newton’s second law - The linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
• If the control surface is selected so that it is perpendicular to the ow
where uid enters or leaves the control volume, the surface force
exerted at these locations by uid outside the control volume on uid
inside will be due to pressure

• The forces due to atmospheric pressure acting on the control surface

may need consideration for the reaction force between the nozzle
and the uid

• The external forces have an algebraic sign of positive if the force is in

the assigned positive coordinate direction and negative otherwise.

• Only external forces acting on the contents of the control volume are
considered in the linear momentum equation

• The force required to anchor an object will generally exist in

response to surface pressure and or shear forces acting on the
/

control surface, to a change in linear momentum ow through the

control volume containing the object, and to the weight of the object
and the uid contained in the control volume.
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Newton’s second law - The linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
• Example 5.12: Water ows through a horizontal, 180° pipe bend
as shown in Fig. E5.12a and illustrated in Fig. E5.12b. The ow
cross-sectional area is constant at a value of 0.1 ft2 through the
bend. The magnitude of the ow velocity everywhere in the bend
is axial and 50 ft/s. The absolute pressures at the entrance and
exit of the bend are 30 psia and 24 psia, respectively.

• Calculate the horizontal (x and y) components of the anchoring

force required to hold the bend in place.
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 Newton’s second law - The linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
• For a system and an inertial, moving, nondeforming control
volume that are both coincident at an instant of time, the Reynolds
transport theorem:
D ∂
Dt ∫sys ∂t ∫cv ∫cs
̂ =
∑
Vρd = Vρd + VρW . ndA Fcontents of the CV

• When the equation relating absolute, relative, and control volume

velocities is used, we have:
∂
∂t ∫cv ∫cs
̂ =
∑
(W + Vcv)ρd + (W + Vcv)ρW . ndA Fcontents of the CV

= 0 for a steady
ow
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Application of the Linear Momentum Equation

• For this inertial, nondeforming control volume:

∫cs ∫cs ∫cs

(W + Vcv)ρW . ndA ̂ = WρW . nd + Vcv ρW . ndA
̂

∫cs
For steady ow we have: ̂ =0
ρW . ndA
•

• So, the linear momentum equation for an inertial, moving,

nondeforming control volume that involves steady ow is:

∫cs
̂ =
∑
WρW . ndA Fcontents of the CV
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Application of the Linear Momentum Equation

• Example 5.17: A vane on wheels moves with constant velocity V0

when a stream of water having a nozzle exit velocity of V1 is turned
45° by the vane as indicated in Fig. E5.17a. The speed of the water
jet leaving the nozzle is 100 ft/s, and the vane is moving to the right
with a constant speed of 20 ft/s.

• Determine the magnitude and direction of the force, R, exerted by

the stream of water on the vane surface.
 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation

• A owing uid can be forced to:

1. Change direction

2. speed up or slow down

3. have a velocity pro le change

4. do only some or all of the above

5. do none of the above

• A net force on the uid is required for achieving any or all of the rst four
above, which all represent a change in uid momentum.

• The forces on a owing uid balance out with no net force for the fth.
• The typical forces considered are: pressure, friction, weight, and involve
some type of constraint such as a vane, channel, or conduit to guide the
owing uid.
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Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate

about an axis

• We will develop a moment-of-momentum equation that relates

torques and angular momentum ow for the contents of a control
volume

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 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• Apply the Newton’s second law of motion for a

D
uid particle: (Vρd ) = δFparticle
Dt
• We obtain the moment of each side of eq
above with respect to the origin of an inertial
coordinate system:
D
r × (Vρd ) = r × δFparticle
Dt
• r is the position from the origin of the ICS to
uid particle
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Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• Note that:
D Dr D(Vρδ )
[(r × V)ρδ ] = × VρδV + r ×
Dt Dt Dt

and Dr/Dt = V, V × V = 0—>

D
[(r × V)ρδ ] = r × δFparticle
Dt
• For a system we use the sum of both sides:
D
∫sys Dt ∑
[(r × V)ρδ ] = (r × F)sys

• where ∑ r × δFparticles = ∑ (r × F)sys

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Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• Time rate of change of the moment-of-momentum of the system

= sum of external torques acting on the system.

