MODULE 3

WORK MOTIVATION AND JOB

DESIGN
Presented by, Irene Joseph
 MODULE 3
WORK MOTIVATION AND JOB DESIGN
• Meaning and definition.
• Theories of work motivation:
✓ Content theories: Manifest need theory, learned need, hierarchy of needs, two factor theory, ERG theory, self-
determination theory.
✓ Process theories: Vroom expectancy theory, Potter-Lawler Model.
✓ Contemporary theories of Work Motivation: Equity theory, attribution theory, other emerging theories of work
motivation.
• Job design
- Job design and quality of work life,
- Job analysis- Job rotation and job Enlargement,
- Designing Job depth: Job enrichment,
- Total quality management and job design.

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MEANING AND DEFINITION.

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 Major determinants of performance

• Employees working in a group has differences in their performance. To better understand why
people perform at different levels, researchers consider the major determinants of performance:
ability, effort (motivation), accurate role perceptions, and environmental factors.

• Ability refers to the knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to learning that a person brings to
a task or job.
• Accurate role perceptions refer to how well an individual understands their organizational
role. This includes the goals (outcomes) the person is expected to achieve and the process
by which the goals will be achieved.

• Motivation is a state of mind that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior. Generally speaking,
motivation arises as a consequence of a person's desire to (1) fulfill unmet needs, or (2) resolve
conflicting thoughts that produce anxiety (an unpleasant experience). Work motivation is the
amount of effort a person exerts to achieve a certain level of job performance.

• The performance environment refers to those factors that impact employees' performance but
are essentially out of their control. Many environmental factors influence performance. Some
factors facilitate performance, while others constrain it.
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 Motivation
• Motivation is a basic psychological process. Motivation is a hypothetical construct that is used
to help explain behavior; it should not be equated with behavior.

• The term motivation can be traced to the Latin word movere, which means “to move.” A comprehensive
definition: “Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need
that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.

• Thus, the key to understanding the process of motivation lies in the meaning of, and relationships
among, needs, drives, and incentives.

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Major components of motivation

Motivation has two major components: direction and intensity.

• Direction is what a person wants to achieve, what they intend to do. It implies a target that
motivated people try to "hit."

• Intensity is how hard people try to achieve their targets. Intensity is what we think of as effort. It
represents the energy we expend to accomplish something.

It is important to distinguish the direction and intensity aspects of motivation. If either is lacking,
performance will suffer. A person who knows what they want to accomplish (direction) but doesn't
exert much effort (intensity) will not succeed. Conversely, people who haven't got a direction (what
they want to accomplish) probably won't succeed either.

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Process of motivation

1. Needs. Needs are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance

2. Drives. Drives, or motives, are set up to alleviate needs. A physiological drive can be simply defined as a deficiency with
direction. Physiological and psychological drives are action oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward reaching an
incentive. They are at the very heart of the motivational process.

3. Incentives. Anything that will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. Thus, attaining an incentive will tend to restore
physiological or psychological balance and will reduce or cut off the drive.

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Types of motives
• Primary motives

The various human motives are unlearned and physiologically based. Such motives are variously called
physiological, biological, unlearned, or primary. The most commonly recognized primary motives include
hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex, and maternal concern.

• General motives

A number of motives which lie in the gray area between the primary and secondary classifications- a motive
must be unlearned but not physiologically based. The motives of curiosity, manipulation, activity and affection
are examples of general motives.
• Secondary motives

A motive must be learned in order to be included in the secondary classification. Some of the more important
ones are power, achievement, and affiliation, or, as they are commonly referred to, n Pow, n Ach, and n Aff.

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• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motives

Extrinsic motives are tangible and visible to others. They are distributed by other people (or agents).
In the workplace, extrinsic motivators include pay, benefits, and promotions. Extrinsic motives also
include the drive to avoid punishment, such as termination or being transferred. Extrinsic motivators
are necessary to attract people into the organization and to keep them on the job. They are also often
used to inspire workers to achieve at higher levels or to reach new goals, as additional payoffs are
contingent on improved performance.

