IB Chemistry Exam concepts & definitions

Stoichiometric relationships (1)

Atom The defining structure of an element. A typical atom consists of:
A Nucleus
● Proton (p​+​)
● Neutron (n​0​)
An Orbit
● Electron (e​-​)

Element Contains atoms of only one type

Compounds The combination of atoms in a fixed ratio

Constituents of Matter

Ion A charged species (atom or molecule).

● Cation: positively charged ion
● Anion: negatively charged ion

Common Polyatomic
ions
 The mole concept (1.2)
SI units

Parts per million (ppm) 1ppm = 1mg/dm3 = 1g/m3

Mole One mole is the number of atoms in 1/12th of 12 grams of Carbon-12.

Avogadro’s constant

# of particles (atoms,
molecules) in a mol

Isotope Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus
but different numbers of neutrons.
● Isotopes of an element have different mass numbers.

Relative atomic mass The weighted average of the masses of the isotopes relative to 1/12th of the mass
(A​r​) of a carbon-12 atom.

Relative molecular The mass of one molecule of that substance relative to 1/12th of the mass of a
mass (M​r​) carbon-12 atom.

Empirical formula and The simplest integer ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound.
Molecular formula
The actual number of atoms of elements in one structural unit of a compound.
 Reacting masses and volumes (1.3)
Limiting reagent the substance that is totally consumed when the chemical reaction is complete.

Theoretical and experimental yield

% yield = theoretical yield × 100%
experimental yields
Where the experimental yield is the actual amount produced in the process, and
the theoretical yield is the expected amount of products to be calculated.

Standard Temperature T = 273 K and P = 101 kP a

and Pressure (STP)

Standard Ambient T = 298 K and P = 101 kP a

Temperature and
Pressure (SATP)

Kinetic theory of an 1. Gases are made of particles separated by large distances. Most of the
ideal gas volume occupied by a gas is empty space.

2. Gaseous particles are constantly moving in straight lines in random

directions.

3. Gaseous particles undergo elastic collisions with each other and the walls
of the container.

4. Gaseous particles exert no intramolecular forces.

molar volume of a gas 22.7dm3 /mol

at STP

The combined gas law

The ideal gas equation

​R is either 8.31 or 0.00831 depending if using KPa or Pa.

Molar concentration The amount (in mol) of a substance dissolved in 1dm​3​ of solvent.
 Atomic Structure (2)
Subatomic particles

Electromagnetic c=fλ
radiation c is the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, f is the frequency and
lambda is the wavelength.

Quantization of energy hc
E= λ

Electron configuration (2.2)

Bohr’s model of the The hydrogen atom consists of a positively charged proton at its centre, around
Hydrogen atom which a negatively charged electron moves in an orbit.
Each orbit has a discrete energy associated with it. The energy of the electron in a
particular orbit is:
E α ( n12 )
Where n is the principal quantum number (1, 2, 3, 4).

● When an electron in its ground-state is excited, it moves to a higher

energy level and remains excited for a fraction of a second.

● When the electron falls back down from the excited-state to a lower energy
level it emits a photon of discrete energy corresponding to a particular
wavelength depending on the energy difference between the two energy
levels.

Heisenberg’s “It is impossible to determine accurately both the momentum and the position of a
uncertainty principle particle simultaneously.”

We can calculate the probability of finding an electron in a given region of space

within the atom.

Schrodinger's equation ● Describes the dual wave-like and particle nature of the electron.
The solutions to the equation are called wave-functions ψ . The square of the
wave-function ||ψ 2 || represents the probability of finding an electron in a region of
space from the nucleus of the atom.

Atomic orbital The region in space where there is a high probability of finding an electron ( ||ψ 2 || )
 The s orbital is spherically symmetrical, while the p orbital is dumbbell shaped.

● Each main energy level can hold a maximum number 2n2 of electrons.
Hence the electron capacity for n=1 is 2, for n=2 is 8, for n=3 is 18.

● For this reason, we have two elements in the first period of the periodic
table, eight elements in the second.

Valence electrons The electrons in the outer shell of an atom.

Aufbau principle Electrons fill the lowest-energy orbital that is available first.

Pauli exclusion Any electron orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons that have opposite
principle magnetic spin.
 Periodicity (3)
Arrangement of periodic ● The table is arranged in order of increasing atomic number, Z.
table
● The vertical columns are groups, while the horizontal rows are periods.

