CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Phytochemicals are non-nutritive secondary metabolites found in plants that have

beneficial impacts on human health. Polyphenols, flavonoids, polyunsaturated fatty acids
(omega-3), functional amines, polypeptides and other useful compounds are abundant in
medicinal plants (Siahbalaei, Kavoosi et al. 2020). These phytochemicals include phenolic,
terpenes, terpenoids, aliphatic alcohols, aldehyde, ketones and flavonoids, which are lipophilic
substances with a variety of therapeutic uses. It was proven that essential oils possessed
substantial therapeutic qualities including antimicrobials, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory.
The essential oils are insoluble in water and are easily degraded by extreme acidity, light, and
high temperature which limit their applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries
(Cheng, Xu et al. 2020).

Encapsulation of essential oils in natural proteins and carbohydrate polymers or in lipid

droplets could decrease the volatility, increase solubility and improve the stability and efficiency
of these valuable phyto-compounds. The principal constituents of essential oils included; thymol,
carvacrol, gamma-terpinene, para-cymene, geraniol and spathulenol (El-Saber Batiha, Magdy
Beshbishy et al. 2020). Strong antioxidant activity against glucose oxidation, lipid peroxidation,
protein oxidation, and protein glycation had been documented for all essential oils derived from
the plants utilized in this study. Additionally, these oils were reported to have anti-diabetic
effects against the activities of amylase and glucosidase. The addition of essential oils containing
carvacrol and thymol to the gelatin-pectin composite offered a functional bio-material for food
product stability, food encapsulation, wound healing and cosmetic materials because of its anti-
oxidant and antidiabetic attributes (Franco, Contesini et al. 2020).

The primary symptoms of diabetes mellitus included oxidative damage at the protein,
lipid, and sugar levels as well as hyper-glycemia and hyper-lipidemia. Through variety of
metabolic pathways, such as increased glucose flow via the polyol pathway, increased protein
glycation, protein kinase activation, hexose-mine activation, and decrease of antioxidant defense
systems, hyperglycemia could boost the development of superoxide (Jamali, Kavoosi et al.
2020). Hyperglycemia-induced metabolic disruption and oxidative stress had long been linked to
neurological, urological, cardiovascular, renal and ocular visual diseases (Liu, Shim et al. 2020).
The search for novel medications free of adverse effects had been intensified due to the growing
number of diabetic patients and the dearth of effective anti-diabetic medications. Worldwide,
there is growing interest for natural substances that having anti-diabetic properties. In this regard,
as diabetes conditions were linked to oxidative stress, so using natural antioxidants to manage it
could be beneficial (Majeed, Majeed et al. 2020). However, current research was carried out on
the intracellular antidiabetic activity of the essential oils and plants extracts to examine the
molecular mechanisms of their antidiabetic activities at the cellular level or in living organisms.
In this regard the total four medicinal plants i.e. Solanum Nigrum, Xanthium strumarium,
Sonchus asper and Euphorbia helioscopia were investigated for their therapeutic activities.
Beside this the phenolic compounds in plants extracts and essential oils were also taken into
account for antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal potential.

Solanum Nigrum L.

The phytochemical constituents of Solanum nigrum L. and in-vivo antioxidant properties

were investigated against phenyl hydrazine-induced liver injury. Strong in-vitro antioxidant
activity was exhibited by S. nigrum. Phenolic compounds in extracts were confirmed by
performing HPLC analysis. For in-vivo analysis, four groups of Sprague Dawley rats were
designed as G4 (rats administered S. nigrum extract at a dose of 1000 mg/kg b.w.), G3 (rats
receiving standard drug), G2 (positive control group) and G1 (negative control group). The liver’s
enzymes and bilirubin levels were decreased by S. nigrum while albumin, superoxide dismutase
and catalase level increased by S. nigrum normal cell structure of hepatocytes were shown by
histology slides. Upregulation of anti-apoptosis and antioxidant genes was shown by gene
expression. It was concluded that S. nigrum had the ability to reduce liver’s toxicity in animals
by decreasing oxidative stress and down-regulating genes apoptosis (Alam, Sahar et al. 2022).

The ethyl acetate and methanolic extracts of S. nigrum plant leaves were explored in
order to check phenolics and flavonoid contents with their anti-oxidant properties by using
spectrophotometry method. Methanol extract showed highest absorbance due to highest
phenolics and flavonoids quantities and showed highest anti-oxidant properties followed by ethyl
acetate activities. Methanol extract contained highest TPC (135.16 µg GAE/mg) and TFC
(230.66 µg RE /mg) in comparison to TPC (68.50 µg GAE/mg) and TFC (91.33 µg RE /mg) of
ethyl acetate extract. These compounds i.e. phenolics and flavonoids compounds alone or in
combination with other compounds were responsible for showing anti-oxidant properties.
Results revealed that S. nigrum plants could be used as natural antioxidant plant sources in
medicine system and due to having in-vitro antioxidant activity could be used as effective
treatment in hepato-protection (Najar, Banerjee et al. 2022).

The SFME method (solvents free microwaves extractions) was employed to extract EO
from fresh shoots of S. nigrum plants that were grown in different types of soil. The EOs
chemical makeup and antioxidant properties were evaluated and analyzed by GC-MS. All the EO
had citronellol and geraniol as principal constituents. Antioxidant properties were checked by
ABTS and DPPH methods. In ABTS 0.067-3.59 and 1.196- 1.594 μg/mL and in DPPH assay
IC50 value was calculated. Results revealed that the yield of EO and chemical makeup of EO
obtained from S. nigrum shoots were effected/influenced by soil texture. The essential oil
extracted from S. nigrum shoots that were grown on clay loam soil possessed the highest
antioxidant activities (Ogundola, Bvenura et al. 2021).

