POULTRY PRODUCTION &

MANAGEMENT

ANDM 312
Dr C.K. Lebopa
MODULE CONTENT
➢UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY INDUSTRY

➢UNIT 2: BREEDS, BREEDING, SELECTION & GENETICS

(LAYERS & BROILERS)

➢UNIT 3: PHYSIOLOGY OF EGG FORMATION

➢UNIT 4: QUALITY OF EGGS

➢UNIT 5: LAYER & BROILER PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

➢UNIT 6: MANAGEMENT OF BROILER & LAYER UNITS

➢UNIT 7: PRINCIPLES OF LAYER & BROILER NUTRITION

MODULE OUTCOMES

❑Upon completion of the module, learners should be able to:

➢Discuss the importance of the poultry industry in South African

economy

➢Classify poultry in terms of variety, type, class & breed

➢Describe the physiology of egg production, incubation, hatching,

egg quality & egg grading standards

➢Elaborate on poultry production system & biosecurity measures

➢Apply modern management techniques involved in efficient feeding

& rearing of both broilers & layers
LEARNING ACTIVITIES

❑Apart from teaching the following activities are

intended to facilitate the learning of this module:

➢Tutorial exercises
➢Assignment
➢Class Tests (2 Quizzes)
➢Semester Tests (2 Tests)
➢Group/individual Class Presentations
➢Visits to Molelwane farm to do practicals
ASSESSMENT

❑ Assessment Methods

➢ Assessment is conducted in a way that covers all

intended learning outcomes

➢Formative, summative & integrated forms of assessment

are applied to the module

➢Short answer & essay questions are utilized (to cover all
of the above-mentioned outcomes)

➢Report writing & oral presentations are used

ASSESSMENT
❑Assessment Criteria for Module Outcomes

➢Assessment will take place through formative &

summative forms
➢Formative form (tests, assignment, quizzes & oral
presentations) = 50%
➢Summative form (exam) =50%
➢Final mark is 100%
ASSESSMENT

❑Assessment Structure

➢Structure for Module (100%) categorized as

follows:
➢Semester tests = 60%
➢Assignment = 10%
➢Class tests (Quizzes) = 10%
➢Practicals = 20%
ASSESSMENT

❑Assessment Structure

Structure for Assignments (100%):

➢Presentation of facts = 30%

➢Organization of the structure(i.e., coherence, among the
introduction, body & conclusion) = 20%
➢Understanding = 20%
➢Research = 20%
➢Bibliography = 10%
ASSESSMENT

Structure for Presentation (100%)

➢Preparation = 30%
➢Understanding of the topic = 20%
➢Response to Questions = 20%
➢Presentation Skills = 20%
➢Time Management = 10%
FEEDBACK
➢Marked tests & assignments will be returned to
learners two weeks after submission

➢Any student who encounters problems concerning

the module should approach the facilitator in the
office during working hours pending on the
facilitator’s availability

➢Late submissions of assignments & practical reports

will be penalized (10%) will be subtracted for late
submissions)
ASSEMENT PLAN
Quiz 1 = 5% 12th March (Study Unit 1& 2)
Test 1 = 30% 2nd April (Study Units 1, 2 & 3)
Assignment = 10% Submission date is 4th April
Quiz 2 = 5% 7th May (Study Units 4, 5 & 6)
Test 2 = 30% 12th May (Study Unit 4, 5, 6 & 7)
Practical = 20%
• SEMESTER MARK = 100%
• FINAL SIT-DOWN EXAM = 100% (Covers Study units 1-7)
STUDENT ACADEMIC SUPPORT

➢There are support services provided by the library,

the Centre for Teaching and Learning (CTL) &
Guidance and Counseling Centre

➢The library provides services such as locating

journals, books & pamphlets relating to this module
fast & easy

➢CTL provides learners with techniques such as

assignment writing, referencing, e-fundi & study
tips.
REFERENCES
❑Prescribed Resources
• Flanders, F & Gillespie, J. R. & Templeton E., Templeton, L.H.,
2024. Modern Livestock and Poultry Production. 10th Student
Edition. Cengage Learning. SBN-13: 978-0357543733 ISBN-
10: 0357543734

• Flanders, F & Gillespie, J. R. 2016. Modern Livestock and Poultry

Production. 9th Edition. SBN-13: 9781133283508 ISBN-10:
1133283500

• Scanes, C.G., Brant G & Ensminger M.E., 2003. Poultry Science,

Edition: 4th Prentice Hall. SBN-13: 978-0131133754 ISBN-10:
0131133756
REFERENCES

❑ Recommended material

• Bell, D.D. & Weaver, W.D., 2007. Commercial chicken Meat and Egg
Production. 5th Edition.

• Canes, G.S., Brant, G. & Ensminger, M.F., 2004. Poultry Science. 4th
Edition. Upper Saddle River. New Jersey.

• Cunningham, M., Latour M. A, & Acker, D., 2005. Animal Science &
Industry. 7th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey

• Hayes, J.P. 2006. An introduction to nutrition and housing

management of poultry. Stellenbosch. South Africa.
REFERENCES
• Moreng, R.E., Avens, J.S., 1985. Poultry Science and Production.
Reston.

• North, M.O., 1990. Commercial Chicken Production Manual. AVI. 4th

Edition. USA.

• Rose, S.P. 1997. Principles of Poultry Science. CABI publisher Jadhav,

N. V. & M. F. Siddiqui, 2007. Handbook of Poultry Production &
Management. 2nd ed. Jaypee Brothers, New Delhi.

• Parkhurst, C. R. & Mountney, G. J. 1997. Poultry Meat & Egg

Production. CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi.