Characteristics of ● Good conductors of heat and electricity

metals ● Malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets)
● Ductile (can be drawn into wires)
● Have lustre (are shiny)
● Usually lose electrons in chemical reactions (oxidized)

Characteristics of ● Poor conductors of heat and electricity

nonmetals ● Usually gain electrons in chemical reactions (reduced)

Periodic trends (3.2)

Shielding effect 1. The negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged
nucleus.

2. A valence electron is also repelled by the other electrons in the atom.

3. The core electrons in the inner (non-valence) energy levels of the atom
reduce the positive nuclear charge experienced by a valence electron.

Effective nuclear charge The net charge experienced by an electron.

Z​eff
Z​eff = Z − S ,
where Z is the atomic number and S is the number of core electrons.

Ionization energy Defined as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a neutral
atom in its ​ground state.
+
1st ionization energy: X (g) → X (g) + e−
+ 2+
2nd ionization energy: X (g) → X (g) + e−

Electron affinity Defined as the energy released when 1 mol of electrons is attached to 1 mol of
neutral atoms in the gas phase.

X (g) + e− → X − (g)
Electronegativity (χ) Defined as the relative attraction that an atom has for the shared pair of electrons
in a covalent bond.

Trends in atomic radius Atomic radii ​decreases​ across a period due to increasing Z​eff​:
● This pulls valence electrons closer to the nucleus, reducing the atomic
radius.

Atomic radii ​increases​ down a group:

● Each new period provides the valence electrons with a new energy level,
and are located further away from the nucleus. (greater effect than
increasing Z​eff​ due to shielding effect)

Trends in ionic radius Cations have a ​smaller​ radii than their neutral atoms because there are more
protons than electrons in the cation so the valence electrons are more strongly
attracted to the nucleus.

Anions have a ​greater​ radii than their neutral atoms because the extra electron
in the anion results in a greater repulsion between the valence electrons.

Trends in Ionization Ionization energy ​increases​ across a period:

energy ● As Z​eff​ increases across a period, the valence electrons are attracted
closer to the nucleus.

● Since atomic radii decrease across a period, the distance between the
valence electrons and the nucleus decreases. It becomes more difficult to
remove an electron from the atom.

Ionization energy ​decreases​ down a group:

● Atomic radii increases down a group, meaning the valence electrons are
further away from the nucleus, making it easier to remove an electron.

Trends in electron In general, electron affinity becomes ​more negative​ across a period.
affinity
In group 1 alkali metals, electron affinity becomes ​less negative​ down the group.

*The patterns vary by group so there aren't clear trends.

Trends in Electronegativity increases across a period because Z​eff​ and atomic radii both
electronegativity increase.

Trends in metallic and Metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a group.
nonmetallic character

Trend in amphoteric Oxides behave more acidic across a period. ​PERIOD 3 ELEMENTS ONLY
and amphiprotic oxides
 Chemical Bonding and Structure (4)
Ionic bond An ionic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction experienced between the
electric charges of a ​cation​ and an​ anion​.
● They are formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one
atom to another.

Ionic compounds are generally formed between ​metals​ and ​nonmetals.

● Ionic compounds are typically solids and have a lattice-type structure.

Physical properties of ● High melting and boiling points​ because of strong electrostatic forces of
ionic compounds attraction between the ions in their lattice structure.
● Low volatility​ (does not vaporize) due to strong electrostatic forces.
● Solid ionic compounds ​do not​ ​conduct electricity​, however in a molten state
the ions are free to move and thus conduct electricity.
● Ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents (water), but not in nonpolar
solvents.
○ The polarity of water allows the partial charges to be attracted to the ions
in the lattice, resulting in individual ions being pulled out of the lattice as
they are surrounded by water molecules.

Covalent bonding (4.2)

The octet rule Elements tend to lose, gain, or share electrons in order to acquire a noble gas
core electron configuration.

Covalent bond A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a ​shared pair
of electrons​ and a ​positively charged nuclei​.
● Usually occurs between nonmetals.

Lone pairs Non-bonding pairs of electron. According to VSEPR theory pairs of electrons
repel one another to be as far apart as possible in space.

Bond strength and A triple bond is stronger than a double bond, in turn stronger than a single bond.
bond length A single bond is longer than a double bond, in turn longer than a triple bond.

Polar covalent bond When one atom adopts a partial negative charge δ − and one atom adopts a
partial positive charge δ + . The separation of charge results in a dipole moment.