Guediri and Co-workers used chemical and electrochemical methods to determine the
total flavonoids, flavonols and phenolics with antioxidant properties of Solanum nigrum L. plant
fruit extracts. By using hydro ethanolic extract of the S. nigrum fruits the crude extracts of ethyl
acetate, chloroform and n-butanol were prepared. Results revealed that the highest phenolic
contents (87.68 mg GAE/g) were present in ethyl acetate extract and the highest flavonol
contents (71.60 mg RE/g) and highest flavonoid contents (24.23 mg QE/g) were present in
chloroform extract. Antioxidant properties of extracts by chemical methods showed that ethyl
acetate extract had highest DPPH radical scavenging activity and butanol extract showed highest
ferric reducing capacity (610.46±0.0015mg FeSO4/g). Cyclic voltametric study of extracts as
electrochemical study showed that the ethyl acetate extract had the highest antioxidant properties
(17.75±0.238mg/g) equivalent ascorbic acid. The highest superoxide scavenging value showed
by chloroform extract as (0.8 mg/mL) (Guediri, Boubekri et al. 2021).

The S. nigrum plant was used in an experimental research work for preparation of
medicines due to having several antioxidant properties. S. nigrum leave extracts were used to
check their antioxidant activities. Solvents used for the preparation of leaves extracts were
methanolic: water (80:20) (SN1) and water (SN2). Results confirmed the presence of flavones,
phenolic acids and polyphenolic contents. Primary cultures of astrocytes were modified by
glutamate to check the oxidative potential of extracts and the results confirmed the presence of
oxidative stress, glutathione level and cytotoxicity of water and methanolic: water leaves extracts
of S. nigrum plant. As a result of glutamate exposure, the radical quenching in-vitro free cellular
system and restoring of oxidative status in in-vitro primary cultures of rat cells were observed.
The prevention against rise in glutamate uptake and glutamate excitotoxicity inhibition of
extracts caused cell damage which showed significant anti-oxidative properties (Campisi,
Acquaviva et al. 2019).

The S. nigrum L. plants were studied for treatment of many diseases due to having anti-
inflammatory and antibacterial properties. This study was being conducted to know the anti-
inflammatory effect of S. nigrum plant on the acute ear edema mouse model. It was noted that
flavonoids and polyphenol compounds were present in large amount in fruit extracts of Solanum
nigrum plant as compared to whole plant extracts. Solanum nigrum plant extract had
concentration dependent inhibitory effect which was conformed after inhibition of Nitric oxide
(NO) production. In 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA)-induced acute ear edema
mouse model, the fruit extract of S. nigrum plant in 80% ethanol revealed less edema and high
inflammation’s suppression than other inflammation inhibitor like indomethacin. Results showed
that the fruit extracts of S. nigrum could be used as anti-inflammatory agents due to having anti-
inflammatory properties (Yeom, Kim et al. 2019).

The immature fruits of Solanum nigrum L. plant was used to check the presence of
phytochemicals in an experiment. The results revealed the presence of phytochemicals that
included eight known phenolics compounds and five steroidal alkaloid glycosides compounds. In
which two novel spirosolane type steroidal alkaloid glycosides compounds were also obtained.
Spectroscopic and chemical methods were used to evaluate the structures of obtaining
compounds like NMR, IR, GC and HR-ESI-MS analysis (Moldogazieva, Mokhosoev et al.
2019).

The methanolic extract of S. nigrum fruits were investigated for the presence of total
flavonoids and phenolic contents as well as antioxidant properties by using hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) and DPPH radical scavenging methods. There were 3.61± 0.07 mg QAE/g as total
flavonoid contents (TFC), 4.57 ± 0.57 GAE/g as total phenol contents (TPC) and 0.78 as
flavonoid/ Phenol (F/P) present in methanolic extract of S. nigrum fruits. Due to 59.72 μg/ml and
70.73 μg/ml IC50 values for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) radical scavenging and DPPH radical
scavenging activity respectively, methanolic extracts of S. nigrum fruits showed great
antioxidant properties and could be used for cure of methanolic diseases as natural antioxidants
(Veerapagu, Jeya et al. 2018).

The chemical composition of essential oil as well as the root and shoot aqueous extracts
of Solanum nigrum were studied for their allele-pathic activity/phytotoxic effect on different
vegetables i.e. tomatoes, cabbage and spinach seed germination. The different concentrations i.e.
0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg/ml were used for treatment. Results revealed that there was no effect of
shoot extract on germination of spinach and tomato seed while cabbage seed germination was
slightly restricted by 2 mg/ml of shoot extract. Germination time of tomato seed was slowed
down by highest extract concentration (10 mg/ml) of both shoot and root extracts. This showed
that tomato and onion germination rate was slowed as compare to cabbage seed germination rate.
Chemical composition of essential oil extract was analyzed by GC-MS. Total 12 compounds
were identified from root oil extract including tetrasiloxane, decamethyl (7.58%), 1H-Indole,
hexadecanal (8.11%), 1- methyl-2-phenyl (12.66%), hexacosane (35.62%) as major constituents.
And total 16 compounds were identified from shoot oil extract including geranyl tiglate (3.53%),
geraniol (3.76%), cyclohexanol, 2-methyl-5-(1-methylethenyl) (5.84%) and citronellol (11.98%)
as major constituents (Afolayan and Bvenura 2018).

Head-space/ solid phase micro-extraction (HS/SPME) method was used in the given
research work to extract volatile components of essential oil from the Solanum nigrum L. plants.
These volatile constituents were analyzed by GC-MS and total twenty compounds were
identified. Limonene (2.03%), linalyl butanoate (2.13%), phytol (2.49%), 8-methylene-tricycle,
octane (2.60%), α-bisabolol acetate (4.53%), β-Pinene (5.93%), α-Phellandrene 1-(2,6,6-
Trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadien-1-yl)-2-buten-1-one or β-damascenone (9.08%), para-Cymene
(10.01%), α-Cadinol (16.47%), Dillapiole (22.22%) were main constituents of EO. Total bio-
degradation (TB4 in mol/h) and logarithm of calculated octanol-water partitioning coefficient
were calculated as physicochemical properties for every 20 components that were extracted
from EO of S. nigrum plant (Taherpour, Khodaei et al. 2017).
 The Solanum nigrum L. plants were investigated for their usage as medicines owing to
their medicinal properties. The research revealed that the fruits berries of S. nigrum had great
pharmacological importance owing to high pharmacological activities. Phytoconstituents that
were responsible for anti-cancerous and antioxidant properties of chloroform fraction of S.
nigrum (CFSn) fruit berries analyzed and identified by GC-MS. There were totally 29
compounds identified from CFSn fruit barriers which belonged to different classes of chemical
compounds like flavonoids, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, saponins, carbohydrates, proteins,
phytosterols and glycosides. Syringic acid (4-Hydroxy-3, 5-dimethoxybenzoic acid) and
benzoiso-vanillin as two new novel phenolic compounds that were responsible for
pharmacological properties also identified. Results showed that CFSn showed great
antiproliferative activities against breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 due to
death of cancer cell through apoptosis. CFSn fruit berries revealed substantial antioxidant
attributes by showing high DPPH scavenging activity rate due to the presence of flavonoids and
phenolic compounds (Khan, Ahmad et al. 2016).