• Sainbury, D. 2000. Poultry Health & Management. Blackwell Science,

Japan.
• South African Poultry association (SAPA) publications
 STUDY UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY
INDUSTRY
(Layers & broilers)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
▪ After completing this study unit, learners will be able
to:

➢ Explain the importance of the poultry industry in the South

African economy

➢Discuss the recent challenges in the poultry industry & ways of

combating them

➢Describe a typical operation of a vertically integrated poultry firm

➢ Describe the functions of the different role players in the

poultry industry in achieving production of high-quality products
POULTRY
➢ Domesticated species of birds
(i.e. tamed animals kept in the farm by humans)
↓ that
reproduce & render products of economic value
↓ e.g.
eggs, meat, feathers, manure

▪ Poultry production
deals with
✓production of eggs from specialist laying breeds &

✓poultry meat from fast growing & efficient strains of

broilers
POULTRY

Poultry includes:

✓Flying birds (Carinatae)

- Chickens, Turkeys, Pea fowl & Guinea fowl

- Goose & duck

- Pigeons & dove

✓Running birds (Ratitae)

- Ostriches

Poultry comes from a French word Poule

Poule being derived from a Latin word Pullus
Pullus meaning small animal
POULTRY
Scientific name for domestic Chicken
↓ is

Gallus domesticus
Scientific name for Chicken
↓ is
Gallus Gallus

➢ A domesticated chicken (Gallus domesticus)

↓ was
domesticated
↓ from
a wild Indian Southeast Asian Red Jungle fowl
&
A Grey Jungle fowl (G. sonneratii).
https://ebird.org/; https:// thoughtco.com
POULTRY
• In olden days chickens where domesticated
↓ for
1. Food (eggs & meat)
2. Recreation (relaxation & enjoyment)
- cock fighting
- idol worshipping
- sacrifices to gods &
- prestige (recognition or admiration)

Today
↓is kept for
1. Income &
2. Creation of employment
POULTRY INDUSTRY
Over the years
the poultry industry

evolved from what was essentially

a backyard industry

with thousands of people keeping

small flocks
&

only a few large producers

to

the mature, efficient

&

highly productive commercial

operations we see today
POULTRY INDUSTRY
(Source: DALRRD)

✓Remains largest single contributor to the agricultural

sector in SA
In 2023

14.7 % of the total agricultural gross value &

41.5 % of animal product gross value came from
poultry production

In 2023 the gross value

of poultry (broilers & layers)

=R79.95 billion
POULTRY INDUSTRY
HAS MANY BRANCHES
↓but the
Three main are : Egg industry – layers
Meat industry – broilers
Production of chicks - (hatcheries) day old chicks

Other branches are:

• Point of lay pullets (18 weeks old)
• Poultry Feeds (e.g. Nutrifeeds, Optifeeds, Epol)
• Equipment companies (e.g. cages, waterers, feeders)
• Processing & Marketing (Abattoirs, butcheries, Pick & Pay, Shoprite)
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY

1. Requires minimum investment

➢In comparison to other livestock, it requires less

investment to start farming
➢Low-income group can afford to start a poultry business

2. Farming requires small space

➢Modern poultry production is practiced under high intensive
system (many animals housed in a small area)

3. Brings about an increase in poultry production in

short interval (short generation interval)
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY

4. Rapid return on profit

➢Layer chickens start laying when they are about 18 weeks of
age
➢Broilers chickens are ready for slaughter when they are
between 6 – 7 weeks

5. Poultry meat & eggs meet consumer demand being:

➢ Cheaper source of high-quality protein

(i.e. compared to other meat types)
↓thus
eradicating malnutrition
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY
6. Poultry provides a continuous sources of income
➢Depending on the farm-size, layer farming can be main source of
family income

(Egg formation takes 24 – 26 hrs)

Meaning 1 egg is produced/bird/day

7. Employment generation

- direct – semi-skilled, unskilled

- indirect - building & construction, equipment, processing,
packaging, marketing
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY

8. Poultry convert feed to food protein efficiently (i.e., has

the ability to convert feed protein into that in its muscle)

9. Plays a major role in the crop industry

↓how?
Maize, soya bean meal, sunflower oil cake
↓ all
form the bulk of poultry diets in SA

10. Poultry manure has high fertilizer value & can be used
for increasing yield of all crops
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY
11. Play a role in the
pharmaceutical industry
(i.e. an industry that develops, produces &
markets drugs or medicinal products)
↓ through
Poultry products e.g.
whole egg & egg white powders -
baking & salads

egg shell – mineral mixtures

egg yolk – shampoos, paints, soaps

egg white – paints, vanishes,

adhesives

feathers – ladies hats, lace, ribbons

BASIC NEEDS OF POULTRY FARMING

❑Success of poultry farming depends on:

1.Technical knowledge & practical experience

2.Capacity to invest & work hard

i.e. do not be an absent farmer

3. Availability of genetically good chicks

- high yielding strains (i.e. good genes for a particular trait)
- good disease resistance (this will reduce medicinal costs)
BASIC NEEDS OF POULTRY FARMING

4. Balanced rations
- provide required nutrients in proper amounts &
proportions
↓for
- better productive performance
Also, lower feed prices → will reduce production costs

5. Availability of capital & equipment

e.g. feeders, waterers, brooders, cages
at reasonable prices
↓is
of importance in starting new poultry unit
BASIC NEEDS OF POULTRY FARMING
6. Veterinary assistance
- poultry disease diagnostic center
- vaccines
must be available

Within reach & at a reasonable cost

7. Market
– first assess market potential
→ Egg
→ Meat
↓this will
Help you decide on the size of your farm
ROLE PLAYERS IN THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

✓Associations e.g. SAPA (South African

Poultry Association)

✓Abattoirs

✓Veterinarians &
✓ Breeder societies
ROLE PLAYERS IN THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

• South African Poultry Association (SAPA)

Has represented small scale
emerging &
larger commercial poultry farmers
in the following sectors:

✓the broiler industry

✓egg industry
✓breeding/day-old chick supply industry &
✓smallholder & developing farmers
ROLE PLAYERS IN THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

• From mid-2015, the SAPA Management Committee now operates with only
2 subsidiary committees:
✓Broiler &
✓Egg Organizations

Producers from the Chick Producers & Developing Poultry

Farmers Organizations
have been absorbed into

their respective product value chains

which are

Broiler Organization or the Egg Organization

ROLE PLAYERS IN THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

➢Broiler Organisation

Represents - commercial broiler producers

- associated breeder farmers
- hatchery operations

Its purpose is to serve the interests of the broiler industry on a

national basis

➢Egg Organisation

Operates as an independent subsidiary of the SAPA

Its purpose is to improve the egg industry & promote it at a

national level
ROLE PLAYERS IN THE POULTRY INDUSTRY
❑Work groups & committees
involve key stakeholders such
In addition, technical as:
committees
(consisting of two work groups & ✓Producer personnel
two sub-committees) ✓Departments of Health (DOH) &
Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural
Development (DALRRD)
address issues of: ✓Consumer Goods Council of South
Africa
✓SA Veterinary Association
✓ Academics & consultants
✓poultry health & welfare
✓food compliance ❑The membership of SAPA’s two
organisation
✓training & research (2022) (2023)
✓Broilers 123 143
✓Eggs 155 170
ROLE PLAYERS IN THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

➢SAPA’s vision

• To create a viable & sustainable industry contributing

to:
✓ economic growth & development
✓employment &
✓food security

based on successful producers adhering to environmental

& ethical production norms & generating sustainable
profits.
ROLE PLAYERS IN THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

➢SAPA’s mission

• To create an enabling environment to achieve

sustainable producer profits in the domestic &
global village market

by South African Poultry Association 2015 industry profile

CHALLENGES IN POULTRY INDUSTRY IN SA

1. Increasing pressure of rising input costs resulting from poultry

feed prices, transport, labour, medication & packaging

✓ Feed cost arising from the individual feed ingredients (e.g. maize, soyabean) is the biggest
input cost, making between 65 to 75% of the total feed input costs.