Intrinsic motives are internally generated. In other words, they are motivators that the person
associates with the task or job itself. Intrinsic rewards include feelings of responsibility, achievement,
accomplishment, that something was learned from an experience, feelings of being challenged or
competitive, or that something was an engaging task or goal. Performing meaningful work has long
been associated with intrinsic motivation.

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THEORIES OF WORK
MOTIVATION: CONTENT
THEORIES, PROCESS THEORIES
AND CONTEMPORARY
THEORIES .

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 CONTENT THEORIES: MANIFEST NEED THEORY,
LEARNED NEED, HIERARCHY OF NEEDS, TWO FACTOR
THEORY, ERG THEORY, SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY.

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• The content theory of work motivation attempt to determine what it is that motivates people at
work. The content theorists are concerned with identifying the needs/drives that people have
and how these needs/drives are prioritized. They are concerned with the types of incentives or
goals that people strive to attain in order to be satisfied and perform well.

• At first, money was felt to be the only incentive (scientific management) and then a little later
it was felt that incentives include working conditions, security and perhaps a democratic style
of supervision (human relations).

• More recently, the content of motivation has been deemed to so called “higher-level” needs or
motives, such as self-esteem and self-actualization (Maslow), responsibility, recognition,
achievement and advancement (Herzberg) and growth and personal development (Alderfer)

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 MANIFEST NEED THEORY
Henry Murray (1938), proposed the list of needs: instinctive and learned needs.

Instincts needs or primary needs include physiological needs for food, water, sex, urination, and so on.

Learned needs or secondary needs are learned throughout one’s life and are basically psychological in
nature. They include such needs as the need for achievement, for love and for affiliation.

Murray’s main premise was that people have a variety of needs, but only a few are expresses at a given
time.

• When a person is behaving in a way that satisfies some needs, Murray called the need manifest.
Manifest need theory assumes that human behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy needs.

• If an individual’s need cannot be detected from current behavior, Murray calls this a latent need. A latent
need cannot be inferred from a person’s behavior at a given time, yet the person may still possess that
need. The person may not have had the opportunity to express the need. Or he or she may not be in a
proper environment to solicit behaviors to satisfy the need.
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Implication for management

Some employee needs are latent. Managers often assume that employees do not
have certain needs because the employees never try to satisfy them at work. Such
needs may exist (latent needs), the work environment is simply not conducive to
their manifestation (manifest needs)

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 DAVID McCLELLAND’S LEARNED NEED
David McClelland proposed a learned needs model of motivation, which prescribed that everyone has three
important needs: need for achievement (nAch), need for power (nPower), and need for affiliation (nAff ).
Achievement motive (nAch)

People with high need for achievement are self-motivated. They like to get involved in tasks that offer them high
accomplishments. They confront challenges head on.

1. They feel personally responsible for completing whatever tasks they are assigned. They accept credit for
success, and blame for failure.

2. They like situations where the probability of success is moderate. High-nAch people are not motivated by tasks
that are too easy, or extremely difficult. Instead, they prefer situations where the outcome is uncertain, but in
which they believe they can succeed if they exert enough effort. They avoid both simple and impossible situations.

3. They have very strong desires for feedback about how well they are doing. They actively seek out performance
feedback. It doesn't matter whether the information implies success or failure. They want to know whether they
have achieved or not. They constantly ask how they are doing,
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sometimes to the point of being a nuisance.
Power motive (nPower)
Power is the ability to influence others to behave as we want them to. People with high need for power feel
satisfied in situations where they can influence and control others.
Managers with strong power needs can be differentiate into two kinds—personal power managers and
institutional power managers.
Managers with high personal power needs exemplify the stereotypical self-serving, exploitative, and
dominating boss. Such a need for power reflects the aim of personal gain through manipulation and control
of others without exhibiting self-control and inhibition. This kind of person may coerce and even threaten
subordinates in a forceful attempt to get them to carry out commands.
Managers with high institutional power/ social power needs temper their influence over others with
inhibition and self-control. They are altruistic and believe that power should be used more for the good of
the organization than for personal advantage. Satisfaction is obtained more from the process of influencing
others to carry out their work in pursuit of organizational goals than from their own personal success.
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Affiliation motive (nAff)