The in-vitro antibacterial and antioxidant activities of Solanum nigrum L. plant extracts
were explored from South Africa by researchers. The phytochemical constituents of extracts
were also evaluated by using water and ethanol as extracting solvents. Ethanol extract contained
highest amount of phenol (228.40±3.09 mg/g) as compared to water extract (132.2±1.23 mg/g)
of S. nigrum extracts. DPPH radical scavenging and ferrous reducing action at 0.5 mg/ml were
higher in water extracts than ethanol extracts while ethanol extract showed higher anti-oxidant
properties against nitric oxide than water extract. The 100% antibacterial activities were showed
by ethanol extract. Results revealed that S. nigrum plants showed important antibacterial and
antioxidant activities due to presence of polyphenol compounds (Gbadamosi and Afolayan
2016).

The essential oils (EO) from leaves and fruits of Solanum nigrum L. plant were evaluated
and their phenolic compounds to use them as potential drugs for various ailments. The EO from
leaves and fruits of S. nigrum were distilled separately by hydro-distillation process. The
composition of EO was checked and analyzed by Gas-Chromatography (GC) and Gas-
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) at the first time. There were less than 0.1% oil
yields, obtained from dried contents of both plant parts. The EOs from leaves and fruits parts
had different compositions but there was total 64 compounds extracted from both EOs. Thymol
was present in large amount i.e. 7.8% in leaves and 6.6% in fruit essential oils. The basic oily
component of leaves EO was (5Z,9E)-farnesyl acetone (8.4 %) and for fruits EO was
umbellulone (6.8 %). Fruit oil contained 5.1% of methyl salicylate and in traces amount also
found in leaf oil. They contained phenolic contents in huge concentration i.e., methyl salicylate
and thymol mainly from fruits part could be used to make potential drugs (Aburjai, Oun et al.
2014).

The total phenolic and total flavonoid contents as phytochemicals extracted from crude
methanolic extract were studied using different solvent fractions i.e. ethyl acetate, acetone,
aqueous, n-hexane and dichloromethane fractions of Solanum nigrum L. plant by using
colorimetric method. The anthelmintic activity of S. nigrum. plant extracts were examined
against sheep intestinal worms haemonchus contortus. At a concentration of 0.05 mg/ml, the
highest anthelmintic activity with high death rate of worms was shown by ethyl acetate extract at
hourly interval. The total amount of phenolic contents (342 ± 2.84 mg TAE/g) was calculated
from crude methanolic extract. After fractionation, 426 ± 3.87 mg TAE/g as maximum
concentration of phenols was calculated from ethyl acetate fraction. The concentration of total
flavonoids i.e. 128 ± 2.34 mg QE/g was calculated from crude methanol extract. After
fractionation 180 ± 2.51 mg QE/g as maximum concentration of flavonoids were calculated from
ethyl acetate fraction. Results revealed that the polar fractions of S. nigrum plant contained
highest phenolic and flavonoid contents and showed highest anthelmintic activity (Saddiqe and
Maimoona 2013).

Xanthium strumarium L.

Medicinal plants of family Asteraceae, i.e. Xanthium strumarium L., Ageratum

conyzoides L., Eclipta prostrata L. were studied for determination of total flavonoids contents by
using UV spectrophotometry. High Performance-Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) was
used for quantitative phytochemical characterization. Flavonoids, as major class of phenolic
compounds, showed many biological and pharmacological activities. Study revealed that all the
investigated plants had flavonoids contents due to which they showed anti-cancer properties.
Flavonoids played important function in prevention of cancer, thus inhibited carcinogenesis. Due
to having therapeutic properties, these plants could be used to make anti-cancerous medicines
(Shaheen, Sharif et al. 2023).

An experiment was performed by researchers to analyze the phytochemicals compounds

from six alien plant species (IAPS) including Xanthium strumarium, Ambrosia artemisiifolia,
Dittrichia viscosa, Erigeron annuus, Ailanthus altissima and Conyza Canadensis. The
phytochemicals from aforementioned plants were evaluated by LC-MS phytochemical screening
method. The research was done to check the presence of phenolic compounds in the selected
plants leaves extract and their contribution in antimicrobial activity and cytotoxic potential. All
the tested IAPS extracts contained chlorogenic, neochlorogenic, quercetin-3-glucoside,
kaempferol hexoside and 5-p-coumaroylquinic acids compounds. Flavanone compounds were
present in major portion (70%). With a mean MIC value of 0.11 mg/mL and MIC value of 0.21
mg/mL, leaves extracts of X. strumarium plant showed the best antimicrobial activity against
tested bacteria and fungi respectively as compare to other selected plants extract (Poljuha,
Sladonja et al. 2022).

The six ethno-medical plants of Napal including X. strumarium, Murraya koenigii,

Berberis aristata, Myrica esculenta, Syzygium cumini, and Cuscuta reflexa were investigated to
check their phytochemicals as well as their antioxidative and antidiabetic properties. All the
selected plants contained polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, terpenoids, and alkaloids.
The α- amylase inhibition method was used to test the anti-diabetic activity of selected plants in
which four plants e.g. S. cumini, X. strumarium B. aristata and M. esculenta showed more
effectiveness towards inhibition of α-amylase inhibition with IC 50 values 206.22 µg/mL, 197.21
µg/mL,270.04 µg/mL and 246.07 µg/mL respectively. Among the following plants, X.
Strumarium showed beneficial effects in α-amylase inhibition and could be used to make anti-
hyper-glycemic drugs (Subba and Gaire 2022).