✓ High feed costs may cause poultry production not to be profitable & therefore not
sustainable

2. Environmental factors e.g Draught – The main factor contributing

to high feed cost is drought. The national drought forces the maize
price to increase

3. Rising electricity tariffs – Increasing electricity tariffs also put

farmers’ margins under pressure. Electricity is already a problem in
South Africa
CHALLENGES IN POULTRY INDUSTRY IN SA

4. Imports - Cheap or dumped chicken into 8. The ability of the industry to embrace
South Africa, predominately from food-safety practices rapidly enough to
Brazil, US & EU ensure consumer confidence in poultry
products
(create a problem for local farmers as
imports come at a lower prize & therefore 9. Small scale farmers also have challenges
local farmers cannot market their products) with:
5. Disease outbreaks due to poor
condition of facilities - Outbreak of ✓ Land ownership
diseases like Avian flu & pandemic ✓ Chick & feed quality
diseases can results in high mortalities ✓ Theft
& also results in restriction of imports ✓ Mortalities
& exports
✓ Shortage of funds
6. Poor quality of point-of-lay pullets and ✓ Water and electricity supply
delayed onset of lay ✓ Poor market conditions
7. High summer rainfall and cold winter ✓ No access to abattoir
weather impacting production ✓ Low profits
Poultry Industry

➢Dominate the agricultural sector as:

✓ Main supplier in kg’s of protein

↓why?
- More poultry products (65%)
are consumed per annum than all other protein
sources combined

• Approximately 78% of the birds in the South African poultry

industry are used for meat production (broilers), while the
remaining 22% are used in the egg industry (layers)
Provincial distribution of national chicken flock in 2nd quarter of 2024
Total = 167 210 780 (broilers + layers)
(Source : SAPA Provincial distribution report 2Q2024)
V. Poultry Industry
Provincial broiler distribution in The broiler industry in
2nd quarter of 2024 South Africa makes
(Source: SAPA Provincial distribution report 2Q2024) use of predominantly
two breeds:
➢NW = 33 406 649 (24.9%)
➢MP = 27 114 409 (19.8%) 1. Cobb 500 &
➢WC = 22 574 876 (16.5%) 2. Ross 308
➢GP = 16 132 498 (11.8%)
➢FS = 13 736 105 (10.0%)
Arbor Acres
➢KZN = 10 899 705 (7.9%)
➢EC = 8 342 955 (6.1%)
is a
➢LM = 4 702 293 (3.4%)
breed that holds a much
➢ NC = 273 000 (0.2%) smaller share of the market
TOTAL= 137 182 490 Broilers is SA
Ross 308 Cobb 500 & Arbor Acres
Broiler industry
(Source: SAPA Annual report 2023)

In 2023
➢ Broiler breeder flock average size was 6.80
million hens

➢ A total of 1.1 billion broiler chicks hatched

➢ Average purchase price of day-old broiler

chick in 2023 was R10.30 cents

➢ Producer price for live broilers was

R74.21/kg

➢ Average retail price was R87.87 per kg

➢ Meat production - 1.84 million tonnes

➢ Broiler meat consumption amounted to 2.192
million tonnes
➢ Gross value in 2023 was R65.77 billion at
producer level
Broiler industry
Provincial distribution of broiler & layer chickens
(Source: SAPA Provincial distribution report 2Q2024)
40 000 000
35 000 000
30 000 000
25 000 000
20 000 000
15 000 000
10 000 000
5 000 000
0
NW MP WC FS EC GP KZN LM NC
Column1
LAYERS 3 523 890 2 447 836 5 147 796 4 650 141 869 265 7 353 020 3 605 539 2 334 503 96 300
BROILERS 33 406 649 27 114 409 22 574 876 13 736 105 8 342 955 16 132 498 10 899 705 4 702 293 273 000
 Production, consumption & imports of broiler meat
South African broiler Production, consumption & imports
meat production of broiler meat
(Source: Semanticscholer.org)
Per capita consumption of broiler meat in SA

• Per capita consumption

Is the amount of a product

consumed by one individual in
a year
• According to Global
Agricultural Network
(September 2024)

• Per capita consumption of

broiler meat in SA
was
• 34.79 kg /person/annum
Quarterly producer average prices
Source: AMT (2024);
www.woolworths.co.za;
cookingsecretsformen.com Maximum brine allowed
✓Frozen chicken = 10%
✓Whole fresh chicken = 15%
✓Individually quick frozen (IQF) = 15%
Brining is basically soaking meat in a salt
water solution to keep the chicken
incredibly moist
 Broiler industry (cont) (Source SARS; SAPA Board chairperson’s
report 2023)

Poultry imports
Import volumes of chicken meat
and eggs in 2022 & 2023
Broiler – 96.3%
Turkey – 3.4%
Ducks
Geese 0.04%
Guinea fowl

Annual imports of chicken meat

= 399 702 tonnes
Valued at = R4 247 billion

Annual imports of chicken egg imports

= 3 733 tonnes
Valued at = R414.7 million
Annual chicken imports from all countries
(Source: SAPA Annual report 2023)

In 2023

Chicken meat
imports

were equivalent to
21.7% of domestic
chicken meat
production

&

18.2% of domestic
chicken
consumption
Country of origin of imports
(Source: Post using Trade Data Monitoring (TDM), LLC data)

Although the demand for

2023/2024 Poultry imports poultry products is high,

1% Other
5% EU The industry is
5% US constrained
8% Argentina
by

high input costs

particularly

animal feed
81% Brazil
Broiler industry
(SAPA broiler Org, 2020) ❑ BUY LOCAL CAMPAIGN

Was launched by:

✓ FairPlay
✓ Proudly South African &
✓ Trade unions
to promote

• domestic chicken consumption

& reduce job losses
thus, local chicken

must make up a greater

proportion of consumption
Broiler industry (cont.)
(Source: SAPA Annual report 2023) Export volumes of chicken
meat and eggs in 2022 &
2023
2023 Poultry exports
• A total of 46 789 tonnes
of poultry meat was
export
valued at