Nonpolar covalent bond If the two atoms involved are identical, there is no net electronegativity.

Polarity based on
electronegativity
 Covalent structures (4.3)
Electron domain The field occupied by a pair of electrons around the central atom.

VSEPR theory
molecular geometry

Effect of lone pairs on

bond angles

Double and triple [σ + π ] , and [σ + 2π]

covalent bond

Resonance structures One of two or more alternative Lewis structures for a molecule that cannot be
described fully with one Lewis structure alone.

Molecular polarity A molecule is nonpolar if the net dipole moment μ is equal to 0.

Allotropes Different structural modifications of the same element.

● Carbon has a number of allotropes: graphite, diamond, graphene, and C​60

fullerene.

Giant covalent structure A solid in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds in a giant 3D
lattice structure. E.g, graphite, diamond, quartz.

Properties:
● High melting points
● Poor electrical conductivity (excluding graphite and graphene)
● Insoluble in common solvents.
● Very hard (excluding graphite layers)

Coordinate (or dative) In coordinate covalent bonding, the shared pair of electrons comes from only one
covalent bonding of the two atoms; this atom donates both electrons to the shared pair.
E.g. CO, Al​2​Cl​6​, NH​4​+

Intermolecular forces (4.4)

Intermolecular forces Interactions between molecules within a compound. They are responsible for
physical properties such as melting and boiling point.

● Van der Waals forces

○ London dispersion forces (induced-dipole on all molecules)
○ Dipole-dipole forces (on polar molecules with a net dipole)

● Hydrogen bonding (between molecules that have H bonded to N, O or F.)

Polarizability The ease of distortion of the e​–​ cloud of a molecular entity by an electric field.

London dispersion The dispersion force due to an instantaneous dipole:

forces ● Electron density is not symmetrical and therefore there could be a
temporary dipole on any part of the molecule.

● More electrons → greater force

● Larger size → greater force
● Larger contact area (shape) → greater force
Dipole-dipole forces Exists in all polar molecules with a permanent dipole moment.
● There is an attraction between the positive end of a permanent dipole and
the negative end of another permanent dipole on an adjacent molecule.

Hydrogen bonding Can occur between molecules with an H-F, or O-H, or N-H bond present.

Relative bond strengths

Metallic bonding (4.5)

Metallic bond The electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalized
electrons

Delocalized electrons Not associated with a particular nucleus, but are free to move through the
crystalline lattice forming a sea of mobile electrons.

Strength of a metallic Depends on:

bond ● The number of delocalized valence electrons.
● The charge of the ion.
● The ionic radius of the cation.
 Energetics and Thermochemistry (5)
First law of (law of conservation of energy). Energy can be neither created nor destroyed;
thermodynamics Only converted between different forms.

Thermal energy A form of energy that is transferred from a warmer body to a cooler body as a
result of the temperature gradient.
● It can be transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.

Standard Enthalpy Determined at 298K and 100kPa with all species in their standard state.
change of a reaction
(ΔH)

Standard enthalpy
change of formation
ΔHf

Standard enthalpy The thermal energy evolved upon the complete combustion of 1 mol of
change of combustion substance.
ΔHc

Hess’s law The enthalpy change (ΔH) for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is
equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.

Bond enthalpy (5.3)

Bond breaking An endothermic process (+ enthalpy) where the energy required to break the
bond is called the bond dissociation energy.

Bond making An exothermic process (- enthalpy)

Average bond enthalpy The energy required to break 1 mol of a bond in a gaseous molecule (averaged
over similar compounds).

● Products and reactants ​must be in gaseous​ ​state​!

● Quoted as an average because the bond environment changes. (IMF’s

aren't considered.)
 Chemical Kinetics (6)
Rate of reaction Defined as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.

How to measure a Measure the change in

reaction rate ● pH (acid-base reactions)
● Conductivity (redox cells)
● Mass or volume (solids or gases)
● Colour (transition metals or coloured compounds)
To determine the rate of reaction, graph dependent variable against time, the
rate of reaction is either the slope or the tangent at time t.

Requirements for a 1. The two particles must physically collide.

chemical reaction to 2. The colliding particles must have correct orientation.
occur 3. The reacting particles must have sufficient kinetic energy to initiate the
reaction.

Activation energy The minimum energy required for colliding particles to react.

Factors that increase 1. Temperature increase

the rate of a chemical 2. Addition of a catalyst
reaction 3. Increase in reactant concentration
4. Decrease in particle size of reactants (in solid phase)

Energy diagram model

Catalysts A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction, but is not consumed
in the reaction itself.