• The need for affiliation (nAff) reflects a desire to establish and maintain warm and friendly
relationships with other people. High-nAff people are very sociable.

• The nAff has important implications for organizational behavior. High nAff's like to be around
other people, including other people at work. As a result, they perform better in jobs that require
teamwork.

• Especially motivated to perform well if others depend on them.

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Implication for management

Organizations should try to place people with high needs for social power in managerial jobs. It is
critical, however, that those managerial jobs allow the employee to satisfy the nPow through social
power acquisition. Otherwise, a manager high in nPow may satisfy this need through acquisition of
personal power, to the detriment of the organization.

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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
• Abraham Maslow, thought that a person’s motivational needs could be arranged in a hierarchical
manner. In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to
motivate. The next higher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate the individual.

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Maslow did not intend that his needs hierarchy be directly applied to work motivation. In a very
rough manner, Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory can be converted into the content model of work
motivation.

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Implications for management.

The theory posits that to maximize employee motivation, employers must try to guide workers to the
upper parts of the hierarchy. That means that the employer should help employees satisfy lower order
needs like safety and security, and social needs. Once satisfied, employees will be motivated to build
esteem and respect through their work achievements.

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HERZBERG DUAL-FACTOR/ TWO FACTOR THEORY

• Frederick Herzberg and his associates postulated that for workers to be motivated, the content of
the job itself must be motivating—simply improving working conditions won’t necessarily
energize employees’ behaviour.

• The two-factor theory, better known as the motivation–hygiene model. This model proposes that
there are two sets of needs or factors—motivators and hygiene—which are the primary causes of
job satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

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Hygiene factors
Hygiene factors are those basic factors surrounding the job—therefore, also called extrinsic factors,
including job security, working conditions, organizational rules and policies, relationship with co-workers,
supervisors, salary, and quality of supervision— that if lacking can cause dissatisfaction.
Surprisingly, Herzberg also contends that the presence of these factors in the work environment does not
guarantee satisfaction. Since these factors are outside of, or external to, the nature of the job itself, they are
also referred to as job context factors. If they are adequately provided for, they produce a neutral feeling of
being looked after by the company.
Motivator factors
Motivator factors are the factors that are internal to the job—therefore, also called intrinsic factors,
including job challenge, responsibility, autonomy, achievement, advancement, and recognition—that if
present provide a feeling of satisfaction. The absence of these factors may not produce total dissatisfaction
but may lead to a state of no satisfaction. Since these factors relate to the content of the job, they are also
called job content factors.
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The unique feature of Herzberg's theory is that job conditions that
prevent dissatisfaction do not cause satisfaction. Satisfaction and
dissatisfaction are on different "scales" in his view. Hygienes can
cause dissatisfaction if they are not present in sufficient levels.

Employees can be dissatisfied, neutral, or satisfied with their jobs,

depending on their levels of hygienes and motivators. Herzberg's
theory even allows for the possibility that an employee can be
satisfied and dissatisfied at the same time-the "I love my job but I
hate the pay" situation!
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Implications for management

Herzberg's work suggests a two-stage process for managing employee motivation and satisfaction.
First, managers should address the hygiene factors. Intense forms of dissatisfaction distract
employees from important work-related activities and tend to be demotivating. Thus, managers
should make sure that such basic needs as adequate pay, safe and clean working conditions, and
opportunities for social interaction are met. They should then address the much more powerful
motivator needs, in which workers experience recognition, responsibility, achievement, and growth.
If motivator needs are ignored, neither long term satisfaction nor high motivation is likely. When
motivator needs are met, however, employees feel satisfied and are motivated to perform well.