= R1 305,8 million

✓chicken meat contributing

✓96,4%
✓Turkey = 1.1%
✓Others 2.5%
2023 Main destination countries for broiler exports
SAPA Annual report 2023)

• Lesotho 45.1 %
• Namibia 21.8 %
• Mozambique 16.9 %
• Eswatini 6.4 %
• Botswana 6.4 %
- United Arab Emirates 1.0 %
• Others 2.4 %
The major producers in the boiler industry in South Africa
Source: Competition commission of SA: Poultry market inquiry draft terms of
reference, O6 February 2024)

These sell to ± 265 formal

abattoirs. Abattoirs
sell
mainly to 5 retailers
1. Pick 'n Pay
2. Shoprite
3. Spar
4. Woolworths
5. Mass Mart
& SMME (Small
medium & micro
entrepreneurs

(RCL = Rainbow chicken limited)

Broiler & Layer feed costs
Feed costs

❑Can contribute as much as 75% of the

total cost to a producer
& therefore

has always been a significant issue in

poultry industry
due to

✓ high prices of maize, soya which are main raw

materials in broiler feed
✓ In 2023 average broiler feed price was
R 8 724/ton
➢ Broiler feed prices in 2023 were:
starter = ± R454.40/50kg bag
grower = ± R433.01/50kg bag
finisher = ± R418.14/50kg bag

Layer mash= R409/50kg bag or R8 188

/ton
FEED PRICE TRENDS
(Source: H Koster in SAPA Annual report 2023)
POULTRY PRODUCT PRICES
Source: Statistica SA in Quarterly Economic Overview of the Agriculture sector
Egg (Layer) industry ➢The commercial layer industry
makes use of the following
Provincial distribution of layer breeds:
in second quarter of 2024
(Source: SAPA Provincial distribution report 2Q2024

✓ GP = 7 353 020 (24.5 %) ✓Dekalb (Amberlink)

✓Hyline (Silver Brown & Brown) &
✓WC = 5 147 796 (17.1 %)
✓Lohmann (Lite)
✓FS = 4 650 141 (15.5%)
✓KZN= 3 605 539 (12.0%)
Producers use:
✓NW = 3 523 890 (11.7 %)
Hyline W36, a Leghorn- type bird
✓LM = 2 334 503 (7,8 %)
✓MP = 2 447 836 (8,2 %)
to produce
✓EC = 869 265 (2.9 %)
✓NC = 96 300 (0.3%)
white shelled eggs for a limited,
TOTAL= 30 028 290 Layers is SA niche market
Dekalb (Amberlink) Hyline Lohmann (Lite)
Egg (Layer) industry
In 2023 Source: SAPA Annual report 2023

➢Layer national flock

average size 23.28 million
hens

➢A total egg production

611.8 million dozens

➢Gross value
R14.18 billion – at producer
level
R23.05 billion at retail level
Egg production and prices
Source :Trade map
Egg (Layer) industry (cont)
(Source: SAPA Chairperson’s report 2023; SAPA Annual report 2023)

Per capita consumption

i.e. the amount consumed per
person per year for 2023
was:

123 eggs or 7.52 kg as

shone in the next figure:
GLOBAL PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION
(Source: IEC, EGG ORGANISATION CHAIRPERSON’S REPORT 2023)
Egg (Layer) industry (cont)
(Source: SAPA Annual report 2023)
2023 average producer prices for protein sources
(Source: SAPA Annual report 2023)

Eggs

still the cheapest

animal protein
Chicken egg exports • 5 128 tonnes of chicken eggs
(Sources: SARS; SAPA Annual report 2023) were exported in 2023
• Valued at
• R265.6 million
• Eggs were exported in these
forms:
✓ Fertilised eggs for incubation
✓ Shell eggs (fresh & preserved)
✓ Egg product (yolks, raw pulp,
albumins)
✓ Liquid egg product
✓ Dried egg product
• Main countries of destination:
✓ Mozambique (73.0%)

✓ Swaziland (18.2 %) &

✓ Botswana (3.4 %)
Chicken egg imports
(Source: SAPA Annual report 2023)

3 733 tonnes of eggs

were imported in 2023

&
were valued at
R414.7 million

The imports were mainly from

Brazil – 66,6%
Denmark – 10.0%
Spain – 7.9%
Italy – 4.7%
France – 4.2%
Netherlands – 3.3%
Poultry industry • Most of South Africa’s
broiler chicken & egg
products are produced by
The poultry market large commercial firms
that are generally
is
characterised by a complex vertically integrated
value chain from
that genetics & day-old chicks
links the actors and activities
involved in delivering poultry & through to
poultry products to the final animal feed
consumer, with products increasing
in value at every stage
with slaughter
high levels
of processing &
vertical integration
distribution level
Poultry industry
❑VERTICAL INTEGRATION
• A process in which a single company owns two or more
stages in the supply chain (production & processing)
with common management control
i.e. One company owns & controls several links in the
production/supply chain
from
the parent breeding stock
through
processing
to
delivery of finished chicken packs
 Poultry industry
International Primary Breeders (responsible for the parent stock, pure breed lines)
Vertical integration in the Broiler industry

Breeder farm (buy stock ( + ) from primary breeders & mate them to
produce fertile eggs)

Hatcheries (buy fertile eggs from breeder farms & hatch them to produce
day old chicks)

Broiler breeders/Multipliers (Buy day old chicks from hatcheries and provide day old
chicks to farmers)

Grower house (Broiler producers raise the chickens for 6-7weeks)

Processing plant (Abattoir, butcheries)

Retailer (e.g. Shoprite, Pick n Pay)

Consumer
Poultry industry
Poultry industry value chain
In: USDA, Foreign Agricultural service
Poultry industry value chain
Source: Department of Animal Husbandry & Veterinary, 19th October 2019
Poultry industry
▪ International Primary Breeder Company (e.g. Ross, Cobb)

✓develop extremely efficient hybrid lines

✓responsible for:
- maintaining pureblood lines
- develop cross bred lines (pedigree pure lines, great
grandparent stock & grand parent stock)
▪ Breeder farm
✓buy the parent stock from an international primary breeder
company
✓produce fertile eggs that will hatch & be grown for meat
production or egg production
Poultry industry
International primary breeders of Broiler chickens are :-

Ross → UK
Cobb → USA
Lohmann → Germany
Hybro → Netherlands
Hubbard → USA
Arbor Acres → USA
Amber link → USA
▪ Hatcheries
Hatcheries hatch fertilized eggs from the primary breeders
& breeder farms
Hatchery supplies day old chicks to broiler or layer producers
called multipliers
Poultry industry