● Creates an alternate pathway for the reaction and lowers the activation
energy.
○ Homogeneous catalyst is in the ​same​ physical phase as reactants.
○ Heterogeneous catalyst is in a ​different​ physical phase than the
reactants.
The destruction of ozone:
 Equilibrium (7)
Dynamic equilibrium The forward and reverse reactions continue but no overall change in the
concentration of reactants and products occur.

Law of chemical States that at a given temperature the ratio of the concentration of products to the
equilibrium concentration of reactants is a constant.

K c >> 1, products are f avoured over reactants

K c << 1, reactants are f avoured over products

Homogeneous All the reactants and products are present in one phase.
equilibrium

Heterogeneous The reactants or products exist in more than one phase.

equilibrium

Le Chatelier’s principle “If a change is made to a system in equilibrium, the balance between the forward
and reverse reactions will shift to ​offset ​this change and return the system to
equilibrium.”

Factors that affect Change in

Equilibrium position 1. Concentration of product or reactant.
2. Pressure. (increase in pressure will favour reaction to side with less
moles)
3. Temperature.
4. Addition of a catalyst. (only if reaction goes to completion)

Factors that affect Temperature (unless ΔH = 0 )

Equilibrium constant ● Depends on whether reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
(K​C​)

Effect of a catalyst on In a reversible reaction, the lowered E​ea​ has an equal effect on both the forward
equilibrium and reverse reactions. Position of equilibrium will ​not​ change and neither will K​C.

Reaction quotient (Q) The ratio of concentration of products to reactants when the system has not
reached equilibrium.

● Used to determine the progress of the reaction as it moves toward equilibrium.

Q > K c concentration of products is greater than at equilibrium.

Q < K c concentration of reactants is greater than at equilibrium.
Q = K c the system is at equilibrium.
 Acids and Bases (8)
Arrhenius’s theory of ● Acids produce ​hydrogen​ ions in solution.
+
acids and bases (H ) ● Bases produce ​hydroxide​ ions in solution.

Bronsted-Lowry theory ● Acids are proton donors.

of acids and bases (p+ ) ● Bases are proton acceptors.

Lewis theory of acids ● Acids are electron pair acceptors.

and bases (e− ) ● Bases are electron pair donors.

Examples of
monoprotic, diprotic and
triprotic acids

Strong acid An acid that is assumed to ​completely​ ​dissociate​ in water.

● They are strong electrolytes. (conduct more)

Weak acid An acid that only ​partially​ ​dissociates​ in water.

● They are weak electrolytes. (conduct less)

Conjugate acid-base Acid + Base ⇔ Conjugate Base + Conjugate Acid

Amphoteric species Species that behaves both as an acid and a base.

Amphiprotic species Species that behaves both as a BL acid and a BL base.

Properties of acids and bases (8.2)

Reactions of acids with

compounds
The standard enthalpy The energy change associated with the formation of 1 mol of water from the reaction
change of neutralization between a strong acid and a strong base at STP.

Neutralization is exothermic (ΔH < 0) and generally the same for strong and weak
acid-base reactions because it drives the reaction to completion.

The pH scale (8.3)

pH The potential Hydrogen ion concentration in a substance.

pH =− log[H + (aq)] or [H + ] = 10−pH

pH scale

Acid deposition (8.5)

Acid deposition The process by which acid-forming pollutants are deposited on the Earth’s surface.

Acid rain A result of rapidly increasing emissions of Nitrogen and Sulphur oxides from
industrialization.
● Usually has a pH < 5.6
● Natural pollutants resulting from volcanic eruptions and decomposition of
vegetation.
● Man made pollutants resulting from the combustion of sulphur rich fossil
fuels.

Global issue The acid deposition may occur in countries away from the actual source due to other
factors such as wind, leading to widespread deforestation and pollution of lakes and
river systems.

Reducing sulphur and Pre-combustion methods:

nitrogen oxide ● Physical cleaning
emissions ● Mineral beneficiation

Post-combustion methods:
● Secondary technologies remove impurities before they are released into the
atmosphere.

The effects on buildings When calcium carbonate is exposed to acid rain, a neutralization reaction erodes the
building, causing damage.
 Redox processes (9)
Oxidation A. When a substance combines with Oxygen.
B. The loss of electrons.
C. An increase in oxidation state.

