Network Analysis and Synthesis

Chapter 2
Network transform representation
and analysis
 Outline
2.1. Network transform equations and analysis
Reference: F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis“: Chapter 7

Reference: Sony, “Circuits and Systems”: Chapter 5

2.2. Network functions for 1- and 2-port networks

2.3. Poles and Zeros of Network

AASTU, ECE, 2021

 2.1 The transformed circuit
• When analyzing a network in time domain we
will be dealing with
– Derivation and
– Integration
• However, when transformed to complex
frequency domain these become
– Derivation -> multiplication by ‘s’
– Integration -> division by ‘s’
• Hence, it is easier to do network analysis in
complex frequency domain.
 The transformed circuit….

• A Linear Time-invariant (LTI) system can

be described by a set of ordinary linear
differential equations (OLDEs)

– Initial Conditions (ICs) : Capacitor voltage and

Inductor current
– Zero Input Response (ZIR)[Source=0] and Zero
State Response (ZSR)[IC=0]
– Complementary function and Particular Integral
– Transient and Steady State (SS) responses
– Free(Natural) and Forced Response
 The transformed circuit….

d ( m ) r (t )
M N
d ( n ) e(t )
OLDE:  bm m
+ b0 =  an n
+ a0
m =1 dt n =1 dt
M N
Laplace Transform: bm s m R( s ) =  an s n E ( s )
m=0 n =0

R( s) a s n
n
aN s N + aN −1s N −1 + aN − 2 s N − 2 + ... + a1s + a0
Transfer function: H ( s ) = = n =0
=
M
bM s M + bM −1s M −1 + bM − 2 s M − 2 + ... + b1s + b0
b s
E (s) m
m
m=0
 The transformed circuit….
If the network is LTI:
R( s)
H (s) = is a rational function in s with real cofficents.
E (s)
N (s)
H (s) = , D( s )  0 : where N ( s ) and D( s ) are polynomial s
D( s) aN −1 M −1 aN − 2 N − 2 a0
a1
s +
N
s + s + ... + s+
N (s) aN aN aN aN
H (s) = =
D( s ) s M + bM −1 s M −1 + bM − 2 s M − 2 + ... + b1 s + b0
N bM bM bM bM
 ( s − zn )
H ( s ) = k nM=1
 (s − pm )
m =1
Impedance and Admittance
 Network Elements
• The voltage current relationships of network
elements in time domain and complex
frequency domain are given as:

• Resistor

v(t ) = Ri (t ) V ( s ) = RI ( s )
 Network Elements…
• Inductor
– The time domain relation ships are
di(t )
v(t ) = L
dt
t
1
i (t ) =  v( )d + i (0 − )
L 0−

– In frequency domain they become

V ( s ) = sLI ( s ) − Li (0 − )
V ( s ) i (0 − )
I (s) = +
sL s
Network Elements…
 Network Elements…

• An inductor is represented in frequency

domain as
– An impedance sL in series with a voltage source
Used in mesh analysis.
or
– An admittance 1/sL in parallel with a current
source
Used in nodal analysis.
 Network Elements…
• Capacitor
– The time domain relation ships are
t
1
v(t ) =  i ( )d + v(0 − )
C 0−
dv(t )
i (t ) = C
dt
– In frequency domain they become
I ( s ) v (0 − )
V (s) = +
sC s
I ( s) = sCV ( s ) − Cv(0 − )
Network Elements…
 Network Elements…
• A capacitor is represented in frequency
domain as
– An impedance 1/sC in series with a voltage
source
Used in mesh analysis.
or
– An admittance sC in parallel with a current source
Used in nodal analysis.
 Example 1
• In the figure below, the switch is switched from
postion 1 to 2 at t=0. Draw its transformed circuit
and write the transformed equations using mesh
analysis.
• The transformed circuit is
• The transformed equations become
 Example 2
• The switch is thrown to position 2 at t=0. Find
i(t). i (0 ) = 2amp
L
−

vC (0 − ) = 2V
• The transformed circuit is
• Writing the transformed equation
5 2  2
+ 2 − =  3 + s +  I ( s)
s s  s

• Solving for I(s)