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ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
Alderfer’s ERG theory compresses Maslow’s five need
categories into three: existence, relatedness and growth.

Existence needs includes physiological and material needs.

These needs are satisfied by material conditions and through
interpersonal relations or personal involvement in the work
setting

Relatedness needs include all of Maslow’s social needs, plus

social safety and social esteem needs. These needs are satisfied
through the exchange of thoughts and feelings with other people

Growth needs includes self-esteem and self-actualization needs.

These needs tend to be satisfied through one’s full involvement
in work and the work setting

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Four components- satisfaction progression, frustration, frustration regression and aspirations- are key to understanding
Alderfer’s ERG theory.

• Satisfaction progression: it is in basic agreement with Maslow’s process of moving through the needs. As we
increasingly satisfy our existence needs, we direct energy toward relatedness needs. As these needs are satisfied, our
growth needs become active.

• Frustration: it occurs when we attempt but fail to satisfy a particular need. The resulting frustration may make
satisfying the unmet need even more important to us- unless we repeatedly fail to satisfy that need.

• Frustration regression: can cause us to shift our attention to a previously satisfied more concrete and verifiable need.

• Aspiration: growth is intrinsically satisfying. The more we grow, the more we want to grow. Therefore, the more we
satisfy our growth need, the more important it becomes, and the more strongly we are motivated to satisfy it.

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 SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
• Organizational behavior researchers often classify motivation in terms of what stimulates it-
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.
• Self-determination theory (SDT) seeks to explain not only what causes motivation, but also
how extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic motivation.
• In SDT, extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain some
valued outcome, while intrinsic motivation refers to performing an activity for the inherent
satisfaction of the activity itself. SDT specifies when an activity will be intrinsically motivating
and when it will not.
• Considerable numbers of studies have demonstrated that tasks are intrinsically motivating
when they satisfy at least one of three higher-order needs: competence, autonomy and
relatedness.
• SDT researchers have consistently found that as the level of extrinsic rewards increases, the
amount of intrinsic motivation decreases. That is, SDT posits that extrinsic rewards not only do
not provide intrinsic motivation, they diminish it.
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Implications for the management

Some jobs are by their very nature uninteresting and unlikely to be made interesting. Automation has
eliminated many such jobs, but they are still numerous. SDT would suggest that the primary way to
motivate high performance for such jobs is to make performance contingent on extrinsic rewards.
Relatively high pay is necessary to sustain performance on certain low-skill jobs.

On the other hand, SDT would suggest that to enhance intrinsic motivation on jobs that are
interesting, don't focus only on increasing extrinsic rewards (like large pay bonuses). Instead, create
even more opportunities for employees to satisfy their needs for competence, autonomy, and
relatedness. That means giving them opportunities to learn new skills, to perform their jobs without
interference, and to develop meaningful relationships with other customers and employees in other
departments. Such actions enhance intrinsic rewards.

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PROCESS THEORIES: VROOM EXPECTANCY
THEORY, POTTER-LAWLER MODEL .

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Process theories of motivation try to explain why behaviors are initiated. These theories focus on the
mechanism by which we choose a target, and the effort that we exert to "hit" the target. Process
theories of motivation attempt to explain the intensity of motivation as well as its direction.

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 VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY

Expectancy theory is a process motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed
towards behaviours that people believe will lead to desired outcomes. Through experience, individuals develop
expectations about whether they can achieve various levels of job performance. They also develop expectations
about whether job performance and work behaviour lead to particular outcomes. Finally, they naturally direct
their efforts towards outcomes that help them fulfil their needs.