Reduction A. Removal of oxygen or addition of Hydrogen.

B. The gain of electrons
C. A decrease in oxidation state.

Oxidizing and ● An oxidizing agent is reduced.

reducing agents ● A reducing agent is oxidized.
They are always the reactants.

Stock Roman numerals are used to indicate the oxidation number.

nomenclature E.g. Potassium manganate (VII), the cation is M n7+ .

Half-equations Useful in balancing complex redox reactions.

Each half-equation represents the separate oxidation and reduction processes.

The activity series Ranks metals according to the ease with which they oxidize.
● Metals higher up the series can displace those below.

The Winkler The degree of organic pollution in a sample of water can be measured by the
method biochemical oxygen demand.
● BOD ​is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter in a sample of
water at a definite temperature over a period of 5 days.
 ● A high concentration of dissolved oxygen indicates low pollution.

Electrochemical cells (9.2)

Electrodes A conductor of electricity that makes contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit.
● An electrochemical cell has two electrodes, the ​anode​ and the ​cathode.

In both voltaic and electrolytic cells:

○ Oxidation takes place at the anode.
○ Reduction takes place at the cathode.

Voltaic cell Electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy to electrical energy.
● They use ​spontaneous​ exothermic processes to convert energy.
● The cathode is the positive electrode. → reduction.
● The anode is the negative electrode. → oxidation.

Both electrodes are

connected to electrolytes,
each in electrical contact via
a ​salt bridge​.

● It provides a path for the

positive ions and the
negative ions in the cell.

Remember NOVA:
● Negative
● Oxidation
● Voltaic
● Anode

Electrolytic cell Electrochemical cell that converts electrical energy to drive a ​non-spontaneous
chemical reaction.
● Cathode is the negative electrode. → reduction.
● Anode is the positive electrode. → oxidation.
Remember APOE (anode, positive, oxidation, electrolytic)

Electrolysis of a (inert) Graphite electrodes are dipped into the salt electrolyte.
molten salt
In the following example the salt is
Sodium Chloride.

● The Chlorine ion is oxidized at the

anode to form chlorine gas.
 Organic Chemistry (10)
Organic chemistry The study of carbon-based compounds.

Catenation The process by which many identical atoms (generally carbon) are joined
together by covalent bonds, producing straight-chain, branched, or cyclic
structures.

Homologous series A series of compounds of the same family, with the same general formula but
from vary one another by one CH​2​ group.

Hydrocarbon Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.

Structural isomers Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of
atoms.

Saturated compounds Contain single bonds only

Unsaturated compounds Contain double or triple bonds

Benzene ring An aromatic, unsaturated hydrocarbon.

(Resonance occurs)

Functional groups

The reactive parts of molecules.

Class General formula Functional group Sufix

Alkanes C​n​H​2n+2 -ane

Alkenes C​n​H​2n -ene

Alkynes C​n​H​2n-2 -yne

Arenes C​n​H​2n-6 -
Halogenoalkanes C​n​H​2n+1​X -

Alcohols ROH -ol

Aldehydes RCHO -al

Ketones RC[O]R’ -one

Carboxylic acids RCOOH -oic acid

Esters RCOOR’ -oate

Ethers ROR’ -

Amines RNH​2 -amine

RNHR’
RN[R’]R’’
Amides RCONH​2 -amide

Nitriles RCN -nitrile

Alkane series Hydrocarbons with general formula: C​n​H​2n+2

Properties:
● Boiling point: increases with more Carbons in the formula.
○ More atoms = greater IMF’s (Van der Waal’s)
■ More energy required to break bonds.
○ Branching decreases boiling point

● Fairly unreactive
○ Almost non-polar, single covalent bonds.
■ No net charge → no weak points.
○ Saturated carbons.
○ All alkanes complete an octet.

● Pollution: Combustion gives rise to variety of pollutants.

○ Power stations produce SO​2​ and causes acid rain.
○ Internal combustion engines produce CO and NO​X​.

Breaking covalent bonds:

● Three ways to split the shared electron pair in an unsymmetrical
covalent bond:
○ Unequal splitting: produces ions
(heterolytic fission)

○ Equal splitting: produces radicals (very reactive)

(homolytic fission)

Free radicals:
● Reactive species with an unpaired electron.
○ They are reactive because they want to pair the single electron.

● Formed by homolytic fission of covalent bonds.