2s + 3
I ( s) =
( s + 2)(s + 1)
1 1
I ( s) = +
s + 2 s +1

• Inverse transforming
−2 t −t
i (t ) = e +e
 Example 3
• At t=0, the switch is opened. Find the node
voltages v1 and v2
1
L= h C = 1f
2
G = 1 mho V = 1v
• The transformed circuit becomes
• The transformed equations become

• Solving these 2 equations

• Inverse transforming
Example 4
 Outline
2.1. Network transform equations and analysis

2.2. Network functions for 1- and 2-port networks

:
Reference F.F. Kuo, "Network Analysis and Synthesis“: Chapter 7

2.3. Poles and Zeros of Network

AASTU, ECE, 2021

 2.2 Network or System function
• The excitation , e(t), and response, r(t), of a linear
system are related by a linear differential equation.
• When transformed to complex frequency domain the
relationship between excitation and response is
algebraic one.
• When the system is initially inert, the excitation and
response are related by the system function H(s)
given by
R( s) = H ( s) E ( s)
 Network or System function ...
• The system function may have many different
forms and may have special names. Such as:
– Driving point impedance/admittance
– Transfer impedance/Admittance
– Voltage or current ratio transfer function
• This is because
– the excitation and response may be taken from the
same port or different ports and
– the excitation and response can be either voltage or
current.
 Impedance(z)
• Transfer impedance is when the excitation is a
current source and the response is a voltage.
V0 ( s)
H ( s) =
I g (s)

• When both the excitation and response is at

the same port it is called driving point
impedance.
V1 ( s )
z dp ( s ) = (DP impedance)
I1 ( s )

 1 
  sL
H ( s ) = z dp ( s ) = R + 
sC 
1
+ sL
sC
 Admittance(𝑦)
• Transfer admittance is when the excitation is a
voltage source and the response is a current.
I 0 (s)
H ( s) =
Vg ( s )

• When both the excitation and response is at the

same port it is called driving point admittance.
I1 ( s ) 1
ydp ( s ) = (DP admittance) ydp ( s ) =
V1 ( s ) z dp ( s )

1
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑦𝑑𝑝 (𝑠) =
1
𝑠𝐿 + + 𝑅1
𝑠𝐶1
• If the excitation and response are measured at
different sets of terminals, then the
corresponding network function is called a
transfer function.

• Transfer Impedance
V2 ( s )
z 21 ( s ) = (Transfer impedance)
I1 ( s )

• Transfer Admittance
I 2 (s)
y21 ( s ) = (Transfer admittance)
V1 ( s )
 Voltage ratio transfer function
• When the excitation is a voltage source and
the response is a voltage.
V0 ( s)
H ( s) =
Vg ( s )

Z 2 ( s)
H ( s) =
Z1 ( s) + Z 2 ( s)
 Current ratio transfer function
• When the excitation is a current source and
the response is a current.
I 0 (s)
H ( s) =
I g (s)
1
H ( s ) = sL + R
1
sC +
sL + R
1
H (s) = sC
1
R + sL +
sC
 Network or System function ...
• Note that, the system function is a function of
the system elements only.
• It is obtained from the network by using the
standard circuit laws. Such as:
– Kirchhoffs law
– Nodal analysis
– Mesh analysis
 Example 4
• Obtain the driving point impedance of the network.
Then using the following excitations determine the
response.
1. ig (t ) = (Sinwot )u (t )
2. The square pulse on figure b
3. The waveform on figure c

a b c
 EX…
• First lets find the driving point impedance
• Note that it is the equivalent impedance of
the 3 elements
1 s
H ( s) = =
sC + + G C  s 2 +  G  s + 1 
1
sL   C  CL 
 EX…
1. ig (t ) = (Sinwot )u (t )
Its transform is
w0
I (S ) = 2
s + wo2