The hydro-distillation method was employed to extract the essential oil from Xanthium
strumarium L. fruit growing in Bulgaria. The chemical composition of EO was analyzed for the
first time and fifteen compounds from EO were identified by using GC-MS coupled with
database-assisted in interpretation of the results. The EO contained one sterol, ester, an acetal,
four alkanes and five sesquiterpenes as components in which terpenes (52%) with himachalol
(14.9%) and sesquiterpenes isovalencenol (14.8%) were main constituents of EOs. An ester and
three sesquiterpenes were new and novel compounds for X. strumarium fruit. The findings
suggested that X. strumarium plant as invasive weed could be used for pharmaceutical purpose
(Shkondrov, Krasteva et al. 2021).

Abdessemed and his Co-workers investigated that three types of weeds were used to
isolate phytochemicals from Xanthium strumarium, Sonchus oleraceus and Convolvulus arvensis
weeds respectively and these were identified by using molecular and morphological analysis.
Chemical characterization was studied and myco-herbicidal potential of their crude extracts,
culture filtrates or fractions against selected weeds were checked. Findings showed the presence
of two compounds like triprenyl phenol-7, and ten- uazonic acid in which triprenyl phenol-7 was
present in all the isolates of the weeds (Abdessemed, Staropoli et al. 2021) .

The aerial parts (Stem and leaves) of X. Strumarium extracts were studied. It was
investigated that X. Strumarium extracts showed anti-proliferative effect (associate with
increasing of apoptosis) and antioxidant activity. By qualitative chemical methods
phytochemicals were analyzed and total flavonoid and polyphenol contents were determined.
Aerial parts of X. Strumarium extract contained many phytochemicals like saponins, alkaloids,
flavonoids, tannins and triterpenes. Antioxidant capacity was checked by DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-
picrylhydrazyl) quenching assay and anti-proliferative activity was tested by sulforhodamine B
(SRB) assay methods. High anti-proliferative activity and total antioxidant activity (IC 50
=184.13μg/mL) were showed by ethanol extract that contained highest amount of polyphenols
(84.86mg gallic acid equivalent/g dry mass) on HepG 2 cancer cells (IC50 =81.69μg/mL) (Ly,
Truong et al. 2021).

A study was conducted by Van and Co-workers to find the phenolic compounds present
in Xanthium strumarium fruit extract. They separated phenolic compounds like 1,5-di-O-
caffeoylquinic acid 2,3-dihydroxy-1-(4(hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-propan-1-one, p- hydroxyl-
benzaldehyde, 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid and (erythro)-1,2-bis (4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1,3-
propandiol with other two compounds i.e. carboxy-atractyloside and diterpene glucosides
atractyloside from X. strumarium fruit. With the help of 1D NMR, 2D NMR and ESI-MS spectra,
their chemical structures were determined. The 1,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid and 2,3-dihydroxy-
1-(4(hydroxy-3- methoxyphenyl)-propan-1-one phenolics compounds were first time isolated
and reported from X. strumarium (Van Kiem, Hoang et al. 2020).
 The essential oil from Xanthium strumarium leaves was extracted by using hydro
distillation method, which contained 43 essential components, identified from GC-MS. The EO
contained sesquiterpenoids as major constituent i.e. 72.4% and oxygenated hydrocarbons as well
as di-terpenoids as minor constituents. With IC 50 321.93 µL/L−1, the extracted EO showed weak
DPPH radical scavenging as compared to reference ascorbic acid. In a concentration-dependent
manner, EO had significant allelopathic potential against growth and germination of the noxious
weed Bidens Pilosa. The EO contained some main components as aristolene epoxide (3.58%), L-
bornyl acetate (3.77%), isolongifolene, caryophyllene oxide (5.36%), ledene alcohol (6.46%),
eudesmol (10.60%) and l-borneol (6.59%),1,5-dimethyltetralin (14.27%) (El-Gawad, Elshamy
et al. 2019).

Kozuharova and Co-researchers studied that Xanthium strumarium could be used as a

cheap source of compounds for medicinal use due to having several pharmacological activities.
Results revealed that X. strumarium plant contained phenolic acids, sesquiterpene lactones and
thiazinedione compounds etc. and possessed many pharmacological activities like
antinociceptive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, anticancer, antirussive,
hypoglycaemic, diuretic anti-trypanosomal and herbicidal as well as insecticidal activities,
therefore used as medicinal drug (Kozuharova, Ionkova et al. 2019).

In the literature reported the researcher selected seven healthful plants to check the
presence of phytochemicals compounds. They determined specially the total phenolic and
flavonoid contents to confirm their medicinal importance these plants included Xanthium
strumarium, Ipomea aquatica, Bryophyllum pinnatum castor bean plant, Oldenlandia
corymbosa, Tinospora cordifolia and Terminalia bellerica plants. Ethanol, methanol, acetone
and water were used as solvents in soxhlet apparatus, used for organic solvent extraction.
Aluminium chloride methodology was used to determine the flavonoid contents in aqueous
extract whereas Folin-Ciocalteu chemical methodology was used to calculate the total phenolics
contents. The 71.6 mg/gm phenolic contents and 28.8 mg/gm flavonoid contents were
determined from X. strumarium leaves extracts in comparison to other plants extracts. Results
confirmed the presence of phytochemicals compounds in plants, which could be used as
medically bioactive compounds in several medicines and used for treatment of several diseases
(Shamsuzzaman 2018).
 The Xanthium strumarium and Cosmos sulphureus were studied for their use in
abundance near the agricultural crop fields and the results showed that they release their allele-
chemicals which had deleterious effects on physiological pattern, germination rate and
reproduction of crop plants. The X. strumarium and C. sulphureus leaves leachate extracts were
also studied to check their allele-chemicals and allelopathic effects on seed germination and
seedling growth of Trigonellafoenum-graceum, Triticumaestivum and Vigna-radiata crops.
Presence of phenols, tannins, alkaloids, phytosterols, flavonoids and alkaloids were confirmed by
phytochemical analysis. GC-MS and IR studies showed the presence of major components i.e.
ethers, esters, poly-alcohols and anhydride and FTIR fingerprint region confirmed the presence
of several functional groups such as carbonyl, -OH, anhydride, amides and ester in leaves
leachate extracts. These phytochemicals, present in different amount in different plants, were
responsible for different environmental stresses (Ghayal, Biware et al. 2018).

