FORM 4

BIOLOGY
TOPIC 2: EVOLUTION

1. Explain the meaning of evolution

-A gradual change in living organisms from simple life forms to more complex
forms over a long period of time.

2. Differentiate organic evolution from chemical evolution as theories of origin of

life
-Organic evolution refers to the emergence of present forms of organisms
gradually from pre-existing forms (some of which no longer exist)
-Chemical evolution explains the origin of life as having occurred when simple
chemical compounds reacted to form the simplest life forms

3. What is special creation?

-Maintains that the whole universe and all living organisms came into being
due to the act of a supernatural being

4. Discuss the various kinds of evidence for evolution

i) Fossils
-Fossils are remains of organisms preserved in naturally occurring materials for
many years
-They give evidence of types of plants/animals that existed at certain geological
age/long ago/millions of years ago
-Gives evidence of morphological/anatomical/structural changes that have taken
place over a long period of time e.g. human skull, leg of horse

ii) Comparative anatomy

-Gives evidence of relationship among organisms/gives evidence of a common
ancestry of a group of organisms
-Organisms have similar structures/organs performing the same function e.g.
digestive system/ urinary system/nervous system/vestigial structures and vertebrate
heart
-Divergence where the basic structural form is modified to serve different
functions e.g. vertebrate forelimb/beak structure in birds/birds feet/parts of a
flower. These are called homologous structures
-Homologous structures have a common embryonic origin but are modified to
perform different functions e.g. the pentadactyl limb
-Adaptive radiation is a situation where organism have a homologous structure
with common embryonic origin which is modified to perform different functions to
adapt organisms to different ecological niches/habitats e.g. beaks of Darwinian
finches(birds)

-Convergence is where different structures are modified to perform a similar

function e.g. wings of birds and insects/eyes of humans and octopuses. These are
called analogous structures
-Vestigial structures are greatly reduced in size and have ceased to function e.g.
human appendix/caecium/coccyx in humans, wings of kiwi (flightless bird),
presence of hind limb pad in python, halters in insects, human hair nictitating
membrane in human eye, human ear muscle, pelvic girdle in whale and third digit
of wing of bird.

iii) Comparative embryology

-Some embryos of different animals appear very similar thus showing relationship
and possibility of a common ancestry e.g. different classes of vertebrates larvae of
annelida and mollusca are similar (tocophere)

iv) Comparative serology/physiology

-These show biochemical and immunological comparisons of blood
groups/components to show immunological similarities of tissues therefore
showing relatedness of different organisms e.g. antigen antibody reactions, human
blood groups/Rh factor reveal some phylogenic relationship among
organisms/common ancestry

v) Geographical distribution
-Organisms differ in various geographical regions
-Present continents are thought to have been a large land mass joined
together/pangea/Eurasia/Gondwanaland
-Present continents drifted apart from one land mass/continental drift
-As a result of continental drift isolation of organisms occurred bring about
different patterns of evolution
-Organisms in each continent evolved along different lines hence emergence of
new species/divergence/convergence

Examples
-Marsupials in Australia
-Illama, jaguar, panther in S. America
-Lion, camel in Africa
-Tiger in Asia

vi) Cell biology (cytology)

-Structures and functioning of cells are similar
-Occurrence of organelles e.g. mitochondria in all cells/both plant and animal cells
-These point at a common ancestry

5. State the evolutionary characteristics that adopt human beings to the

environment
- Brain
- Eyes
- Upright posture/bipedal locomotion
- prehensible arm/hand
- Speech

6. State the ways in which Homo sapiens differs from Homo habilis
-Standing upright/erect posture
-Intellectual capacity/higher thinking capacity/bigger brain/higher brain
capacity
-Communication through language/speech

7. Explain Larmarck’s theory of evolution

- Inheritance of acquired characteristics/environment induces production of a
favorable trait which is then inherited