Hence, the response is

wo s
Vo ( s ) = I g ( s ) H ( s ) = 2 .
s + wo  2
2
G 1 
C s + s + 
 C LC 
 EX…
2. The excitation is given as
i (t ) = u (t ) − u (t − a )
1 1 − as
I (s) = − e
s s
Hence, the response is
1 − e − as s
Vo ( s ) = I g ( s ) H ( s ) = .
s  2 G 1 
C s + s +
 C LC 
 EX…
3. The excitation is given as
t t −a
ig (t ) = u (t ) + u (t ) − u (t − a)
a a
1 1 e − as
I ( s) = + 2 − 2
s as as
 Natural and Forced Response
• Consider the partial fraction expansion of R(s)

where si are the poles of H(s) and sj are the poles of E(s).
• Taking the inverse Laplace transform of R(s)

si t
• The terms Ai e are associated with the system
H(s) and are called the free response terms.
 Natural and Forced Response…
• The terms B j e are due to the excitation E(s) and
s jt

are called the forced response terms.

• The frequencies si are the natural frequency of the
system, while the frequencies sj are the frequencies
of the excitation.
• Example: Find the natural frequency of the
following network.
di
L + Ri = 0
dt
( sL + R ) I ( S ) = 0
sL + R = 0
R
s=−
L
 Problem
• Find the free response and the forced
response for the circuit below. The
system is inert before applying the
source.
1
v g (t ) = (cos t )u (t )
2
 2.3 Poles and zeros of system
• We will discuss the relationship between the
poles and zeros of a system function and its
steady state sinusoidal response.
• In other words, we will investigate the effect
of positions of poles and zeros upon H(s) on
the jw axis.
• To find the steady-state sinusoidal response of
a system function we replace ‘s’ by ‘jw’.
• Hence, the system function becomes
H ( jw) = H ( s) |s = jw
H ( jw) = M ( w)e j ( w)
Where
▪ M(w) is the amplitude or magnitude response
▪ φ(w) is the phase response
• The amplitude and phase response of a
system provide valuable information in the
analysis and design of transmission circuits.
• Consider the low pass filter
• Observe that
– It passes only frequency
below wc
– The phase response is
almost linear till wc
• Hence, if all the significant harmonic terms are
less than wc , then the system will produce
minimum phase distortion.
• In the rest of this section, we will concentrate
on methods to obtain amplitude and phase
response curves.
 R-C network
• 1 1
V ( s) sC
H ( s) = 2 = = RC
V1 ( s ) R + 1 s+
1
sC RC

• To obtain H(jw) we substitute s by jw.

1
H ( jw) = RC
1
jw +
RC
• In polar form H(jw) becomes
1
− j tan −1 wRC
H ( jw) = RC
1
e = M ( w)e j ( w )
 2 1  2
w + 2 2 
 RC 
1
M ( w) = RC
1
 2 1  2
 w + 2 2 
 R C 
 ( w) = − tan −1 (wRC )
• The amplitude is unity and the phase is zero
degrees at w=0.
• The amplitude and phase decrease
monotonically as we increase w.
• When w=1/RC, the amplitude is 0.707 and
phase is -450.
Half power point
• As w increases to infinity M(w) goes to zero
and the phase approaches -900.
 Amplitude and phase from pole-zero
diagram
• For the system function
A0 ( s − z0 )( s − z1 )
H ( s) =
( s − p0 )( s − p1 )( s − p2 )
• H(jw) can be written as
A0 ( jw − z0 )( jw − z1 )
H ( jw) =
( jw − p0 )( jw − p1 )( jw − p2 )

• Each one of the ( jw − zi ) or ( jw − p j ) represent

a vector from zi or pj to the jw axis at w.
• If we express
j j
jw − zi = N i e j , i
jw − p j = M j e
• Then H(jw) can be given as
A0 N1 N 2 j ( 0 +1 + 2 −0 −1 −2 )
H ( jw) = e
M 0 M 1M 2
• In general,
 Example
4s
F ( s) = 2
• For s + 2s + 2 find the magnitude and
phase for w=2.
• Solution
– First let us find the zeros and poles
4 jw
F ( jw) =
( jw + 1 + j )( jw + 1 − j )

– Zero at jw=0
– Poles at ( jw = −1 − j ) and ( jw = −1 + j )
• Magnitude
2 4
M ( j 2) = 4 * =
2 * 10 5