Expectancy theory thus focuses on the two major aspects of motivation, direction (which alternative?) and
intensity (how much effort to implement the alternative?). The attractiveness of an alternative is determined by
our "expectations" of what is likely to happen if we choose it. Expectancy theory states that, when faced with
two or more alternatives, we will select the most attractive one. People evaluate alternatives in terms of their
"pros and cons," and then choose the one with the most "pros" and fewest "cons."
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The theory states that our perceptions about our surroundings are essentially predictions about "what
leads to what." We perceive that certain effort levels result in certain performance levels. We
perceive that certain performance levels result in certain outcomes. Expectancy theory predicts that
we will exert effort that results in the maximum amount of positive-valence outcomes.

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 Vroom model is built around the concepts of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy and is
commonly called the VIE theory.

• Valence: the strength of an individual's preference for a particular outcome. In order for the valence to be positive, the
person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Valence of zero occurs when the individual is indifferent
towards the outcome. A valence is negative when the individual prefers not attaining the outcome to attaining it.

• Instrumentality: Another major input into the valence is the instrumentality of the first-level outcome in obtaining a
desired second-level outcome. Instrumentality refers to the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to a desired
second-level outcome. For example, the person would be motivated toward superior performance because of the
desire to be promoted. The superior performance (first-level outcome) is seen as being instrumental in obtaining
promotion (second-level outcome).

• Expectancy: Expectancy relates efforts to first-level outcomes, while instrumentality relates first level outcomes and
second-level outcomes. In other words, expectancy is the probability (ranging from 0 to 1) that a particular action or
effort will lead to a particular first-level outcome.

• In summary, the strength of the motivation to perform a certain act will depend on the algebraic sum of the
products of the valences for the outcomes (which include instrumentality) times the expectancies.
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Implications of the Vroom Model for Organizational Behavior.

Vroom's theory departs from the content theories in that it depicts a process of cognitive variables
that reflects individual differences in work motivation. It does not attempt to describe what the
content is or what the individual differences are. Everyone has a unique combination of valences,
instrumentalities, and expectancies.

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Herzberg model is really a theory of job satisfaction, but still, it does not adequately deal with the
relationship between satisfaction and performance. Vroom model also largely avoids the relationship
between satisfaction and performance. Although satisfactions make an input into Vroom’s concept of
valence and although the outcomes have performance implications, it was not until Porter and Lawler
that the relationship between satisfaction and performance was dealt with directly by a motivation
theory.

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POTTER-LAWLER MODEL
• Potter and Lawler proposed that motivation (effort or force) does not equal satisfaction or
performance. Motivation, satisfaction, and performance are all separate variables and relate in ways
different from what was traditionally assumed.

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Porter and Lawler point out that effort (force or motivation) does not lead directly to performance. It
is moderated by abilities and traits and by role perceptions. More important in the Porter-Lawler
model is what happens after the performance. The rewards that follow and how these are perceived
will determine satisfaction. In other words, the Porter-Lawler model suggests— and this is a
significant turn of events from conventional wisdom—that performance leads to satisfaction.

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Implications

• To Porter and Lawler recommended that practicing managers go beyond traditional attitude
measurement and attempt to measure variables such as the values of possible rewards, the
perceptions of effort-reward probabilities, and role perceptions. These variables, of course, can
help managers better understand what goes into employee effort and performance.
• Giving attention to the consequences of performance, Porter and Lawler also recommended that
organizations critically re-evaluate their current reward policies.

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 CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF WORK
MOTIVATION: EQUITY THEORY, ATTRIBUTION
THEORY, OTHER EMERGING THEORIES OF WORK
MOTIVATION

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EQUITY THEORY

• The equity theory was propounded by Stacy Adam

• Equity theory states that motivation is affected by the outcomes we receive for our inputs,
compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people. This theory is concerned with the
reactions people have to outcomes they receive as part of a "social exchange." According to
equity theory, our reactions to the outcomes we receive from others (an employer) depend
both on how we value those outcomes in an absolute sense and on the circumstances
surrounding their receipt.