8. Explain why Lamarck’s theory of evolution is not accepted by biologists today

- Evidence does not support Lamarck’s theory
- Acquired characteristics are not inherited/inherited characteristics are
found in reproductive cells only
9. Explain Darwin’s theory of evolution
- Inheritance of genetically acquired characteristics
- A character happens to appear spontaneously which gives advantage to an
organism therefore adapted then inherited through natural selection

10. What is natural selection?

- Organisms with certain characteristics are favored by the environment
Such organisms tend to survive and produce viable offspring others not
favored are eliminated from subsequent generations

11. With examples, explain how natural selection takes place

- Organism with certain characteristics are favored by their environment
- Such organisms tend to survive and produce viable offspring
- Others not favored are eliminated from subsequent generations
- As the environmental conditions change the survival value of a character
may alter with time so that characteristics which were favored may no longer
have advantage and other characters may then become favorable
- If a favorable character is inherited, then offspring produce generations
which are better adapted to survive in a population
- More offspring are produced than can survive which results in struggle for
survival
- The fittest survive

12. State the advantages of natural selection to organisms

- Assist to eliminate disadvantageous characteristics/perpetuates
advantageous characteristics
- Allows better adapted organisms to survive adverse changes in the
environment/less adapted organisms are eliminated

13. State the ways in which sexual reproduction is important in the evolution of
plants and animals
- Brings about useful variations/desirable characters
- Variations make offspring better adapted for survival/more resistant to
diseases
- May lead to origin of new species

14. Explain the significance of mutation in evolution

- Mutation bring about variation which can be inherited
- Some of these variations are advantageous to the organism
- Others are disadvantageous
- The advantageous variations favor the organism to compete better in the
struggle for survival
- This results into a more adapted organism to its environment or new
species/varieties
- Those with disadvantageous characters will be discriminated against
therefore eliminated from the population/death/perish

15. Explain why it is only mutations in genes of gametes that influence evolution
- Because it is the gametes which forms the new offspring.

16. How would you prove that evolution is still taking place?
- Resistance of organism to antibiotics, pesticides and drugs
- New varieties of bacteria are resistant to certain antibiotics such as penicillin
- Houseflies and mosquitoes are resistant to DDT

17. Explain why some bacteria develop resistance to a drug after they have been
subjected to it for some time.
- Bacteria mutates/develops a new strain/chemical composition is altered
hence is able to produce enzymes/chemicals which degrade the drug rendering
it non-susceptible to the drug
- The new strain is favored by selection pressure/ natural selection
18. How has peppered moth contributed towards the mechanism of evolution?
- This is an example of natural selection
- The peppered moth exists in two distinct forms, the speckled white form
(normal form) and a melanin form (the black/dark)
- They usually rest on leaves and barks of trees that offer camouflage for
protection
- Originally the “speckled white” form predominated the unpolluted area of
England
- This coloration offered protection against predatory birds
- Due to industrial pollution tree barks have blackened with soot
- The white form underwent mutation
- A black variety/mutant emerged suddenly by mutation
- It had selective advantage over the white forms that were predated upon in
the industrial areas
- The speckled white form is abundant in areas without soot/smoke

19. Two populations of the same species of birds were separated over a long period
of time by an ocean. Both populations initially fed on insects only but later it was
observed that one population fed entirely on fruits and seeds although insects were
available. Name;
(a) The type of isolation.
Geographical.
(b) The type of evolutionary change.
Adaptive radiation / Divergent evolution.

20. What are vestigial structures?

Structures which have been greatly reduced in the course of time due to
disuse.

21. Name one vestigial structure in man.

Coccyx, Appendix.

22. Explain why Lamarck’s theory of evolution is not accepted by biologists today.
- Evidences does not support Lamarck’s theory acquired characteristics are
not inherited.
- Inherited characteristics are found in reproductive cells only.