Guemmaz with his co-workers prepared different extracts from Xanthium strumarium
leaves to examine the in-vitro and in-vivo antioxidant effects. Spectrophotometric study revealed
that all the extracts contained polyphenols and flavonoids compounds. DPPH radical scavenging,
reducing power, anti-hemolytic and β-carotene methods were used to check the antiradical and
antioxidant capacities of the leaf extracts. Extracts were prepared as aqueous extract, ethyl
acetate extract, chloroform extract and crude extract. The crude extract showed strong DPPH
scavenging and reducing power in in-vitro antioxidant study. Crude extract showed highest
antioxidant activity due to β-carotene bleaching assay. Three concentrations of crude extract
were tested for in-vivo antioxidant effect by using anti-hemolytic assay and by determining
catalase activity and Malondialdehyde (MDA) and Glutathione. In in-vivo antioxidant study, the
400 mg/Kg and 600 mg/Kg crude extracts concentrations showed catalase activity similar to
ascorbic acid and showed increase in GSH and decrease in MDA concentration. Results revealed
that X. strumarium leaves extract showed powerful antioxidant potential in in-vivo and in-vitro
due to having high phenolic contents (Guemmaz, Zerargui et al. 2018) .

The antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Xanthium strumarium fruit extract was
evaluated against various plant pathogens (responsible for irreparable damages to agricultural
crops). The chemical composition of EO of X. strumarium fruit was studied, and 36 components
were isolated and identified from EO, which represented 97.89% of total EO, by using a coupled
technique GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry). Disc diffusion method and
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) techniques were used to check the antimicrobial
activity against 14 pathogens including five gram-negative bacteria, three gram-positive bacteria
and six fungi. The significant antimicrobial activity of EO was observed against Pyricularia
oryzae (MIC= 12.5 µg/mL) and Rathayibacter toxicus (MIC= 25 µg/mL microorganisms.
Methyl palmitate (12.43%), methyl oleate (13.12%) and methyl linoleate (40.64%) were major
components of EO. The X. strumarium fruit also showed antioxidant properties due to
polyphenolic compounds. The antioxidant activity possessed by X. strumarium fruit extract was
tested by using superoxide dismutase, catalase, guaiacol peroxidase enzymes and 2, 2-diphenyl-
1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) assay. The X. strumarium fruit contained phenolics (54.44 mg/g),
flavonoids (20.11 mg/g) and alkaloids (0.54 mg/g) that were responsible for antioxidant
potential. Results also suggested that this plant could be used for economical and
environmentally friendly disease control strategies (Ghahari, Alinezhad et al. 2017).

The phenols, tannins and flavonoids compounds were examined and studies revealed that
these compounds as secondary metabolites were present in large amount in the plants belong to
family Asteraceae i.e. Xanthium strumarium L., Wedelia chinensis, and Eclipta prostrata L.
These plants showed tremendous antioxidant properties due to presence of secondary metabolites
i.e. phenols, flavonoids and tannins. As compared to tannin and phenol contents, flavonoids were
greater in the amount in the range of 22.07- 27.95 mg/gm. Therefore these plants were used to
make natural drugs owing to their therapeutic effects (Nair and Sheela 2016).

Minakshi and co-researchers studied different plants of Assam i.e. Xanthium strumarium,
Ricinus communis, Lpomea aquatica and Oldenlandia corymbosa to check the presence of
phytochemicals compounds and their antimicrobial activities. The extracts of aforementioned
plants contained different phytochemicals i.e. phenols and flavonoids in high contents and beside
this other compound like terpenoids, tannins, reducing sugars, saponins and glycosides were
present too but in small quantities, which were responsible for showing antimicrobial activities
against pathogens. Their antimicrobial activities were tested against human pathogenic bacteria
i.e. Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by using Well Diffusion Method in nutrient
agar. Roots and leaves extracts of Xanthium strumarium and Mentha piperita stem extract
showed strong antimicrobial potential against Staphylococcus aureus pathogenic bacteria due to
having high phytochemical contents as compared to other plants extracts (Lpomea aquatica stem
extracts and Ricinus communis leaves, stem and roots extracts) that showed antimicrobial
activities against E. coli pathogenic bacteria because of high phytochemicals contents (Minakshi,
Jharna et al. 2016).

The Xanthium strumarium L. plant was investigated and studies showed that it had great
antioxidant potential due to rich in phenolic as well as flavonoid contents which were confirmed
by spectrophotometric study of semi polar to polar stem extracts. The polar methanol extract was
rich in phenolics and flavonoids content, therefore it was more potent (effective) than ethanol
and acetone extracts. Phenolic contents in stem extracts of methanol, ethanol and acetone were
0.00947, 0.00634, 0.00546 catechin equivalent/g of material respectively. The flavonoid contents
in stem extracts of methanol, ethanol and acetone were 0.0142, 0.01064, 0.00846 quercetin
equivalent/g of material respectively (Gaikwad, Torane et al. 2016).

The phytochemical analysis of Xanthium strumarium plant was carried out in a study by
researchers. To conduct experiments, twelve different plants were collected from different
regions of Assam including Xanthium strumarium plant. Plants’ leaves were collected from
selected plants, then washed, air dried and powdered form prepared. To check the absence or
presence of phytochemicals in plants leaves, ethanolic extracts of plant leaves were tested.
Results revealed the presence of several phytochemicals in the given plant leaves extract i.e.
flavonoids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids and alkaloids, those had several biological and
pharmacological activities and could be used as medicinal drugs (Nath, Baruah et al. 2015).

The methanol and distilled water extracts of the Xanthium strumarium L. (Asteraceae)
plant leaves were explored in the laboratories to test the antibacterial potential against six
pathogenic bacteria using disc diffusion method. At different concentrations (250, 200, 150, 100
and 50 mg/mL) of leaf extract, antibacterial activities against three-gram positive bacteria i.e.
Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and three-gram negative bacteria
i.e. Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli were checked. The presence of
tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins and alkaloids were confirmed by photochemical
screening. E. coli bacterium (gram negative) was the more resistant and S. aureus (gram
positive) was the most susceptible bacterium. Due to bactericidal potential possessed by leaf
extracts of X. strumarium, they were used to make antibacterial drugs. (Devkota and Das 2015).
 GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry) was used by researcher in their
studies to evaluate the chemical composition of essential oil (EO) from fresh Xanthium
strumarium L. (cocklebur) leaves. Thirty-four compounds were identified from fresh X.
strumarium leaves which contributed as 98.96% of the EO. At the first time, the scolicidal
activity of X. strumarium was investigated against Echinococcus granulosus protoscolices. The
EO contained antifungal and antimicrobial activity that inhibited the growth of Bacilus subtilis,
Pseudomaonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, Staphylococus aureus, Aspergillus nigar and
Klebsiella pnuemoniae (Sharifi-Rad, Hoseini-Alfatemi et al. 2015).