▪Broiler breeders or Multipliers

Provide day–old chicken to commercial broiler

producers

▪Commercial broiler producers

Rear day-old chicken until they are 6–7 weeks old

Poultry industry
❑The day-old chick industry

• Supplies inputs to both egg & broiler businesses

• Pure lines are imported at great-grandparent or
grandparent level
• Most imports are at grandparent level, with some parent
level imports

International breed companies for Cobb 500, Ross 308 &

Arbor Acre
have granted

distribution rights to the parent stock to only three

companies in South Africa
Poultry industry
• International breed companies
• Supply parent stock to integrated & non-integrated broiler
breeder operations where the parent birds are reared
until they are ready to start producing fertilised eggs

• Fertile eggs are then transferred to hatcheries

where

eggs are hatched to produce day-old broiler chicks

which are

sold to independent broiler growers or are used in-house by

fully integrated companies
Poultry industry

❑The day-old broiler chick industry

• Can be profitable, but is exposed to the same risks as the

rest of the poultry industry which are:
✓High feed costs,
✓market-related risks &
✓disease outbreaks

These put pressure on margins

Poultry industry
• A small percentage of the day-old chicks produced
are
exported to neighbouring African countries

• There is a reasonably large export market for hatching

eggs
• The industry is spread over the whole of South Africa
with higher concentrations

of producers in Gauteng, the Cape, KwaZulu-Natal &

North-West regions
 STUDY UNIT 2
BREEDS, BREEDING, SELECTION &
GENETICS
(layers & broilers)
STUDY UNIT OUTCOMES

❑After completing the study unit, learners will be able to:

➢Classify poultry in terms of variety, type, class & breed

➢Describe the principles used in sex determination of day-old

chicks

➢Differentiate between physical appearance of a laying & a non-

laying hen

➢Describe selection, culling & molting

➢ Discuss the different mating methods used in poultry

BREEDS, BREEDING, SELECTION & GENETICS
• Poultry is divided into:
✓ breeds
✓varieties
✓types
✓classes

Breed is a group of related chickens having the same general

- size
- shape &
- carriage (posture- position in which they hold their bodies when standing or sitting)

All birds within a given breed share the same:

- skin colour
- number of toes
- Plumage style (covering of feathers style)
BREEDS, BREEDING, SELECTION & GENETICS

▪ Skin colour

Can be:
Yellow (e.g. skin of Cornish & New Hampshire)
White (Australorp, Orpington, Sussex)
Image result for chicken skin pigment

▪ Number of toes
May have:
➢ Four toes (most breeds)
➢ Five toes (Houdans, Dorkings)
BREEDS, BREEDING, SELECTION & GENETICS

Four toes Five toes

 BREEDS, BREEDING, SELECTION & GENETICS
Roosters
Naked necks
▪ Plumage style – is
more varied

➢Roosters – pointed
neck & saddle (lower
back) feathers

➢Naked necks – have no

feathers on the neck Silkies
Frizzles

➢Silkies – have
feathers that
resemble fur

➢Frizzles – furthers
curl at the end
BREEDS, BREEDING, SELECTION & GENETICS

All breeds BANTAM & LARGE BREED

• are described in the standard

which divides breeds

into:

- Bantam
- Large

• Bantam – miniature-1/5 or 1/4 the

size of large breeds
BREEDS, BREEDING, SELECTION & GENETICS
Feather placement/pattern
B. Varieties
Breeds are subdivided into
varieties based on certain
traits such as:

✓feather placement or
pattern (Feathers on legs, head or
under the chin)

✓colour of plumage
(feathers of a bird)

✓comb type
COLOUR OF PLUMAGE
COMB TYPE
COMB TYPE

SINGLE COMB
SINGLE COMB
➢Thin & attached to the
beak along the skull

➢Has five or six deep

grooves making sharp
points

➢ These points are higher

on the middle part

➢ This comb stands up

Comb type
BUTTERCUP COMB BUTTERCUP COMB

➢Has fine texture

➢ It looks like a crown

Comb type
STRAWBERRY COMB STRAWBERRY COMB

➢This comb is very low

➢It is called strawberry

because of its shape as
well as rough surface

➢ It actually looks like a

strawberry
Comb type

CUSHION COMB CUSHION COMB

➢Is small & solid

➢This comb has no spikes

Comb type

PEA COMB PEA COMB

Pea comb is low comb with
three low ridges.

➢The middle ridge is a

little bit higher than
the other two
Comb type
ROSE COMB COMB ROSE COMB COMB

➢Almost flat on the top

➢Very fleshy

➢It is broad & solid

➢Main part has a curved

surface with small round
protuberances
Comb type

V-SHAPED COMB
V-SHAPED COMB
Is V-shaped
Has two pieces that look
like horn
The two pieces are joined
in their base
Comb type

Walnut comb
Walnut comb
• Less common comb found on
Silkie & Orloff.
• Texture is like the outside of
a walnut shell
Why Chickens have Combs?
As warm blood circulates
Firstly, combs act as a cooling through the comb &
agents wattles
↓ because

chickens do not sweat ↓

↓ instead It is cooled &
birds are cooled by blood that flows through the returned to the
comb interior of the
& wattles chicken
In hot days, chickens raise their wings to allow air • Secondly large
movement into the skin combs on males
attract females

• Chickens can
detect color & are
very attracted to
red
Breeds, breeding, selection & genetics

C. Type: refers to the purpose for which poultry is bred

➢The three general types are:

- egg-type (layers)
- dual (egg & meat)
- meat type (broilers).

D. Class generally refers to the geographic origin of the breed

.
Breeds, breeding, selection & genetics

• Four classes generally used are:

• Mediterranean
• American
• English
• Asiatic
Breeds, breeding, selection & genetics
Image source : Teun van de Braak, Hendrix Genetics)

▪ Mediterranean NB** colour of earlobe depends on

the breed

-Ear lobes can be red or white

➢ Efficient layers-Lay more eggs
➢ Small bodies (light) Chickens with white earlobe lay
white-shelled egg
➢ 4-5 months – point of lay
Chickens with red earlobe lay brown-
➢ Broody shelled egg.

