The Internet:

In simplest terms, the internet is a global computer network providing a variety of

information and communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks
using standardized communication protocols.

Web programming
Web programming refers to the writing, markup and coding involved in Web
development, which includes Web content, Web client and server scripting and
network security

Intranet
Intranet is a local or restricted communications network, especially a private
network created using World Wide Web software.

Extranet
an intranet that can be partially accessed by authorized outside users, enabling businesses to
exchange information over the internet in a secure way.

The World Wide Web:

The Web is the common name for the World Wide Web, a subset of
the Internet consisting of the pages that can be accessed by a Web browser.

Difference between Web and Internet:

S.No.INTERNET WWW
Internet is a global network of
1 networks. WWW stands for World wide Web.

Internet is a means of connecting a World Wide Web which is a

computer to any other computer collection of information which is
2 anywhere in the world. accessed via the Internet.

WWW is service on top of that

3 Internet is infrastructure. infrastructure.

Internet can be viewed as a big book- Web can be viewed as collection of

4 store. books on that store.
 At some advanced level, to understand At some advanced level, to
we can think of the Internet as understand we can think of the WWW
5 hardware. as software.

WWW is more software-oriented as

6 Internet is primarily hardware-based. compared to the Internet.

English scientist Tim Berners-Lee

It is originated sometimes in late invented the World Wide Web in
7 1960s. 1989.

8 Internet is superset of WWW. WWW is a subset of the Internet.

The first version of the Internet was In the beginning WWW was known
9 known as ARPANET. as NSFNET.

10 Internet uses IP address. WWW uses HTTP.

The difference between the internet and intranet:

S.NOInternet Intranet
Internet is used to connect different
networks of computers
1. simultaneously. Intranet is owned by private firms.
On the internet, there are multiple
2. users. On an intranet, there are limited users.
3. Internet is unsafe. Intranet is safe.
On the internet, there is more In the intranet, there is less number of
4. number of visitors. visitors.
5. Internet is a public network. Intranet is a private network.
In this, anyone can’t access the
6. Anyone can access the Internet. Intranet.
The Internet provides unlimited
7. information. Intranet provides limited information.
A company used to communicate
Using Social media on your phone internally with its employees and share
8. or researching resources via Google. information
URL:
URL is the abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator. It is the resource
address on the internet. The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is created by Tim
Berners-Lee and the Internet Engineering working group in 1994. URL is the
character string (address) which is used to access data from the internet. The URL
is the type of URI (Uniform Resource Identifier).

A URL contains the following information which is listed below:

 Protocol name
 A colon followed by double forward-slash (://)
 Hostname (domain name) or IP address
 A colon followed by port number (optional – unless specified otherwise,
“:80” is the default when using HTTP, and “:443” is the default when
using HTTPS)
 Path of the file
Syntax of URL:
protocol://hostname/filename
Protocol: A protocol is the standard set of rules that are used to allow electronic
devices to communicate with each other.
Hostname: It describes the name of the server on the network.
Filename: It describes the pathname to the file on the server.

Following are the important differences between Web Browser and Web
Server.

Sr. Key Web Browser Web Server

No.

1 Purpose Web Browser is a software Web server is a software which

 Sr. Key Web Browser Web Server
No.

which is used to browse and provides these documents when

display pages available over requested by web browsers.
internet.

Process A web browser sends request to Web server sees and approves those
2 server for web based documents requests made by web browsers and
and services. sends the document in response.

Process Web browser sends an HTTP Web server receives HTTP Request
3 Request and gets a HTTP and sends a HTTP Response.
Response.

Processing Web browser has no processing Web server follows three major
4 Model model. processing models: process based,
thread based or hybrid.

Data Web browsers stores user data in Web server provide an area to store
5
Storage cookies in local machine. the website.

Installatio Web Browser is installed on Web server can be installed any

6 n user's machine. where but it need to be on a
network or on local computer.

7 Example Google Chrome Apache Server

Telnet
Telnet is a computer protocol that provides two-way interactive communication
compatibility for computers on the internet and local area networks.
Advantage of telnet
➨It can be used to send/receive information.
➨It helps in administration of the network elements.
➨It supports user authentication.
➨All the telnet clients and servers implement a network virtual terminal (NVT).
➨Automation test facilities are used by remote computers on shared basis. This
saves cost by limiting costly test equipments/facilities at selected locations for all
the users across the world
Http
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is application-level protocol for
collaborative, distributed, hypermedia information systems.
Feature of http

o HTTP is media independent: It specifies that any type of media content

can be sent by HTTP as long as both the server and the client can handle the
data content.
o HTTP is connectionless: It is a connectionless approach in which HTTP
client i.e., a browser initiates the HTTP request and after the request is sent
the client disconnects from server and waits for the response.
o HTTP is stateless: The client and server are aware of each other during a
current request only. Afterwards, both of them forget each other. Due to the
stateless nature of protocol, neither the client nor the server can retain the
information about different request across the web pages.

TCP
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol is a communications standard that
enables application programs and computing devices to exchange messages over a
network.

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission OSI refers to Open Systems
Control Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very strict

boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries
 TCP/IP follow a horizontal
approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

TCP/IP uses both session and

presentation layer in the OSI uses different session and
application layer itself. presentation layers.