Sonchus asper L.

According to research, medicinal plants had long been used to treat a variety of
pathological infections linked to human health, both in their raw and refined forms. Sonchus
asper was a member of the "1600 to 1700" genus family of Asteraceae. Because the plant had
significant chemical components with antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-
cancer properties such as alkaloids, flavonoids, quinones, phenols, terpenoids, saponins, tannins
and glycosides, it had been used medicinally. Calcium, manganese, copper, iron, zinc, potassium,
magnesium, phosphorus and nitrogen were among the minerals present in the plant. Numerous
beneficial substances, including vitamin C and omega-3 fatty acids, were also discovered. Many
human ailments, including those of the liver, kidneys, bronchitis, asthma, cough, burns, wounds,
heart failure, diabetes, inflammation, gastrointestinal infections, cancer and jaundice, could be
treated with the plant (Zubair, Gul et al. 2023).

Studies showed that the Sonchus asper L. had significant amounts of phenols, tannins and
flavonoids as secondary metabolites. Because this plant has secondary metabolites including
phenols, flavonoids and tannins, it had high antioxidant qualities. In the range of 20.23–26.45
mg/gm, flavonoids were present in higher concentrations than tannin and phenol levels. Because
these plants possess therapeutic effects, they were therefore employed to manufacture natural
medications (Salokhe, Killedar et al. 2023).
 The aim of this study was the investigation of Sonchus asper L. (Asteraceae) to
contribute in an effort to support its rediscovery as a wild edible plant that may be consumed raw
or in nano-formulated products. In addition to being a culinary item in traditional South Italian
cuisine, S. asper was a source of specialized metabolites that were known to promote health.
Using LC-MS/MS analysis, 38 chemicals from the phenolic acid, flavonoid and polyunsaturated
fatty acid classes were identified in the extracts made from edible leaves. The S. asper leaves that
were prohibited and not typically eaten were used to make an extract that had the same chemical
makeup as the edible portions. Owing to these parallels, the extract was added to eudragit-coated
liposomes in an effort to suggest using the by-products as an antidiabetic supplement. Due to its
similarities with L-entero-endocrine cells, the intestinal STC-1 cell line was used to evaluate the
possible hypo-glycemic effect of the S. asper extract. This cell line serves as a model for
investigations on gut hormone production and glucose absorption. In a dose-dependent manner,
the extract demonstrated a notable reduction of glucose absorption in comparison to untreated
cells; remarkably, the action persisted in the liposomal formulation. The results of this study
might aid in the rediscovery of traditional cure made with wild herbs and in the recovery of
discarded leaves as a highly nutritious supplement. Additionally, an economic analysis of S.
asper use was conducted to show that encouraging measures and tactics to protect wild species
could benefit land-owners as well as the community economically (Parisi, Santoro et al. 2023).

The antioxidant and anti-cholinesterase properties of Sonchus asper L. aerial parts were
investigated in a variety of solvents and fractions. The levels of total phenolic, flavonoid and
flavonol were examined in extracts and fractions. The most active extracts/fractions' chemical
composition was examined using LC-MS/QTOF in the positive ion mode. Because they included
significant levels of phenolics, flavonoids, and flavonols, ethyl acetate and butanolic fractions
demonstrated the strongest antioxidant activity in DPPH, galvinoxyl, and phenanthroline assays.
In the ABTS experiment, whole alkaloid extract exhibited the best scavenging activity.
Furthermore, the greatest inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase was observed in
methanolic extract. By using LC-MS/QTOF, a total of 24 compounds-phenolic acids,
sesquiterpene lactones and derivatives of phenyl-propanoid were discovered. The study's
findings indicate that S. asper' aerial portions may contain naturally occurring antioxidant and
anti-cholinesterase substances (Aissani, Grara et al. 2021).
 Previous investigations showed that diabetes mellitus was a long-term metabolic disease
marked by elevated blood glucose levels due to a partial or entire lack of insulin action. Globally,
424.9 million persons (aged 20–79) were estimated to be affected by diabetes mellitus in 2017.
The use of natural plant treatments had been increasingly popular worldwide, which had
increased need for knowledge about the characteristics and applications of medicinal plants.
Plant-based remedies such as Ayurvedic, Siddha, and Unani were the mainstay of Indian
traditional medicine. The safety, efficiency and affordability of herbal medications had made
them more significant and well-liked in recent years. According to the study, mice with alloxan-
induced diabetes were treated with different doses of S. asper (100, 150, and 200 mg/kg) and
these doses had an antidiabetic effect. After 14 days of treatment, it was discovered that a high
dose (200 mg/kg) of S. asper ethanolic leaves extract was more effective than other doses (Dutta,
Lahkar et al. 2020).