➢ Skin colour varies

➢ Cream or white earlobes
➢ White egg shells
Breeds, breeding, selection & genetics

❖EXAMPLES OF LAYERS

✓Dekalb (Amberlink),
✓Hyline (Silver Brown & Brown) –Leghorn type
✓Lohmann (Lite).
✓Hyline W36, a Leghorn- type bird (Limited for niche
market)

Leghorn is the main breed in South Africa

Breeds, breeding, selection & genetics
▪ ENGLISH BREEDS

✓Have white feathers

✓Have white skins & shanks

✓Red earlobes

✓Tinted egg shells

✓Grow & feather quicker

✓They are heavy & broad breasted

 Breeds, breeding, selection & genetics
EXAMPLES OF BROILERS
Light Sussex, Orpington, Cornish
Light Sussex, Orpington, Cornish &
Australorp
❑Cornish cross
↓
Most efficient chicken for meat
production.

Originate from the county of Cornwall

in England.

Cornish chickens & crosses of

Cornishes, are the most-used breed in
the chicken meat industry as they are
heavy & muscled
Breeds, breeding, selection & genetics
Rhode Island Red Plymouth rock
❑AMERICAN BREEDS (Dual
purpose)

✓Red earlobes

✓Large Brown or tinted egg shells

✓Heavy type New Hampshire Wyandote

✓Dual purpose except for meat

breeds

✓Lay better than broilers &

grow better than layers
3 TYPES OF EGG PRODUCING CHICKENS:
1. Industrial strains:
✓ Bred by multinational corporations & for worldwide
intensive production
strain denote the breeder for example:
• ISA Brown
• Hy-Line & Lohnman

2. Middle class breeds:

✓usually the dual-purpose breeds with reasonably good

performance
e.g. Black Australorp, White Leghorn, New Hampshire & Plymouth
Rock
3 TYPES OF EGG PRODUCING CHICKENS:
3. Indigenous breeds: local unimproved breeds

Examples

✓Venda,
✓ Ovambo,
✓Potchefstroom Koekoek
Breeds, breeding, selection & genetics
Naked Neck, Frizzle, Black
Ornamental breeds Spanish chicken

Bred for their

↓
• unique aesthetic qualities
↓ such as
✓featherless neck of the Naked Neck

✓curly feathers of the Frizzle or

✓ startling white face of the black

Spanish chicken

Bantam & fancy breeds are seen on

shows in S.A.
Examples of Ornamental breeds
FUNDAMENTALS OF HERITABILITY

Heritability
is
the phenotypic variation in population due to genetic factors in%

Chromosomes
• Are thread like bodies in cell nucleus carrying genes
(fundamentals of units of genetics)

Sex determination
• In many organisms the sex is determined by the presence of
some chromosomes
FUNDAMENTALS OF HERITABILITY

• Mammals → is XX & the is XY

• Chickens → is ZZ (homogametic)

is ZW (heterogametic)

Females are sex determiners in poultry

FUNDAMENTALS OF HERITABILITY
• Sex linked inheritance
Male parent Female parent

ZZ ZW

Z Z Z W

ZZ ZZ
FUNDAMENTALS OF HERITABILITY

❑Therefore sex of the chicken can be determined by:

1.Sex linked inheritance

2. Feather sexing
Male chickens have longer wing pinfeathers than the females

3.Vent sexing
Squeezing faeces out thus opening up the chick's anal vent
(called a cloaca) slightly, allowing the chicken sexer to see if
the chick has a small "bump", which would indicate that the
chick is a male
FUNDAMENTALS OF HERITABILITY

• Heritability Percentages of Layers

• Chick livability 5%
• Fertility 5%
• Hatchability of eggs 10%
• Blood spots 15%
• Egg production 15%
• Age at sexual maturity 25%
• Egg weight 55%
• Egg shape 60%
SELECTION

➢Selection → choice of allowing individuals to become parents

for next generation

geneticists → artificial selection as opposed to natural selection

➢Objectives of selection
- High feed efficiency
- High egg production

➢Traits of economic importance for selection of layers

• Egg size - Shell strength

• Egg number - Egg quality
SELECTION

➢Culling → process of removing undesirable chickens from the

flock

• negative necessity which also improves by canceling out the

least productive stock

❑Selection of suitable breeding stock can be based on:

➢Recorded data

➢Physical appearance of the hen

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE

LAYING HEN NONLAYING

✓Large, bright red, soft waxy, ✓Small, pale, dull, scaly, shrunken
glossy comb & wattle comb
✓Eyes bright & prominent ✓Eyes dull & sunken
✓Eyelids & eye ring bleached ✓Eyelids & eye rings yellow
✓Beak is bleached ✓Beak yellow
✓Pelvic bones flexible & wide (2-4 ✓Pelvic bones stiff &
fingers) closed (<2 fingers)
✓Abdomen full & soft ✓Abdomen shallow, tough & tight
✓Vent large, moist & bleached ✓Vent small, dry, puckered &
yellow
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
Unbleached & Bleached Beaks
Unbleached &
Bleached eyerings
MOLTING

wear away
Feathers get broken &
pulled out

& therefore
nature has made it possible for
adult birds to renew them once a year
through
molting
MOLTING

Feather growth
is
hormonally controlled

To molt
- a hen must initiate new growth
in the buds at the base of the feathers
(this will cause the old feathers to fall)

The hormone levels that cause the hen to lay eggs (progesterone & LH)
inhibit feather bud growth (meaning they inhibit
molting)
Thus, egg laying stops during a molt
MOLTING
• Molting
↓is defined as
✓The process of feather loss from the body
& wings coupled with the resultant ending of
egg production

Molting
✓Normal process after the hen has been in production
✓The hen does not lay eggs during the molt
• Poor producers →molt early (after a few months in production) & take up to
20 weeks to complete the molt
• High producers → molt late (will lay for 12 to 14 months before molting) &
complete molt in 6 – 8 weeks
MOLTING
Past production is indicated by:

→ time of molting &

→ amount of the yellow pigment left in the body

Producing a large number bleaches yellow pigment from

of eggs the hen’s body

• beak
• eye ring are bleached white
• earlobes
Methods of mating breeding stock
• A number of to be mated to each varies
depending upon the:

✓Breed- In general the of light breeds (Leghorns) are more

active & vigorous than the of heavier breeds
(Plymouth Rock & Rhode Island Red)

✓ Age - Older males are usually capable of caring for fewer

females than cockerels (young domestic cock)

✓ Health & sexual activity of the

Spermatozoa are able to live in the oviduct for at least 5-11
days in fowl & during this period a succession of eggs in a hen
is fertilized after a single insemination
Methods of mating breeding stock

• 5 commonly used methods of mating are:

1. Pen mating

2. Flock mating

3. Stud mating

4. Shift mating

5. Artificial Insemination
MATING METHODS

1. Pen mating

+ (pen)
Light breeds – 1 : 10-15
Heavy breeds - 1 : 8 -12

Disadvantage

Cockerel may not like to mate with particular female & vice-
versa.
MATING METHODS
2. Flock mating