• For CV is coincident with the system, torques acting on the

∑ ∑
system and on CV are identical: (r × F)sys = (r × F)cv

• The Reynolds transport theorem of the system and the contents

of the coincident CV which is xed and non deforming:
D ∂
Dt ∫sys ∂t ∫cv ∫cs
(r × V )ρd = (r × V )ρd + ̂
(r × V )ρV . ndA

• Time rate of change of the moment-of-momentum of the system

= time rate of change of the moment-of-momentum of the
contents of the control volume + net rate of ow of the moment-
of-momentum through the control surface
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 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• For a xed, non deforming CV, the moment-of-momentum

equation:
∂
∂t ∫cv ∫cs
̂ =
∑
(r × V)ρd + (r × V)ρV . ndA (r × F)contents of CV

• An important category of uid mechanical problems that is

readily solved with the help of the moment-of-momentum
equation involves machines that rotate around a single axis.

• Machines that rotate around a single

axis: rotary lawn sprinklers, ceiling
fans, lawn mower blades, wind
turbines, turbochargers, and gas
turbine engine
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Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• Let’s make some assumptions to work on the moment-of-

momentum of water ows from the sprinkler:

• Flows are 1-D (uniform distributions of average velocity at any

section).

∂
∂t ∫cv
Steady ows of the cyclical ows: (r × V)ρd =0
•

• We’ll only work along the axis of rotation

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Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• The direction and magnitude of the ow through the

sprinkler from the inlet [section (1)] to the outlet
[section (2)] of the arm changes —> the water exerts
a torque on the sprinkler head —> rotate the
sprinkler

• We choose to use the xed and nondeforming

control volume

• This disk-shaped control volume contains within its

boundaries the spinning or stationary sprinkler head
and the portion of the water owing through the
sprinkler contained in the control volume at an
instant.

• When the sprinkler is rotating, the ow eld in the

stationary control volume is cyclical and unsteady
but steady in average

• The integrand of the moment-of-momentum ow

∫cs
over the cs is: ̂
(r × V)ρV . ndA
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 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• Water enters the control volume axially

through the hollow stem of the rotating
sprinkler at section (1): r × V resolved along
the axis of rotation = 0

• Water leaves the control volume through

each of the two nozzle openings at section
(2).

• V: absolute velocity is measured relative to

a xed CS

• W: Relative Velocity of the nozzle exit ow

as viewed from the nozzle.

• U is the velocity of the moving nozzle as

measured relative to the xed control surface

• V = W+U
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Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• Flow into the control volume: V . n ̂ is negative.

• For ow out: V . n ̂ is positive

• Direction and Sign of r × V can be determined by using the right-
hand rule
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Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

[ ∫cs ]
We have: ̂
(r × V )ρV . ndA ·
= (−r2Vθ2)(+ m)
•
axial
· is the total mass owrate through both nozzles
with m

• In this case torques acting with respect to the axis of rotation —>
shaft torque is important

• The net axial torque due to uid tangential forces is negligibly small
for the control volume
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Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• So we have ∑ [(r × F)contents of the CV] = Tshaft

• The axial component of the moment-of-momentum equation:
−r2Vθ2m· = Tshaft
· ·
• Shaft power W shaft = Tshaft ω = − r V
2 θ2mω

• U· = r2ω is the speed of each sprinkler nozzle, so:

Wshaft = − U2Vθ2m·
Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• Negative shaft work as we seen in previous equations is work out of the

control volume, that is, work done by the uid on the rotor and thus its shaft.

• Example 5.18: Water enters a rotating lawn sprinkler through its base at the
steady rate of 1000 ml/s as sketched in Fig. a. The exit area of each of the
two nozzles is 30 mm2 and the ow leaving each nozzle is in the tangential
direction. The radius from the axis of rotation to the centerline of each nozzle
is 200 mm.

• Determine the resisting torque required to hold the sprinkler head

stationary.

• Determine the resisting torque associated with the sprinkler rotating with a
constant speed of 500 rev/min.

• Determine the speed of the sprinkler if no resisting torque is applied.

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Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation

• When the moment-of-momentum equation is applied to a more

general, one-dimensional ow through a rotating machine, we
· (± r V ) + m· (± r V
obtain: Tshaft = (− m in in θin out out thetaout)

• The “−” is used with mass owrate into the control volume, the “+”
is used with mass owrate out of the control volume
·
• The shaft power related to the shaft torque by: Wshaft = Tshaftω
· · )(± U V ) + m· (± U V )
• Since rω = U so: W shaft = (− m in in θin out out θout
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Problem 5.3
• Water ows steadily through the horizontal piping system as in Fig.
The velocity is uniform at section (1), the mass owrate is 10 slugs/s
at section (2), and the velocity is nonuniform at section (3).