Sonchus asper was used to treat a variety of liver, lung and kidney-related alimental
conditions. The purpose of this study was to examine the possible therapeutic benefits of the
whole plant's polar (methanol) and nonpolar (hexane, ethyl acetate, and chloroform) crude
extracts. A number of factors were observed in order to meet these objectives, including the
scavenging of superoxide radicals, total flavonoids, total phenolic content (TPC), iron chelating
activity and free-radical (DPPH, ABTS, H 2O2 and OH) scavenging. The S. asper extracts
demonstrated an exceptional ability to scavenge every reactive species examined, with IC 50
values detected at the μg/mL range. Methanol exhibited the highest TPC and the lowest IC 50
values for its ability to scavenge radicals such as DPPH, ABTS and iron chelating agents. In
addition, methanol demonstrated the strongest scavenging activities for superoxide and hydrogen
peroxide, as well as a potent ability to scavenge hydroxyl radicals. These findings point to S.
asper's potential for use as a medication to prevent oxidative damage linked to free radicals
(Khan, Khan et al. 2012).
An investigation revealed that Sonchus asper was exploited in Pakistani folk medicine to
treat mental illnesses. The primary goal of the current study was to examine how male rats'
acetylcholinesterase activity, brain antioxidant activity and cognitive function were affected by
the polyphenolic rich methanolic fraction of S. asper. Thirty male rats were split into three equal
groups. Group I (control) animals were given saline (vehicle), Group II animals received S.
asper at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight (b.w.) and Group III animals were given an oral dose of
100 mg/kg b.w. of S. asper in dimethyl sulphoxide for a duration of seven days. The impact of S.
asper on acetylcholinesterase, brain antioxidant and rat cognitive function was examined. A step-
through passive avoidance test was used to evaluate memory and learning on day six following
two habituation trials and an initial acquisition trial on day five. The activities of superoxide
dismutase, catalase, thio-barbituric acid reactive substance levels and reduced glutathione in
whole-brain homogenates were measured to assess antioxidant capability. The colorimetric
approach was used to measure the activity of acetylcholinesterase. The learning and memory of
rats treated with 100 mg/kg b.w. of S. asper significantly improved, according to the results.
Administration of S. asper increased glutathione levels and decreased lipid peroxidation products
in the S. asper 100mg/kg b.w treated group. Additionally, both S. asper treated groups showed a
significant decrease in salt and detergent soluble activity. Oral S. asper supplementation for a
brief period of time increased brain antioxidant enzyme levels and suppressed
acetylcholinesterase activity, all of which were associated with significant improvements in
cognition (Khan, Khan et al. 2012).
Previous research demonstrated that the antibacterial activity of Sonchus asper plant
leaves were tested in the lab against four pathogenic bacteria using methanol and distilled water
extracts. Antibacterial activities against two-gram positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and
Staphylococcus aureus and two-gram negative bacteria, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia
coli were investigated at various concentrations (250, 200, 150, 100 and 50 mg/mL) of leaf
extract. By using photochemical screening, the presence of tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids,
saponins, and alkaloids was verified. Gram positive bacteria B. subtilis was the most vulnerable,
and gram-negative bacteria E. coli was the more resistant. S. asper leaf extracts were employed
to create antibacterial medications because of their bio-bacterial activity. The disc diffusion
method was employed to ascertain the leaf extract's antibacterial activity (Hutchinson, colosi et
al. 1984).

Euphorbia helioscopia L

Research was carried out by Jan and Co-workers to investigate the therapeutic effect of
Euphorbia helioscopia plant extract. In this study the pharmaco-dynamic impacts of E.
helioscopia's aqueous extract against diabetic mellitus disease was examined. Beside this the
migratory components absorbed into blood were also analysed. The aqueous extract of E.
helioscopia was injected intra-gastrically into rats, the migratory components absorbed into their
blood were identified using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight
mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS). The molecular function, biological mechanism,
cellular makeup and signal pathways mostly involved in E. helioscopia's anti-chronic obstructive
lung disease action was predicted using the Meta-scape database. The molecular docking
technique was employed to ascertain the key targets' affinity with critical components. After
intra-gastric injection of an aqueous extract of E. helioscopia, a total of 29 migrating components
were detected in the blood of rats, of which 9 were prototype components and 20 were
metabolites. The main components of E. helioscopia against chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease were luteolin, quercetin, apigenin, naringenin, and helioscopinolide C, according to
pharmacological analysis. The main targets were vascular endothelial growth factor A, albumin,
protein kinase B1, tumour necrosis factor, and interleukin-6. One diterpene lactone and three
flavonoids; naringenin, luteolin, and apigenin in the migratory components absorbed into blood
all exhibited high binding activity to the primary targets of E. helioscopia against chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, according to molecular docking experiments (Jan, Khan et al.
2023).
The Ag-NPs of extract of Euphorbia helioscopia L. were synthesized and their biological
potential was determined by researcher. In this study the effect of pH on the synthesis of silver
nanoparticles, extract amount and time studies were performed. The antibacterial activity of NPs
of E. helioscopia at various concentrations against certain bacterial strains was determined and
concentration of 100 μL was found to have good antibacterial results as compared to other
concentrations. Similarly, the antioxidant potential of Ag-NPs at various concentrations was also
determined and it was found that the Ag-NPs at concentration 100 μg/mL showed good result as
compared to ascorbic acid, while at concentration 75 μg/mL showed moderate result and the
remaining concentrations exhibited weak activities concentrations. Ag-NPs were also tested for
their antioxidant potential at different concentrations. The results showed that at 100 μg/mL, the
NPs performed well when compared to ascorbic acid, at 75 μg/mL, the results were moderate
and at the other concentrations, there were only weak activities (LIN, MENG et al. 2023).
Yang and his co-workers investigated in their research work different therapeutic
activities of extract of plant Euphorbia helioscopia L. It was studied that from the whole plants
of E. helioscopia, three unreported ent-abietane-type norditerpene lactones, euphohelides A–C
(1-3), and eleven recognised analogues (4–14), were isolated. The novel 2-nor-ent-abietane
lactone Euphohelides A (1) has a distinct 5/6/6/5 tetracyclic structure. The dilactone tetracyclic
moieties of euphemides B (2) and C (3) are 2,3-dinor-5/6/6/5 and 2-nor-6/6/6/5, respectively.
Their structures were determined by X-ray crystallographic studies, computational ECD and
spectroscopic techniques. Using the speculative biogenetic process, precursor 4 was converted
into a biomimetic synthesis of 1. With IC 50 values of 32.98 ± 1.13 and 33.82 ± 3.25 μM,
compounds 1 and 5 greatly reduced the release of NO generated by LPS; this effect may be
related to the control of the NF-κB signalling pathway (Yang, Yao et al. 2023).