23. State two pieces of evidence that support the Lamarck’s theory of evolution.
-Fossils, records, (Paleontology)
- Geographical distribution comparative anatomy/taxonomy cell biology
- Comparative serology,
- Comparative embryology
- Comparative immunology

24. Distinguish between analogous structures and homologous structures. For each
structure give an example.
-Analogous structures, are those with different embryonic origin but have
undergone modification to perform similar functions in different organisms;
Examples wings of insects and birds/webbed feet for frogs and ducks;
Homologous structures, Are those with a common embryonic origin but have
undergone modifications to perform different functions; example the
pentadactyle limb of vertebrates;

25. Explain the term continental drift as used in evolution.

-The breaking up, drifting and separation; of the big land mass to form the
present day different continents;
26. State three evidence of organic evolution.
- Fossil records;
- Comparative embryology;
- Comparative serology;
- Comparative cell Biology;
- Comparative anatomy;

27. What are the limitations of fossil records as evidence of organic evolution?

-Several missing fossils records (missing links); these have occurred due to
complete decomposition of whole organism/scavenged upon/lack of conditions
for fossilization/discovery of few fossils;
-Distortion of parts of fossil during sedimentation which gives wrong
impression of the structures;
-Distortion of fossils by geological activities e.g. earthquakes, faulting,
uplifting and mass movement.

28. The picture below shows several beaks and feet in birds.

a).State the type of evolution that may have led to the emergence of the different
beaks shown on the pictures above.
Divergent/Adaptive radiation
b) Name the type of evolution structure represented by the beaks shown on the
pictures above.
Homologous
c) Observe the pictures carefully. From your observations, what features are
responsible for the different types of beaks?
Length; shape; size;

29. Give two examples of natural selection in action.

Resistance of insects and bacteria to Insecticides and antibiotics; Industrial
melanism;

30. List three features that make man the most dominant species on earth.
-Ability to communicate through speech;
-upright posture;
-A modified forelimb to form hand with an opposable thumb;

31. Describe how the following evidences support the theory of organic evolution:
geographical distribution, fossil records and comparative anatomy.
Evidence of Evolution
Fossil records//Palaeontology;
These are remains of organisms preserved in some naturally occurring
materials e.g. sedimentary rocks for many years; they give direct evidence of
the type of organisms that existed at a certain geological time//show a gradual
increase in complexity/morphological changes of organisms over a long period
of time e.g. skull of man
Geographical distribution;
present continents are thought to have been a large land mass joined together;
continental drift led to isolation that lead to different patterns of evolution;
e.g. camels of Africa resemble the Ilamas of S. America// tiger of Asia
resemble jaguars of S. America // unique Marsupials of Australia;
Comparative anatomy/taxonomy;
- Members of a phylum show similarities indicating common ancestry; these
organisms have similar functions e.g. presence of digestive, urinary, nervous
systems e.t.c;
- Homologous structures like pentadactyl limbs in different animals like
monkey and rats have similar borne arrangement hence same origin but
modified to perform different functions// adaptive radiation//divergent
evolution; vestigial organs//coccyx Appendix;
- Analogous structures like wings of birds and wings of insects with different
embryonic origin but perform same function//convergent evolution;

32. Differentiate between convergent and divergent evolution.

Convergent evolution - This is where different structures are modified to do

same function; whereas divergent evolution is where one basic structural form
is modified to give rise to different forms which will perform different
functions.

33. What is organic evolution?

Gradual change in organism from simple to complex life form over long
period of time.

34 Briefly explain how the peppered moth (Bistonbetularia) shows natural

selection.
Industrial areas have dark sooty tree trunks, in rural areas the trunks are
covered with lichens. The dark melanin forms camouflage on the dark tree
trunk. The white were predated upon the dark survive to reproductive
maturity and produced more moths.
35. The figure below shows feet of various birds. Study the diagram and answer
the questions that follow.

i).Name the type of evolution represented by the diagrams.