○ Formed during thermal cracking

● Involved in the reactions taking place in the ozone layer (think Chlorine
catalyst).
Free radical substitution Chlorination of an alkane:
(alkanes) (In this case methane, CH​4​)
● Reagents: Chlorine gas and methane.

● Conditions: UV light or sunlight (heat as well)

● Initial equation:
○ Methane is attracted by free radicals and a Hydrogen is
substituted by a Chlorine radical, leaving HCl.

● There are 3 stages in free-radical substitution:

○ initiation, propagation and termination

● Initiation: radicals are created.

● Propagation:
○ In the first stage, a methane reacts with a chlorine free-radical.

○ The methyl radical continues the chain reaction and reacts with a
chlorine to produce Chloromethane and another chlorine radical.

● Termination:
○ A termination reduces the concentration of radicals in the
reaction mixture.
■ As the concentration of hydrocarbons decreases, the rate
of reaction decreases and eventually stops completely.
Alkene series Unsaturated hydrocarbons with general formula: C​n​H​2n

Contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond.

(120​o​ bond angle if anyone cares)

Properties:
● The sp​2​ orbitals repel each other into a planar arrangement.
○ Covalent bonds are formed by overlap of orbitals.
■ An sp​2​ orbital from each carbon overlaps to form a single
C-C bond.
■ The resulting bond is a sigma bond.
○ The double bond makes alkenes more reactive than alkanes;
they undergo addition reactions.

● Boiling point increases with more carbon atoms:

○ Greater Van der Waal’s forces.
○ Greater IMF’s = more energy to separate molecules
○ For isomers → greater branching = lower boiling point.
● Considerably more reactive than alkanes
○ Due to double bonds containing 4 electrons
■ Makes it attractive to electrophiles.
■ Enables it to polarise approaching molecules.

Isomers:
● Structural:
○ Double bonds in different positions.
○ Branching in different positions.

● Geometric:
○ Stereoisomerism; occurs due to restricted rotation of C=C bonds.

Electrophilic addition ● Because of the extra electron density in a C=C bond, alkenes are
mechanism (Alkenes) attacked by a species with a partial positive charge called ​‘electrophile’.
(it means electron lover)

● The electrophile in the hydrogen halides is the H​+​ ion. It attracts two
electrons from the C=C bond, leaving the Br​–​ with a negative charge.
● The Br​–​ is then attracted to the carbocation and forms a covalent bond.
Polymerisation of Addition polymerization:
alkenes Under correct conditions (high pressure/temperature/catalyst), many monomers
that contain a C=C bond (alkenes) will add to each other creating a polymer.
● Polymerisation of an alkene will form polymers with single bonds.

Alcohol series A functional group with a R–C–OH bond.

Can be formed by the Hydration of an alkene (alkene + steam → alcohol).

Oxidation of an alcohol:
Certain alcohols can be oxidized when reacting with Potassium dichromate.

● Primary alcohol (the attached carbon is bonded to one other carbon):

○ It can react to form an aldehyde (separated by distillation), and
then further oxidized to form a carboxylic acid.

● Secondary alcohol (Carbon bonded to two other carbons):

○ It can oxidize to form a ketone but undergoes no more oxidation.

● Tertiary alcohol (Carbon bonded to three other carbon atoms):

○ Does not oxidize.
 Modern analytical chemistry (11)
Precision vs accuracy Precision:​ The closeness of agreement between independent test results
obtained by applying the experimental procedure under stipulated conditions.
● The smaller the random error, the more precise the procedure.

Accuracy:​ The closeness of the agreement between the result of a

measurement and a true literature value.

Systematic error The error that arises from a flaw in the experimental design and instruments
used. (e.g. zero error on an electronic balance)
● Affects the accuracy of data.
● Can be reduced by adopting greater care to the experimental design.

Random error The error that arises from uncontrolled variables in an experiment and cannot
be eliminated. (e.g. reaction time)
● Affects the precision of data.
● They can be reduced by running repeated trials.

Percentage error | literature value − experimental value | × 100%

| literature value |

Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (11.3)

Index of hydrogen The degree of unsaturation that is used to determine the number of multiple
deficiency (IHD) bonds in a molecule.