In a research-based investigations, traditional plant-based medications used to treat

diabetes had demonstrated very good potential. The current study used a rat model of type 2
diabetes to investigate the antidiabetic and antioxidant properties of a methanolic extract of the
folk medicinal plant E. helioscopia. Male wrester rats were given 5% sucrose in their drinking
water and feed for eight weeks, after which they were given streptozotocin and nicotinamide.
This procedure caused the rats to develop diabetes. After that, diabetic rats (n = 8) were split up
into four groups: treatment-1 (EH1, E. helioscopia methanolic extract 200 mg/kg bw), treatment-
2 (EH2, E. helioscopia methanolic extract 400 mg/kg bw), positive control having no treatment
and standard control with Metformin used 10 mg/kg bw. After 21 days the antidiabetic potential,
lipid profile, antioxidant capacity, thyroid hormone, amylin, leptin and enzymes involved in the
metabolism of carbohydrates were all assessed in serum. One-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was employed for statistical analysis of all the data. In comparison to the positive
control group the serum levels of glucagon, glucose, and C-peptide were significantly (P ≤ 0.05)
lower in the EH1 and EH2. The EH1 and EH2 groups' serum insulin levels showed a similar
pattern. The plant's methanolic extract significantly raised the total antioxidant capacity and
decreased the total oxidant status (TOS) in the diabetic rats. It also enhanced the levels of
catalase, paraoxonase, and arylesterase. Additionally, the plant extract produced anti-
hyperlipidemic effects and restored normal levels of amylin, leptin and thyroid hormones. The
extract treatment had also showed the reinstating of activity of several carbohydrate metabolic
enzymes, including phosphofructokinase, gluco-kinase, glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase and
pyruvate kinase (Mustafa, Anwar et al. 2022).
 Studies showed that for ages, humans had used medicinal plants all across the world as
medications and treatments for a wide range of ailments. A study was conducted to look into the
phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of E. helioscopia. The plants were tested
against a range of standard strains and human pathogenic microorganisms, such as Salmonella
typhi, Escherichia coli, Bacillus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and
three fungal strains (Rhizopus nigricans and Aspergillus niger). The highest value of the zone of
inhibition i.e. 36 mm against Staphylococcus aureus, the zone of inhibition 31 mm against
Salmonella typhi, the zone of inhibition 36 mm against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the zone of
inhibition 32 mm against Rhizopus nigricans and the zone of inhibition 34 mm against
Aspergillus niger were also obtained from water extract at a concentration of 1,000 mg mL -1. B.
subtilis and K. pneumonia were the most vulnerable bacteria, whereas E. coli was the most
resistant and exhibited a zone of inhibition. There were tannins, lipids, total proteins,
carbohydrates, flavonoids, alkaloids, and polyphenolics in the ethanolic extract (Yang, Chen et
al. 2021).

Euphorbia helioscopia had been exploited in traditional medicine to cure a variety of

ailments because of its purported antioxidant, antiviral and anticancer properties. The goal of the
current study was to evaluate E. helioscopia in-vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic potential after a
phytochemical investigation of its different extracts. The entire dried plant was used to prepare
methanol, ethanol and aqueous extracts for this purpose. Total phenolic components (TPCs) and
total flavonoid components (TFCs) in the extracts were assessed using phytochemical analysis.
Using HPLC, the contents of seven phenolic and three flavonoid compounds were recorded and
measured. The FRAP, ABTS and DPPH▏ tests were used to determine the antioxidant levels.
By evaluating the ability of the extracts to suppress the activity of the enzymes α amylase and α
glucosidase, their potential as antidiabetic agents was assessed. Following statistical analysis, the
findings indicated that aqueous extract had the lowest amount of these components, whereas
methanolic extract had the greatest TFCs and TPCs values. The highest scavenging ability
towards DPPH assay (IC50 value = 0.06 ± 0.02 mg/mL), FRAP value (758.9 ± 25.1 μM Fe+ 2/g)
and ABTS (689 ± 25.94 μM TE/g) was demonstrated by the in vitro results, which were
attributed to the presence of high TPCs value 24.77 ± 0.35 mg GAE/g and TFCs values 17.95 ±
0.32 mg QE/g. The methanolic extract had the highest antidiabetic activity in terms of inhibiting
the potential of α amylase and α glucosidase activity, with IC 50 values of 0.4 ± 0.01 mg/mL and
0.45 ± 0.01 mg/mL respectively, while the aqueous extract had the lowest IC 50 value = 0.57 ±
0.02 mg/mL and 0.76 ± 0.1 mg/mL respectively (Mustafa, Faisal et al. 2021).

Research revealed that E. helioscopia L. was a widely distributed medicinal plant that
was particularly common in China. It had been used for decades to cure a wide range of
illnesses, such as cancer, edema, cough, malaria, dysentery, scabs, tuberculous fistulas and
osteomyelitis. In order to explore future scientific and therapeutic potentials in illness treatment,
the present review seeks to provide up-to-date information on E. helioscopia, including its
traditional usage, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacological research, toxicology and
human investigations. Thus far, E. helioscopia had yielded 173 terpenoids, along with
polyphenols, steroids, lipids, and volatile oils. Diterpenoids and flavonoids were the most
significant and prevalent bioactive components among them. Current pharmacological research
had shown that E. helioscopia had exceptional bioactivities, particularly when it came to
modifying multi-drug resistance and anti-proliferative effects. However, the majority of these
investigations were conducted in-vitro. For the crude extracts and active ingredients, there were
still very few research conducted on human subjects, toxicity, identification of metabolites,
comprehensive in-vivo studies, and quality control. As a result, additional careful planned pre-
clinical and clinical research was needed to support their supposed therapeutic potentials
(Waheed, Muhammad et al. 2020).

The essential oil from the aerial parts of Euphorbia helioscopia L. was subjected to
chemical composition and antibacterial activity analysis using gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS) and microdilution techniques. The 35 chemicals were found, accounting
for 83.51% of the total oil. The main ingredients of the oil were 1,6-dihydrocarveol (31.39%)
carvone (16.79%) menthol (8.23%) and trans-dihydrocarvone (5.53%). With a minimum
inhibitory concentration value of 31.25 μg/mL and minimum bactericidal concentration values
the EO demonstrated strong antimicrobial activity against strains of the bacteria, Shigella
dysenteriae, and Escherichia coli, as well as a strain of the fungus Candida albicans. These
findings suggested that E. helioscopia EO from its aerial parts might be used to treat illnesses
brought on by these microorganisms (Zhu, Jiang et al. 2020).
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