Common method of mating used in most of the breeding practices

20 – 30 + 250 – 300

Advantages
➢ This reduces the chances of preference in mating &
➢ Very good fertility is obtained

Disadvantage

➢Parentage of offspring cannot be known

MATING METHODS

3. Stud mating

in a pen individually brought for mating

Method is excellent & utilizes outstanding males to increase the

offsprings
& therefore

it is expensive
MATING METHODS

4. Shift mating
are shifted from one pen to another after a certain period

This helps in thorough testing of females

as they are

exposed to several males for mating

Disadvantage

Accuracy of parenting difficult as fertile eggs can be

produced for 1-2 weeks after removing the male from the pen
MATING METHODS

5. Artificial Insemination

Utilization of outstanding by collecting semen & depositing it

in the oviduct of the hen

• Advantages

➢Method increases the utilization of outstanding males,

➢Minimizes risk of diseases
➢ Increases accuracy in parentage determination
 STUDY UNIT 3
PHYSIOLOGY OF EGG
FORMATION
(Image sources: Akers & Denbow, 2008)
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
❑After completing the study unit, learners will be able to:

➢ Illustrate the female chickens’ reproductive tract & identify the

different parts.

➢ Differentiate between a fertile & infertile egg & causes

➢ Describe the process of egg formation & photoperiodism as a

factor influencing this process

➢ Explain the defects of an egg during the formation process

➢ Discuss hormonal activity & relate it to photoperiodism in a

chicken
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A HEN
▪ Female Reproductive (Image source: poultrykeeper.com
system
↓ consists of
✓ovary & oviduct

▪ At hatching female chick has:

✓2 ovaries
✓2 oviducts
↓only
left ovary & oviduct develop &
are functional
right ovary & oviduct atrophy
or degenerate
 OVARY
(Image source: NaturalChickenKeeping.com; poultryextension.org)

The ovary Follicles at different stages of

development in the ovary
• Prior to egg production, the ovary
is a mass of small bags or follicles
containing ova
• As a hen reaches sexual
maturity, the ovary & oviduct
undergo many changes (constitute
3% of body weight)

• During egg production the ovary is

composed of follicles at different
stages of development
❑FUNCTIONS OF THE OVARY
• Maturing follicles have a banded ✓ Releases the yolk
area (site of rupture during ✓- Produces hormones
ovulation) → Stigma
HORMONES
Hormones that regulate
reproduction in poultry FUNCTIONS
Oestrogen - Initiate development of the medullary bone
- Stimulate yolk protein & lipid formation by the
liver
- Increase size of the oviduct enabling it to
produce albumen proteins, shell membranes,
calcium carbonate of the shell & cuticle

Progesterone Excites the hypothalamus to cause the release of

Leuteinizing hormone (LH)
from anterior pituitary

Follicle Stimulating
Hormone Stimulates follicles to increase in size

Causes mature follicle to rupture at the stigma &

Luteinising hormone release yolk surrounded by the vitellin membrane
Hormones
BRAIN (cells specialized to sense light)

Photoreceptors playing special role in photoperiodism

(physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night)
stimulate
to to secrete GNRH
HYPOTHALAMUS

GNRH stimulates
Anterior pituitary to
FSH LH secrete

OVULATION
MATURATION
OF GRAAFIAN
FOLLICLE OVARY OVIDUCT
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF A HEN
(Image sources: pinterest.com; Kathryn Born)
OVIDUCT

A mature ovum has the exact chemical composition

of the yolk in a laid egg

❑Oviduct (±75g) is divided into five major parts:

• Infundibulum
• Magnum
• Isthmus
• Uterus &
• Vagina
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF A HEN
(Image sources: Akers & Denbow, 2008)
 OVIDUCT
(Image source: ansci.wisc.edu)

1. INFUNDIBULUM

➢ Funnel 7 – 10cm long

➢ Its main functions are:

✓Engulfs the ovulated yolk (ovum)

- not always successful & the ovum can be
irretrievably lost into the body cavity
- this is called internal laying

✓Site for fertilization

➢ Yolk spend 15 minutes in the funnel

OVIDUCT OVIDUCT
(Image source: 4AJ-50PO Kentucky 4-H Poultry Grading Eggs.ca.uky,edu)
2. MAGNUM
➢Glandular zigzag 36 – 39cm long (longest part)

Its main function is:

✓To secrete albumen, H2O, Na, Ca, Potassium
✓Deposit egg white protein

➢4 distinct layers can be seen:

✓Chalaziferous layer
✓Inner thin albumen
✓Thick albumen
✓Outer thin albumen
Incomplete egg spends 3hrs in this area
 OVIDUCT
(Image source: aaiclinica.com)

3. ISTHMUS

➢Also zigzag & Narrower, 10cm long

Its main function is:

✓Inner & outer shell membrane formation

- papery material composed of protein fibers
- inner laid first & outer 3x as thick as the inner
- on the large end of the egg the two are separated to form an
air cell

➢Incomplete egg spends 75 minutes in this region

 OVIDUCT (Image source: NaturalChickenKeeping.com)

4.UTERUS
➢Highly muscularised (10 – 12 cm long)

Its main functions:

✓Shell gland
- shell formation (deposition of CaCO3)
source* feed & bones
- shell pigment
- some minerals (sodium, potassium & magnesium)
& water
Shell consists mainly Calcium carbonate

✓Cuticle deposition

➢Egg stays here for 21 hrs

OVIDUCT
Image source:
5. VAGINA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAFtZAMZb7c
➢Terminal part of oviduct

➢ 5 cm long

➢Semen temporarily stored

before ovulation

➢Fast passage of egg through

this part

➢Oviposition –pointed end

faces cloaca
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A HEN

➢Egg formation – (24 – 26 hrs)

➢4 – 5 successive days laying

➢Rest – a day a gap called a Pause

➢Eggs laid in consecutive days – Clutch

➢Recurring laying cycle - Rythum

STRUCTURE OF AN EGG
(Images sources: EnchantedLearning.com; VectorStock.com)

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/egifs/eggcrosssection.GIF
PARTS OF AN EGG
(Image source: study.com; Robert Mellors Primary Academy)

• An egg has three main parts ❖ Air cell or space

separated from each other - empty space at large end of an egg
by membranes;
✓ yolk (31%), - Plays a role in respiration
✓ albumen (58%) &
✓ shell (11%)

❖ Germinal Disc or Blastodisc

❖GERMINAL DISC
- Small circular white spot on yolk
surface
- its where sperm enters the egg
PARTS OF AN EGG (Image source: afowlshome.com; peimag.com)

❖Chalaza ❖Shell membranes

- Inner & outer shell membranes
– Spiral rope-like
- Protect embryo from
strand unfavourable environmental
conditions &
- anchors the yolk - retain the fluid of the albumen
in the thick egg
white

- keep yolk in center

of egg so that the
embryo is uppermost
to receive heat
 PARTS OF AN EGG
(Images sources: motherearthnews.com; dailymail.co.uk/health/article)

❖Shell
– Hard protective coating of the egg
- Semi-permeable
- Pores are important for diffusion of gases & water vapour
- Made of calcium carbonate

❖ Cuticle – protects egg against entrance of dirt & bacteria.