Divergent evolution;
ii) Using Darwin’s theory of evolution, explain how the feet of bird E would have
evolved.
Small variations occurred in feet of birds within the population; competition
for limited food occurred in the environment; predation as a mode of feeding
favored birds whose feed had long; sharp and curved claw / talons; to kill
prey / tear flesh of prey;
iii) Explain how Lamarck could have explained the evolution of feet of bird C.
All birds had same length of feed; the (aquatic environment favored long feet
talons; leading to continuous natural use of the feet; which kept increasing in
length; the longer trait was then passed on to offspring along the generations;

36. Explain the following terms as used in evolution.

(a) Struggle for existence
Competition for resources
(b) Divergent evolution
Structures from a common origin modified to perform different functions;
(c) Vestigial structure
Structure which have ceased to be functional thus reduced in size;
37. Define each of the following terms.
a) Speciation.
This refers to the emergence or development of a new species of organism
from a pre-existing one;
b) Natural selection.
The process by which the environment allows those organisms with favorable
adaptive characteristics to survive, reach maturity and pass on favorable
traits to offspring; while at same time ensuring that those without favorable
traits die young without passing on their traits to next generation;

38. Define a fossil.

Preserved remains of dead organism that lived in ancient times and were
accidentally preserved under sedimentary rocks;

39. State two biological evidence of organic evolution.

– Fossil records/paleontology
- Geographical distribution of organism
- Cell biology/serology
- Comparative embryology
- Comparative anatomy

40. Define Chemical evolution.

Chemical evolution maintain that chemicals like water vapor, oxygen,
ammonia, hydrogen and methane were heated by catalytic effect of lighting
during the cooling of the earth to form first life.
41. Explain how the process of evolution may result to the formation of a new
species.
Organisms with beneficial / favorable mutations are able to pass them onto
their offspring (during reproduction). ; Accumulation of such favorable
characteristics over successive generations lead to the formation of new
species;

42. Birds have beaks which are structurally modified to different modes of feeding.
i) What is the name given to such structures in evolution?
Homologous structures;
ii) What is the name given to the evolution of the beaks of birds?
Divergent evolution;

43. State the roles of Lamarck’s theory of evolution.

Tries to explain the occurrence of vestigial structures;

44. What is adaptive radiation?

One basic structural form with a common embryonic origin is modified to
give rise to various different forms to exploit different environment;

45. State Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

Nature selects suitable adapted organisms to be parents of future generation
rejecting poorly adapted ones;

46. State two advantages of divergent evolution to organisms.

Enables the organisms to exploit different ecological niche (due to homologous
structure; specialization development of new species;
47. State the significance of the following in evolution
i) Accumulation of variations in organisms
Leads to emergence of new organisms/ species/ animals/ plants/ flora/ fauna
ii) Survival of the fittest
Enables the well/ moist adapted organism to live up to reproductive age/
survive/ and pass their characteristics to their offspring.

48. Explain what leads to struggle for existence in organisms

Scarcity of resources/ limitation of resources/ breeding mates/ shelter

49. What is the difference between Darwinian and Lamarkian theories of

evolution?
Lamarckian
Inheritance of acquired characteristics / environment induces production of
inheritable character which is then inherited.
Darwinian
Inheritance of genetically acquired characteristics / character happens to
appear spontaneously which then gives advantage of organisms therefore
better – adaptable characters are then inherited by natural selection.

50. How does natural selection bring about adaptations of species to their
environment?

-Organisms in the same environment are always competing for resources such
as food mates, shelter etc as well as enduring the harshness of the
environment.
-This phenomenon is described as a struggle for existence
-Those organisms that best adapted to survive to productive maturity and give
rise to offspring of the next generation.
-The less well adapted die young, hence survival of the fittest
-If the favorable characteristics possessed by the ‘fittest’ organisms are
genetic they are passed onto the offspring this leads to a natural occurrence of
variation onto the offspring
-This leads to a natural occurrence of various without a species
-If these variations are genetic change in the characteristics of the species
making it better adapted to its environment
-Accumulation of small variations over a long period of time lead to the
emergence of new dorms of life i.e new species
-If suited and well adapted to the new environment these new forms
reproduce successfully and pass on their characteristics
-If not suited these new forms are eliminated by nature leaving mutant forms
which are better adapted to the environment
-Through this process nature selects those organisms with better adaptations
while ensuring the elimination of those not able to adapt to the changing
environment.
-Thus the changing environment (nature) forces and organism (a species) to
adapt or otherwise be eliminated