For the molecular formula C​c​H​h​N​n​O​o​X​x​, where X is a halogen, we can

calculated the degree of unsaturation:
2c+2−h−x+n
I HD = 2

Structure Degree of unsaturation

Double bond 1

Triple bond 2

Ring (alkanes) 1

Aromatic ring (phenol) 4

Infrared spectroscopy IR radiation can cause molecular vibrations, which result from the vibration of
certain groups of molecules about their bonds. The molecules absorb specific
frequencies called resonant frequencies.
 Energy (Option C)
Energy sources: ● Release energy (high energy density or specific energy)
requirements ● Minimum pollution + waste products
● Energy is released at a reasonable rate (efficiency)
● Fuel is readily available, and not too costly to extract

Efficiency of energy usef ul output energy

E f f iciency = total input energy × 100%
transfer

Energy density and They both measure the quality of the fuel.
specific density energy released f rom f uel
E nergy density = volume of f uel consumed
energy released f rom f uel
S pecif ic energy = mass of f uel consumed

Renewable energy Can be replenished in relatively short times (on the scale of a human lifetime),
resources e.g. biomass.
Or can be continually generated from the sun’s energy, e.g. wind and water
sources.
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth; resources range from hot water
geysers to magma rock.

Fossil fuels (C.2)

Storing energy from The harnessing of energy from the sun by photosynthesis created large
photosynthesis organisms. When they died out, their C-C and C-H bonds remained and
became our main energy supply today. (fossil fuels)

Fossil fuel formation During their formation, carbon atoms become more and more saturated with
hydrogen and have fewer bonds to nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The C-H bond
is more stable and stronger than the single bonds they replace (C-O, C-S, C-N)

Crude oil cracking The more volatile shorter chain hydrocarbons are better fuels, however there is
a greater % of long chain hydrocarbons in crude oil.
Cracking is a process used to obtain short-chain fuels from long-chain fuels.
● Long-chain hydrocarbons are heated over a catalyst where they are
“cracked” into smaller hydrocarbons including alkenes (ethene) and
alkanes (the octanes).
○ Zeolites (a molecular sieve) are used alongside the catalyst.
Crude oil fractionating There are 3 main fossil fuels: coal, gas, and crude oil.
Crude oil has a mixture of hydrocarbons of varying chain lengths.

● Long-chain hydrocarbons have stronger VDW forces than short-chain

meaning they can be separated by their different boiling points into
“fractions”

● Oil refineries separate these fractions by distillation.

The crude oil is heated to make less viscous, and fed in the bottom of the
column. Temperatures are low at top and high at bottom, making higher boiling
point fractions condense near the bottom.

● These longer-chain hydrocarbons are more viscous, and are less

volatile because they have lower flammability.

Fuels and Octane Rating A measure of a fuel’s ability to resist auto-ignition (knocking).
● Octane rating of 100: 2,2,4-trimethylpentane;
● Octane rating of 0: heptane
● More branching → higher octane rating (easier to break bonds)
● Longer C–chain → lower octane rating (more difficult to break bonds)

Aromatics have a higher octane rating than chain-hydrocarbons.

Catalytic reforming Reforming is the effect of several reactions such as cracking, unifying,
polymerizing, and isomerizing occurring simultaneously.

● Used to convert low-octane numbered alkanes (heptane, octane) into

higher-octane numbered isomers (methylbenzene, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane)

The alkane is reformed into an aromatic (ring) compound over a platinum

catalyst with aluminium oxide (or other metal oxides):

They are then passed over zeolite to separate the branched from unbranched
alkanes.

Coal gasification The process of converting coal into synthesis gas. Syngas is a mixture of
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen gas (H​2​).

The environmental benefits are low SO​X​, NO​X​ and particulate emissions from
burning coal-derived gases, when compared to normal coal.

Coal liquefaction The process of converting coal into liquid hydrocarbons for use as fuels.
In the Fischer-Tropsch process, CO and H​2​ (from syngas) are converted into
liquid hydrocarbons.
Developments for The developments made in response to the need to limit pollution and
greener fuels greenhouse gas emissions:

Carbon footprint A measure of the net quantity of carbon dioxide produced by the process.
● Even though biofuels are expensive to produce, their carbon footprint is
less because CO​2​ is absorbed by photosynthesis while the fuel is
growing.

Nuclear fusion and fission (C.3)

Mass defect The difference in mass (Δm) converted into energy in a fusion/fission reaction.

Electronvolt (eV) A measure of the energy required to move one electron through a predefined
−19
electric field. (1eV = 1.6 × 10 J)

Binding Energy E = Δmc2 , where E is the energy released, m is the mass defect (in kg) and c is
8
the speed of light ( 3 × 10 m/s)
Binding energy curve

Nuclear fusion The fusion of light elements to form heavier elements.