• Equity theory suggests that our reactions will be influenced by our perceptions of the "inputs"
provided in order to receive these outcomes. Even more important is our comparison of our
inputs to what we believe others received for their inputs.

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There are two assumptions that underlie this theory.

• The first one is that individuals examine their relationships as a social exchange process in which
they contribute and expect certain results.

• The second assumption is that they compare their situations to those of others to determine
fairness.

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Equity Model
• The fundamental premise of equity theory is that we continuously monitor the degree to
which our work environment is "fair." In determining the degree of fairness, we consider
two sets of factors, inputs and outcomes.
• Inputs are any factors we contribute to the organization that we feel have value and
are relevant to the organization.
• Outcomes are anything we perceive as getting back from the organization in
exchange for our inputs.
• Equity theory predicts that we will compare our outcomes to our inputs in the form of a
ratio. On the basis of this ratio we make an initial determination of whether or not the
situation is equitable. If we perceive that the outcomes we receive are commensurate
with our inputs, we are satisfied. If we believe that the outcomes are not commensurate
with our inputs, we are dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction can lead to ineffective behaviors
for the organization if they continue.

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• The key feature of equity theory is that it predicts that we will compare our ratios to the ratios of
other people. These other people are called referent others because we "refer to" them when we
judge equity. Usually, referent others are people we work with who perform work of a similar
nature.
• Equity evaluation is carried out by comparing one’s own ratio of outcome/input with others ratio:

1. One experiences under-reward inequity when one finds that a co-worker has received higher
outcomes for inputs that were probably identical to one.
2. In the equity condition, the individual would believe that his outcome/input ratio is similar to
that of his co-worker. This would happen if the co-worker received the same pay as him for the
same amount of effort and/or seniority.
3. The individual may experience over-reward inequity when he learns that he is earning more than
his co-worker for the same effort.

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Consequences of inequity

Inequity causes tension among individuals. The state of tension is not a pleasant one and, therefore, has to be
removed. This becomes a force for motivation.

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To reduce a perceived inequity and the corresponding level of tension, individuals may choose
to act in one or more of the following ways:

• • People may either increase or decrease their inputs to what they feel to be an equitable level.

• • People may change their outcomes to restore inequity.

• • People may distort their inputs and outcomes.

• • People may leave the organization or request a transfer to another department.

• • People may shift to a new reference group to reduce the source of the inequity.

• • People may distort the inputs or outcomes of others.

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The Relationship between Equity Theory and Organizational Justice

• Equity theory supports a perception of distributive justice, which is an

individual’s cognitive evaluation regarding whether or not the amounts and
allocations of rewards in a social setting are fair. In simple terms, distributive
justice is one’s belief that everyone should “get what they deserve.”

• Procedural justice is concerned with the fairness of the procedure used to make a
decision.. Procedural justice can raise issues of equality as opposed to equity.
Whereas procedural justice is the exchange between the employee and the
employing organization, interactional justice is between individuals (e.g., the
employee and the supervisor). There is also some evidence that such interactional
justice may not be as predictive as other justice perceptions.
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ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Types of attribution

1. Locus of control-work behavior may be explained by whether employees perceive their outcomes as
controlled internally or externally. (Internal & External locus of control)

Rotter and his colleagues suggest that skill versus chance environments differentially affect behavior. In
particular, coalition members made stronger internal attributions, such as ability and desire, and non-
members made stronger external attributions, such as luck!
2. two general types of attributions that people make:

• dispositional attributions, which ascribe a person’s behavior to internal factors such as personality
traits, motivation, or ability.

• situational attributions, which attribute a person’s behavior to external factors such as equipment or
social influence from others.

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• Attribution theories

1. Kelly
stresses that it is concerned mainly with the cognitive processes by which an individual interprets
behavior as being caused by (or attributed to certain parts of the relevant environment. It is concerned with
the "why" questions of motivation and behavior. Since most causes, attributes, and "whys" are not directly
observable, the theory says that people must depend upon cognitions, particularly perception.