• Phase
 ( j 2) = 90 0 − 71 .80 − 450 = −26 .80
 Exercise

• Examine the property of F(s) around the poles

and zeroes.
 Bode plots
• In this section we turn our attention to semi
logarithmic plots of system function, called
Bode plots.
• In these plots we take the logarithm of the
amplitude and plot it on linear frequency
scale.
• For amplitude M(jw), if we express in terms of
decibel it becomes 20 log M ( jw)
• For system function
N (s)
H (s) =
D(s)
| N ( jw) |
M ( jw) =| H ( jw) |=
| D ( jw) |
• If we express the amplitude in terms of
decibels we have
20 log M ( jw) = 20 log | N ( jw) | −20 log | D( jw) |
• In factored from both N(s) and D(s) are made up
of 4 kinds of terms
1. Constant K
2. A root at origin, s
3. A simple real root, s-a
4. A complex set of roots, s 2 + 2s +  2 +  2

• To understand the nature of log-amplitude plots,

we only need to discuss the amplitude response
of these 4 terms.
• If the term is on the numerator it carries positive
sign, if on denominator negative sign.
 1. Constant K
• The dB gain or loss is
20 log K = K 2

• K2 is either positive |K|>1 or negative |K|<1.

• The phase is either 00 for K>0, or 1800 for K<0.
 Single root at origin, s
• The loss or gain of a single root at origin is
 20 log | jw |= 20 log w

• Thus the plot of magnitude in dB vs frequency

is a straight line with slope of 20 or -20.
• 20 when s is in the numerator.
• -20 when s is in the denominator.
• The phase is either 900 or -900.
• 900 when s is in the numerator.
• -900 when s is in the denominator.
 The factor s+α
• For convenience lets set α=1. Then the
magnitude is
 20 log | jw + 1 |= 20 log (w + 1)
1
2 2

• The phase is
arg( jw + 1) = tan −1 w

• A straight line approximation can be obtained

by examining the asymptotic behavior of the
factor jw+1.
• For w<<1, the low frequency asymptote is
 20 log (w + 1)  20 log 1 = 0dB
1
2 2

• For w>>1, the high frequency asymptote is

 20 log (w + 1)  20 log w
1
2 2

Which has a slope of  20 log w decibel/de cade

• These 2 asymptotic approximations meet at w=1.
• Note that the maximum error is for w=1 or
for the non normalized one w=α.
• For the general case α different from 1, we
normalize the term by dividing by α.
• The low frequency asymptote is
1
w 2
 2
20 log 2 + 1  20 log 1 = 0dB
 
• The high frequency asymptote is
1
w 2
 2
20 log 2 + 1  20 log w − 20 log 
 
 For complex conjugates
• For complex conjugates it is convenient to
adopt a standard symbol.
• We describe the pole (zero) in terms of
magnitude ω0 and angle θ measured from the
negative real axis.
• These parameters that describe the pole
(zero) are ω0, the undamped frequency of
oscillation, and ζ, the damping factor.
• If the pole (zero) pair is given as
p1, 2 = −  j

• α and β are related to ω0 and ζ with

 = 0 cos = 0
 = 0 sin  = 0 1 −  2

• Substituting these terms in the conjugate

equation ( s − p1 )(s − p2 )
( )(
( jw +  + j )( jw +  − j ) = jw + 0 + j0 1 −  2 jw + 0 − j0 1 −  2 )
(
= − w2 + 2 jw 0 + 0
2
)
• For ω0=1 (for convenience), the magnitude of
conjugate pairs can be expressed as
( 
1

 20 log 1 − w2 + j 2w = 20 log 1 − w )

2 2
+ 4 2 w 2 2

• The phase is
2 2
 ( w) = tan −1
1 − w2
• The asymptotic behavior is
– For low frequency, w<<1
(  = 20 log1 = 0dB
1

 20 log 1 − w )
2 2
+ 4 2 w 2 2

– For high frequency, w>>1

(  = 40 log w
1

 20 log 1 − w )
2 2
+ 4 2 w 2 2

which is a straight line with slope of 40dB/decade.

• These 2 asymptotes meet at w=1.
 Example
• Using Bode plot asymptotes, draw the
magnitude vs. frequency for the following
system function
0.1s
G(s) =
 s  s 2
s 
 + 1 + 3 + 1
 50  16 *10 10
4

Actual plot