D
Dt ∫sys
(a) Determine the value of the quantity ρ where the
•
system is the water contained in the pipe bounded by sections (1),
(2), and (3).

• (b) Determine the mean velocity at section (2).

∫3
(c) Determine, if possible, the value of the integral ̂ over
ρV . ndA
•
section (3)
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation
Derivation of energy equation

• The rst law of thermodynamics: Time rate of increase of the

total stored energy of the system = net time rate of energy
addition by heat transfer into the system + net time rate of energy
addition by work transfer into the system.

D · · · ·
• Dt ∫sys
=( Qout) +( Wout)
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
eρd Qin − Win −
sys sys

D · ·
Dt ∫sys
or eρd = (Qnet in + Wnet in)sys
•

with: e stored energy per unit mass, related to ǔ is internal energy

per unit mass, the kinetic energy per unit mass, V2/2, and the
potential energy per unit mass, gz: e = ǔ + V 2 /2 + gz
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

· ·
• Qnet in: net rate of heat transfer into the system, Wnet in: net rate of
work transfer into the system

• Heat transfer and work transfer are considered “+” going into the
system, and “-“ coming out

• For the control volume that is coincident with the system at an

· · · ·
instant of time: (Qnet in + Wnet in)sys = (Qnet in + Wnet in)coincident CV

• The the Reynolds transport theorem will be:

D ∂
Dt ∫sys ∂t ∫cv ∫cs
eρd = eρd + eρV . ndA ̂
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

• The rst law of thermodynamics:

∂ · ·
∂t ∫cv ∫cs
eρd + eρV . ndA ̂ = (Qnet in + Wnet in)cv

·
• The heat transfer rate Qrepresents all of the ways in
which energy is exchanged between the control
volume contents and surroundings because of a
temperature di erence: out is positive, in is
negative

• Adiabatic process, heat transfer rate = 0

·
• The work transfer rate, W, also called power, is
positive when work is done on the contents of the
control volume by the surroundings.
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

• Work is transferred across the control surface by:

• a moving shaft (rotary devices)
• When a force associated with uid normal stress acts over a
distance

• because of tangential stress forces

• Energy equation:
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

∫cv
The term ∂/∂t eρd represents the time rate of change of the
•
total stored energy of CV

• This term is zero when the ow is steady.

∫cs (
The integrand of ǔ + p/ρ + V 2
/2 + gz)ρV . ndA
̂ can be
•
nonzero only where uid crosses the control surface

• If the properties within parentheses, are all assumed to be uniformly

distributed over the ow cross-sectional areas involved, the
integration becomes:
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

• If if there is only one stream entering and leaving the control volume,
then:
p
∫cs (ǔ + + gz)ρV . ndA
̂ =
ρ
p p
( )out out ( )in in
ǔ + + gz · − ǔ + + gz m·
m
ρ ρ
• Uniform ow as described above will occur in an in nitesimally small
diameter streamtube as illustrated in the g below

• This kind of streamtube ow is representative of the steady ow of a

particle of uid along a pathline
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 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

• If shaft work is involved, the ow must be unsteady,

at least locally

• The ow in any uid machine that involves shaft work

is unsteady within that machine.

• However, upstream and downstream of the machine,

the ow may be steady. Most often shaft work is
associated with ow that is unsteady in a recurring or
cyclical way.

• On a time- average basis for ow that is one-

dimensional, cyclical, and involves only one stream of
uid entering and leaving the control volume, such as
the hair dryer:
[ ]
2 2
p p V − V · ·
m· ǔout − ǔin + ( )out − ( )in + out in
+ g(zout − zin) = Qnet in + Wshaft net in
ρ ρ 2
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

[ ]
2 2
· p p Vout − Vin · ·
• m ǔout − ǔin + ( )out − ( )in + + g(zout − zin) = Qnet in + Wshaft net in
ρ ρ 2

• This equation is called one-dimensional energy equation for steady-

in-the-mean ow
p
Often, the uid property called enthalpy ȟ = ǔ +
• ρ
• Using enthalpy, the one-dimensional energy equation for steady-in-
the-mean ow:

[ ]
2 2
· Vout − Vin · ·
m ȟout − ȟin + + + g(zout − zin) = Qnet in + Wshaft net in
2
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

• If the ow is truly steady throughout, so that no work is done,

one-dimensional, and only one uid stream is involved, then setting
the shaft work to zero, the energy equation becomes:

[ ]
2 2
p p Vout − Vin ·
m· ǔout − ǔin + ( )out − ( )in + + g(zout − zin) = Qnet in
ρ ρ 2
• We call this is the one-dimensional, steady- ow energy equation
• For compressible ows, enthalpy is most often used in the one-
dimensional, steady- ow energy equation and, we have:

[ ]
2 2
Vout − Vin ·
m· ȟout − ȟin + + g(zout − zin) = Qnet in
2
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation

• Example 5.20: A pump delivers water at a steady rate of 300 gal/

min as shown in Fig. Just upstream of the pump [section (1)] where
the pipe diameter is 3.5 in., the pressure is 18 psi. Just downstream
of the pump [section (2)] where the pipe diameter is 1 in., the
pressure is 60 psi. The change in water elevation across the pump
is zero. The rise in internal energy of water uˇ2 − uˇ1, associated with
a temperature rise across the pump is 93 ft ∙ lb/lbm. The pumping
process is considered to be adiabatic.

• Determine the power (hp) required by the pump.

First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation
The mechanical energy equation and the Bernoulli equation

• We have obtained the 1-D energy equation for steady ow:

[ ]
2 2
· p p Vout − Vin ·
m ǔout − ǔin + ( )out − ( )in + + g(zout − zin) = Qnet in
ρ ρ 2
• If the ow is incompressible (ρout = ρin = ρ) then:

[ ]
2 2
· pout pin V out − Vin ·
m ǔout − ǔin + − + + g(zout − zin) = Qnet in
ρ ρ 2
• Dividing this eq. by mass ow rate, we get:
2 2
pout Vout pin Vin
+ + gzout = + + gzin − (ǔout − ǔin − qnet in)
ρ 2 ρ 2
·
Qnet in
• where qnet in = m· is the heat transfer rate per mass owrate, or
heat transfer per unit mass.
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation
The mechanical energy equation and the Bernoulli equation

• Now we assume that the steady, incompressible ow that we are

considering is also frictionless, using the Bernoulli equation in
2
pout Vout pin Vin2
energy form we get: + + gzout = + + gzin
ρ 2 ρ 2
• This leads to: ǔout − ǔin − qnet in = 0
• For steady incompressible ow with friction:
ǔout − ǔin − qnet in > 0
• This combination represents the loss of energy that occurs in a
incompressible uid ow because of friction.

• We can rewrite the rst eq combining with loss as:

2
pout Vout pin Vin2
+ + gzout = + + gzin − loss
ρ 2 ρ 2
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation
The mechanical energy equation and the Bernoulli equation

• Example 5.23: Air ows from a room through

two di erent vent con gurations: a cylindrical
hole in the wall having a diameter of 120 mm
and the same diameter cylindrical hole in the
wall but with a well-rounded entrance. The
room pressure is held constant at 1.0 kPa
above atmospheric pressure. Both vents
exhaust into the atmosphere. The loss in
available energy associated with ow through
the cylindrical vent from the room to the vent
exit is 0.5V22 /2 where V2 is the uniformly
distributed exit velocity of air. The loss in
available energy associated with ow through
the rounded entrance vent from the room to
the vent exit is 0.05V22 /2 where V2 is the
uniformly distributed exit velocity of air.

• Compare the volume owrates associated with

the two di erent vent con gurations.
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First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation
The mechanical energy equation and the Bernoulli equation

• For the ow involving the shaft work (through pumps, blowers,

fans):

[ ]
2 2
· p p Vout − Vin · ·
m ǔout − ǔin + ( )out − ( )in + + g(zout − zin) = Qnet in + Wshaft net in
ρ ρ 2

• Dividing this eq. by

·
mass ow rate ,and let
wshaft net in = Wshaft / m· then we have the energy equation for
steady-in-the-mean ow (often used for incompressible ow):
2 2
pout Vout pin Vin
+ + gzout = + + gzin + wshaft net in − loss
ρ 2 ρ 2
• This is also called the mechanical energy equation or the extended
Bernoulli equation.
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Second Law of Thermodynamics - Irreversible Flow
Semi-in nitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Energy Equation

• We are going to develop the notion of loss of useful energy for ow

with friction.