2. Heider believed that both internal forces (personal attributes such as ability, effort, and fatigue) and
external forces (environmental attributes such as rules and the weather) combine additively to determine
behavior. He stressed that it is the perceived, not the actual, determinants that are important to behavior.
People will behave differently if they perceive internal attributes from the way they will behave if they
perceive external attributes.

3. Bernard Weiner, suggested that a stability (fixed or variable) dimension must also be recognized.
Experienced employees will probably have a stable internal attribution about their abilities but an unstable
internal attribution concerning effort. By the same token, these employees may have a stable external
attribution about task difficulty but an unstable external
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attribution about luck.
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 OTHER EMERGING THEORIES OF WORK
MOTIVATION
Control theory

One version of control theory, is essentially a cognitive phenomenon relating to the degree that individuals
perceive they are in control of their own lives, or are in control of their jobs. Recent studies have shown that
those who believe they have such personal control tolerate unpleasant events and experience less stress on the job
than those who do not perceive such control. There is also some evidence that perceived control will affect job
satisfaction and absenteeism.

Another version of control theory, which also has implications for organizational behavior, relates to the more
traditional management function of control. Traditional guidelines for effective management have included
controlling both the inputs and outputs of organizations, but research has also analyzed strategically controlling
human resources as well. Especially relevant to today’s workplace environment is that a sense of control seems
very helpful when increasing job demands are placed on the employee. Thus, persons who are given more work,
but also the control to complete that work, may not feel as negatively about their new assignments. On the other
hand, more peripheral aspects of work control, such as when they start or stop a task or arrange the work flow,
seem less related to work motivation.
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• Agency theory

• An agency relationship involves one or more individuals (the principal) engaging another person
or persons (the agent) to perform some service on their behalf.
• The key to agency theory is the assumption that the interests of principals and agents diverge or
may be in conflict with one another.
• The implications for organizational behavior involve how the principals (owners, board members,
or top management) can limit divergence from their interests or objectives by establishing
appropriate rewards or incentives for the agents (subordinates, middle management, or operating
employees) for appropriate outcomes.

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JOB DESIGN- JOB DESIGN AND
QUALITY OF WORK LIFE, JOB
ANALYSIS-JOB ROTATION
AND JOB ENLARGEMENT,
DESIGNING JOB DEPTH: JOB
ENRICHMENT, TOTAL
QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND
JOB DESIGN.

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Various approaches to job design

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Job design describes how tasks are combined to form a job; the formal and informal specification of task
related activities assigned to and carried out by a worker; the inherent nature and character of the work
performed.

Two important dimensions used for describing all types of jobs are task scope and depth.

• Task scope describes the horizontal characteristics of the job or the degree of variety in the activities a
person is expected to perform. A job narrow in scope has few activities.

• Task depth addresses how much vertical responsibility or individual accountability is expected in a
job. Depth increases when the employee is given more responsibility to schedule the sequence of
work, to initiate self-control if activities or output begin to get out of balance, to identify and solve
problems as they occur or to originate innovative ways of improving the process or the output.

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JOB DESIGN AND QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

• Quality of work life (QWL) is more concerned with the overall climate of work.
• The recognized purpose is to change the climate at work so that the human-
technological-organizational interface leads to a better quality of work life.
• The concept of quality of work life (QWL) is widely used to refer to “a philosophy of
management that enhances the dignity of all workers; introduces changes in an
organization’s culture; and improves the physical and emotional well-being of
employees”
• In some organizations, QWL programs are intended to increase employee trust,
involvement, and problem solving so as to increase both worker satisfaction and
organizational effectiveness.
• Thus, the concept and application of QWL are broad and involve more than jobs, but the
jobs that people do are important sources of satisfaction.
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 JOB ANALYSIS-JOB ROTATION AND JOB ENLARGEMENT
Job rotation

The simplest form of job design involves moving employees from one relatively simple job to another after short
time periods (one-hour, half-days, every day). The process of job rotation involves moving workers in a systematic
way from one job to another in order to provide more interesting and satisfying work.