- It gives the laid egg a glossy like appearance
PARTS OF AN EGG
(Image source: pasturedsteps.com)

❖Albumen
✓thick albumen (stringy
part of
the egg white)

✓thin albumen (watery part

of the egg white)

✓ supplies moisture,
proteins, glucose &
protection for developing
embryo & regulate
temperature
PARTS OF AN EGG
(Source of image: Robert Mellors Primary Academy)

❖Vitelline or yolk membrane

• membrane that surrounds the
yolk

❖Yolk
• yellow inner part of the egg
where embryo will form
• contains valuable reserve food
• main function is to provide
metabolic energy & nutrients
to the developing embryo
Chemical Composition of the Egg
Defects of an egg during
the formation process

EGG ABNORMALITIES
 EGG ABNORMALITIES (Images sources: peteandgerrys.com
Melabella.jpg; thechickenchick.com; poultrykeeper.com; backyardchickens.com)

➢ Double–yolk eggs
➢ can be caused by:
- two follicles developing & ovulating
- yolk splitting into two inside an egg
- the breed

➢ Blood spots
➢ can be caused by:
- small blood vessel breaks during
ovulation
- dramatic temperature change
- certain respiratory diseases
- when birds are too old

➢ Meat spots
➢ – can be caused by:
-excess reproductive tissue released
from a hen's ovary following the for
EGG ABNORMALITIES
(Image source: thechickenchick.com; reddit.com)

➢Yolkless

• can be caused by:

- foreign material inside the
oviduct (e.g. round worms) that
stimulate the secretion of
albumen
- when chickens are young to be
laying eggs (pre-mature laying
of eggs)

➢Dented eggshells

• can be caused by:

- when the egg is kept too long
in the uterus
EGG ABNORMALITIES
(Image source: flickr.com/people/_kristy_/)

➢Soft-shelled eggs
• can be caused by:
-inheritance influencing
porosity & ability to produce
strong eggs

- Deficiencies of vitamins A,
B12, D3, E & calcium,
phosphorus . Manganese &
selenium result in eggs with
soft or no shells

- Excess phosphorus
consumption by older hens
- Newcastle, Infectious
bronchitis
EGG ABNORMALITIES (Images sources: thepoultrysite.com;
Andy B., UK. ©2011 Aviculture-Europe; backyardchickens.com)

Mottled or blotched eggs

- appearance of pale or discoloured
patches or blotches on the
surface of egg yolks

can be caused by:

- Dewormers
- Calcium deficiency
- Rotten egg
- Cottonseed meal consumption

White yolks
can be caused by:
- Poor nutrition
- Worms & parasites
 REPRODUCTION IN THE MALE
❑THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT

✓Its purpose is to produce viable sperms & transfer them into

the female's vagina

✓Sperm production & maturation is more rapid in poultry than in

mammals (13 days)

✓Remain viable within the male reproductive tract for over a

month

✓Can also be stored in the female's vagina for weeks

✓Reproductive system is all inside the body cavity

REPRODUCTION IN THE MALE
Reproductive system is all
inside the body cavity
Sperm production (Image source: Dr Jacquie Jacob,
University of Kentucky).

Male has two testes

-located along the chicken’s

back
- elliptical shaped & light yellow

✓Sperm remain viable at body

temperature (43oC)

✓Testes weigh 1% of mature

body weight
Reproductive tract of a male chicken
Consist of:
Image source: Dr Jacquie
➢Epididymis –transport sperms Jacob, University of Kentucky)
to

➢Vas deferentia which has 4 main

functions
1. Transport semen to the cloaca
2.Maturation of spermatozoa
3.Storage of semen before ejaculation
4.Un-ejaculated semen is broken down &
resorbed if semen has been stored for too
long

Sperms can remain fertile for up to 35 days

in the vas deferens
Reproductive tract of a male chicken
Consist of: (Image source: Mathew Nathan @slideplayer.com)

Each vas deferens opens into:

✓ A small bump, or papilla, on

the back wall of the cloaca

✓Papillae or phallus serve as

the mating organ
REPRODUCTION IN THE MALE

➢Meat of chickens tends to become coarse & tough as the

rooster (male) ages

Caponization is castration of cockerels

Capons
✓ Grow more slowly, deposit more fat than roosters & become
more docile & less active
✓Their meat is more tender, juicier & more flavorful
FERTILITY
Fertility → the percentage of eggs produced that are actually
fertile

• Calculating Fertility
✓The percentage of fertility is the percentage of fertile eggs of
all the eggs produced.
✓% fertility = number of fertile eggs/number of total eggs
produced or set

• Calculating Hatchability
✓The percentage of hatchability is the percentage of eggs which
actually hatch out as live chicks
✓% hatchability = number of eggs hatched out/number of fertile
eggs
FERTILITY

❑Consider the following example:

➢A batch of 100 hatching eggs produces 87 day-old-chicks.

Calculate % hatchability.

% hatchability = number of eggs hatched out/number of

fertile eggs
= (87/100) * 100 = 87.0%
FERTILE & INFERTILE EGGS

❑INFERTILE EGGS:

➢Blastodisk - is light color & irregular shape

❑FERTILE EGGS:

➢When fertilized, the blastodisk becomes known as a

blastoderm which is the first stage of embryo
development
➢Blastoderm is regular in shape
➢The blastoderm is also known as the germinal disc
FERTILE & INFERTILE EGGS
(Image source: thechickenchick.com)

Infertile egg Fertile egg

FERTILE & INFERTILE EGGS
(Image source: ext.vt.edu/virtualfarm/poultry/poultry_development.html)

FERTILE EGG
CANDLING
Day 3 Day 9
• The process of looking inside the
egg without disturbing the
developing embryo

• Presence of embryos can be

confirmed easily after 8 days to
12 days of incubation

• Embryo appears as a dark spot

that becomes larger as incubation
progress