● Has the potential to provide almost unlimited source of energy.

● Fuel is inexpensive and abundant (​2​H and 3​​ H)

● No radioactive waste is produced.

● Conditions are difficult to replicate and as of yet is not a viable energy

source on Earth.

Nuclear fission The splitting of a heavy nucleus to form two lighter nuclei.
● Used to generate electricity in a power station.

● Low greenhouse gas emissions but instead produce radioactive waste.

○ Excess neutrons are absorbed by the control rods.

● Accidents in Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011) highlight the risks

involved in using nuclear fission to generate electricity.

Transformation of energy
The heat released during fission is used to boil water. The steam produced
turns a turbine which in turn turns a generator; generating electricity.
Critical mass The amount of material needed for a fission reaction to remain sustainable.

Subatomic particles

Transmutation The conversion of one element to another by capture or emission of a particle.

Half-life (t​1/2​) The time it takes for radioactive activity to fall by half its original value.

Radioactive waste Many of the products of nuclear fission reactions have long half-lives and are
harmful to living organisms.

● Used fuel and contaminated control rods can be stored underwater at

the nuclear power plant.

● Long-term stage spent fuel is encased in steel surrounded by an inert

(unreactive) gas and covered in concrete for burial.
 Solar energy (C.4)
Photosynthesis Solar energy is converted into chemical energy. Light can be absorbed by
reactions chlorophyll and other pigments with a conjugated electronic structure.
Formation:

Combustion:

Biodiesel Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils by​ fermentation​, and can release
similar amounts of energy to diesel when burnt.

● The oils are highly viscous and can clog fuel injectors;
○ High viscosity → strong IMF’s → oils do not readily vaporise and
undergo incomplete combustion (damaging engines.)
Transesterification The reaction of an ester with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or
base. Used to convert viscous oils into less viscous esters with fewer
intermolecular forces.
● For example, a triglyceride is converted to esters and glycerol:

Or between a long-chain ester and a shorter-chain alcohol:

Environmental impact – global warming (C.5)

Greenhouse effect Phenomenon in which certain gases in the Earth’s atmosphere absorb IR
radiation and re-emit in all directions within the Earth system and produce a
consequent rise in the average temperature of the Earth. (CO​2​, H​2​O, CH​4​, N​2​O)

Natural greenhouse Natural​: due to the naturally occurring levels of greenhouse gases
effect vs. Enhanced Enhanced​: due to an increased concentration of greenhouse gases, possibly as
Greenhouse effect a result of human derived processes (burning fossil fuels, etc.)

Greenhouse resonance When the frequency of a photon matches the vibrational state of a pi-bond in a
greenhouse gas molecule, resonance occurs.
Upon absorption of IR radiation, covalent bonds in greenhouse gases bend and
stretch (symmetrically or asymmetrically), changing the dipole moment of the
molecule. Can be detected by IR spectroscopy.

Sources of greenhouse The main sources are from burning coal, oil, and natural gas for energy.
gases CO​2​ entering the atmosphere from combustion comes from hydrocarbons
previously underground. This increases the absolute levels of gas in the
atmosphere.

Industries:
● Produce natural greenhouse gases that include NO​X​, CO​2​, H​2​O, etc.
while greenhouse gases like CFC’s are not naturally occurring.
Agriculture​:
● Increases methane from the digestive systems of animals such as cows.
Deforestation:
● With fewer trees, less CO​2​ is absorbed from the atmosphere and used in
photosynthesis.
Carbon sinks About 30% of manmade CO​2​ is absorbed by the oceans. Approximately 50%
has remained in the atmosphere.

Reducing greenhouse The Kyoto protocol introduced a scheme of carbon trading where countries
gas emissions agreed to capture as much atmospheric carbon as they created.

Carbon capture and storage is simply the capture of carbon dioxide from where
it is produced and storing it where it will not enter the atmosphere.

Global dimming Smoke, dust particles, and clouds reflect sunlight back to space, causing global
dimming which cools the Earth’s surface.
Soot and ash combine on tiny water droplets and result in cloud formation.
● Polluted clouds reflect more light than non-polluted ones. This results in
a global dimming.

The effects of global Several effects of climate change involve:

warming on climate ● Melting of permafrost (arctic ground).
change ● Less solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.
● More devastating storms.
● Temperatures becoming more extreme (hotter and colder).
● Record levels of rainfall and drought.
● Global dimming.