Advantages.

• First, the odds of injury are reduced, as each worker must refocus on a new task throughout the workday.
Further, the incidence of repetitive strain injuries (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome) may also be reduced.
• Second, as employees learn sets of tasks, they are more flexible and able to cover for someone who is absent or
who quits.
• Third, supervisors who are promoted from the ranks know more about how the entire operation works.

Disadvantage: each individual task eventually becomes as boring as the rest of the simple tasks. Consequently, job
satisfaction and/or performance may decline
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Job Enlargement

The process of job enlargement, also known as horizontal loading of the job, aims to expand the
worker’s job to include the tasks which were previously performed by other workers. The rationale
provided is that this reduces the monotony and boredom of performing the earlier, narrowly defined job
and increases variety and interest because of increased number of tasks to be performed.

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 DESIGNING JOB DEPTH: JOB ENRICHMENT

• The application of Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation is termed job enrichment.

• In particular, job enrichment is concerned with designing jobs that include a greater variety of work
content; require a higher level of knowledge and skill; give workers more autonomy and
responsibility in terms of planning, directing, and controlling their own performance; and provide the
opportunity for personal growth and a meaningful work experience.

• As opposed to job rotation and job enlargement, which horizontally loads the job, job enrichment
vertically loads the job; there are not necessarily more tasks to perform, but more responsibility and
accountability.

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The implementation of job enrichment is realized through direct changes in job depth. Managers can
provide employees with greater opportunities to exercise discretion by making the following changes:

• Direct feedback. The evaluation of performance should be timely and direct.

• New learning. A good job enables people to feel that they are growing. All jobs should provide
opportunities to learn.
• Scheduling. People should be able to schedule some part of their own work.
• Uniqueness. Each job should have some unique qualities or features.
• Control over resources. Individuals should have some control over their job tasks.
• Personal accountability. People should be provided with an opportunity to be accountable for the
job.

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 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND JOB DESIGN

Total quality management (TQM) is an organizational strategy with accompanying techniques that
deliver quality products and/or services to customer. TQM is an organizational strategy that are
employed to deliver quality service to the customers.

• T- Total: TQM is an overall organizational strategy that is formulated at the top management level
and then is diffused throughout the entire organization. Everyone in the organization, from the
general manager/CEO to the lowest-paid hourly workers and clerks, is involved in the TQM process.
The total part of TQM also encompasses not only the external end user and purchaser of the product
or service, but also internal customers and outside suppliers and support personnel.

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• Q- Quality: TQM is more concerned with quality service than it is with quanlity of
products. Quality is defined by the customer, not the organization or the manager or the
quality control/ assurance department. The service (or product) must meet or exceed what
the customer wants or expects. These customer expectations are highly individualized by
age, gender, personality, occupation, location, socioeconomic class, past experience with
the organization, and many other variables. In other words, what is quality for one customer
may not be quality for another customer. A challenge for TQM is to deliver quality to all
customers.

• M- Management: The "M" in TQM implies that this is a management approach, not just a
narrow quality control or quality assurance function.

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Three popular TQM techniques that are especially relevant to organizational behavior are reengineering,
benchmarking, and empowerment.

• Reengineering: Reengineering, involves a total redesign of operations by analysing jobs and asking, rather than
modifying current work procedures. The reengineering process begins with a clean slate and plans the job from
beginning to end.

• Benchmarking: Benchmarking is the comparing work and service methods against the best practices and
outcomes for the purpose of identifying changes that will result in higher-quality output.

• Empowerment: Empowerment is the authority to make decisions within one's area of operations without having
to get approval from anyone else. There are several basic conditions necessary for empowerment to become
embedded in the organizational culture and become operational: participation, innovation, access to information,
and accountability.

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Thank You!