• The steady ow energy equation of in nitesimally CV:

· 2 ·
m[dǔ + d(p/ρ) + d(V /2) + g(dz)] = δQnet in

• The following relationship among uid properties is called the rst

Tds equation:

Tds = dǔ + pd(1/ρ) with s is the entropy per unit mass, and T is
the abs temperature

• The second law states that there exists a useful state variable called
entropy S. The change in entropy delta S is equal to the heat
transfer delta Q divided by the temperature T.
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Second Law of Thermodynamics - Irreversible Flow
Semi-in nitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Energy Equation

• Entropy is the loss of energy available to do work.

• Tds equation they enable us to calculate the change of entropy
during various reversible processes. It also called tedious equation

• Combining the 2 above eq.:

[ ]
2
· 1 p V ·
m Tds − pd( ) + d( ) + d( ) + gdz = δQnet in
ρ ρ 2
· ·
• Let δqnet in = δQ net in / m , we’ll get:
dp V2
+ d( ) + gdz = − (Tds − δqnet in)
ρ 2
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Second Law of Thermodynamics - Irreversible Flow
Semi-in nitesimal CV Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Second law of thermodynamics: the time rate of increase of the

entropy of a system ⩾ sum of the ratio of net heat transfer rate into
system from the surroundings to absolute temperature for each
·
∑( T )
D δQnet in
Dt ∫sys
particle of mass in the system: sρd ≥
sys

• Applying the Reynolds transport theorem eq for the contents of the

coincident xed and nondeforming CV:
D ∂
Dt ∫sys ∂t ∫cv ∫cs
sρd = sρd + ̂
sρV . ndA
𝒱
𝒱
𝒱
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Second Law of Thermodynamics - Irreversible Flow
Semi-in nitesimal CV Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Combining 2 eq. above: ·

∑( T )
∂ δQnet in
∂t ∫cv ∫cs
sρd + sρV . ndA ̂ ≥
cv

∂
∂t ∫cv
At any instant, for steady ow: sρd =0
•
·
· δQnet in
∑ T
• For 1-D uniformly distributed ow: m(sout − sin) ≥
𝒱
𝒱
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Second Law of Thermodynamics - Irreversible Flow
Semi-in nitesimal CV Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

·
· δQnet in
∑ T
• For the in nitesimally thin CV: mds ≥

—> Tds ≥ δqnet in or Tds − δqnet in ≥ 0

• The equality is for any reversible (frictionless) process; the

inequality is for all irreversible (friction) processes.
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Second Law of Thermodynamics - Irreversible Flow
Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics

2
dp V
• From eq. + d( ) + gdz = − (Tds − δqnet in) and
ρ 2
2
dp V
Tds − δqnet in ≥ 0, we have: − [ + d( ) + gdz] ≥ 0
ρ 2
• The degree of the inequality represents the loss of useful energy
that occurs because of irreversible ow phenomena including
viscous friction:

dp V2
−[ + d( ) + gdz] = δ(loss) = (Tds − δqnet in) (*)
ρ 2
• The loss is 0 for a frictionless ow, and > 0 for a ow with
frictional e ects.
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 Second Law of Thermodynamics - Irreversible Flow
Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics

• Therefor for steady frictionless ow, Newton’s second law of motion

and the rst and second laws of thermodynamics lead to the same
2
dp V
di erential equation: + d( ) + gdz = 0
ρ 2
• If shaft work is involved, then the ow must be at least locally
unsteady.

• The energy equation for the contents of an in nitesimally thin

control volume:

[ρ ]
2
dp V
− + d( ) + gdz = δ(loss) − δwshaft net in (**)
2
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Second Law of Thermodynamics - Irreversible Flow
Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics

• Combining equation (*) and (**) we obtain:

1
dǔ + pd( ) − δqnet in = δ(loss) (***)
ρ

• For incompressible ow, d(1/ρ) = 0 so: dǔ − δqnet in = δ(loss)

• Take the integration of (***) for a init CV, we obtain:
ˇ − uˇin − qnet in = loss
uout

• For compressible ow, we obtain:

out
1
∫in
ˇ − uˇin +
uout pd( ) − qnet in = loss
ρ
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