TCP/IP developed protocols

then model. OSI developed model then protocol.

Transport layer in TCP/IP does

not provide assurance delivery In OSI model, transport layer provides
of packets. assurance delivery of packets.

TCP/IP model network layer Connection less and connection oriented

only provides connection less both services are provided by network
services. layer in OSI model.

While in OSI model, Protocols are better

Protocols cannot be replaced covered and is easy to replace with the
easily in TCP/IP model. change in technology.

Adressing

Addressing is a way of identifying each station/pc on a network(lan,man).

Tow way
1.IP address
2.Url
Difference between ip and url
Parameters
of URL IP Address
Comparison
 A URL is a uniform resource
An IP address is representative
Definition locator that represents a web
of a unique system.
server or a website.

With the help of a URL, you

With the IP, you can make a
can easily have a walk
Functionality connection with other devices to
through the website and can
transmit data.
see its front end.

A URL can consist of Well, an IP is made of numbers

Combination alphabets, numbers, or a with dots after some particular
combination of both. number set.

Since it doesn’t any interface

thing because it connects two or
Breaking
A URL has a locator, a path, a more system and with that, it
down
protocol, and a hostname looks AAA.BBB.CCC.DDD
address
where sequence lies between
001 to 255.

Some URL examples are

https:// Some examples of IP address are
Examples
www.google.com, https://ww 192.168.0.1, 192.168.0.2.
w.abcded.com.

Web server
Web server is a computer where the web content is stored. Basically web server is
used to host the web sites but there exists other web servers also such as gaming,
storage, FTP, email etc.
Features of Web Server:
1) Web Server can support to enlarge data storage, so it makes it capable to make
multiple websites.

2) Easy to configure log file set up which enables to hold all log files. Log files
helps to analyze web traffic.

3) It helps to control bandwidth that regulates network traffic, due to which it can
avoid the down time while flowing high volume web traffic.

4) Easy to make FTP websites which helps to move enlarged files from one site to
other site.

5) Easy to set up website configuration and directory security.

6) Easy to make virtual directories, and helps to map them along with physical
directories.

Causes of Server Overload

Web servers can become overloaded at any time due to one of the following
reasons:

 Sudden spikes in site traffic. When too many people attempt to visit your

web site at the same time, it can cause your server to become overload. An

example of this is when concert tickets go on sale, and the web site crashes

soon after. Spikes in traffic can be short-term, but the effects on your

business’s reputation can linger.

 One of your servers is completely unavailable. When one server is

unavailable due to maintenance or sudden malfunction, the backup server

can easily become overloaded while handling the extra traffic.

  Computer viruses or worms. When a large-scale number of browsers or

computers become infected by a virus or worm, it can cause abnormally high

traffic patterns that disrupt normal server operation.

 DoS or DDoS attacks. Denial-of-service or distributed-denial-of-service

attacks are attacks launched by hackers for the purpose of making a server

unavailable for its intended users. By flooding the network with false

requests, hackers crash the server and cause it to deny the real requests.

firewall
A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing
network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a
defined set of security rules.
bastion host
A bastion host is a server whose purpose is to provide access to a private network
from an external network, such as the Internet. Because of its exposure to potential
attack, a bastion host must minimize the chances of penetration.

Firewalls have become so powerful, and include a variety of functions and

capabilities with built-in features:

o Network Threat Prevention

o Application and Identity-Based Control
o Hybrid Cloud Support
o Scalable Performance
o Network Traffic Management and Control
o Access Validation
o Record and Report on Events
Types of Firewalls

 Packet filtering

A small amount of data is analyzed and distributed according to the filter’s

standards.

 Proxy service

Network security system that protects while filtering messages at the

application layer.

 Stateful inspection

Dynamic packet filtering that monitors active connections to determine

which network packets to allow through the Firewall.

 Next Generation Firewall (NGFW)

Deep packet inspection Firewall with application-level inspection.

Different implementations of Firewall architecture:

Screened Host Architecture:
Characteristics of Screened Host Architecture:

 Traffic from the Internet can only reach the bastion host; they
cannot reach the internal network.
 Traffic having the IP address of the bastion host can only go to
the Internet. No traffic from the internal network can go to the
Internet.

Appropriate Uses

A screened host architecture is appropriate when:

1.Few connections are coming from the Internet (in particular, it is not an
appropriate architecture if the screened host is a public web server).

2.The network being protected has a relatively high level of host security.
Dual-Homed Host Architecture:
Characteristics of Dual-Homed Host Architecture:

 One Packet Filtering Router.

 More restrictive form of Screened Host Firewall.
 Dual-Homed Host Architecture supports a Bastion Host with two Network
Interface Cards.

Appropriate uses
 A dual-homed host is an appropriate firewall for a situation where:
 1.Traffic to the Internet is small.
 2.Traffic to the Internet is not business-critical.
 3.No services are being provided to Internet-based users.
 4.The network being protected does not contain extremely valuable data.
Screened Subnet Firewall:
Characteristics of Screened Subnet Firewall:

 Screened Subnet Firewall supports Two Packet Filtering Router.

 One Bastion Host.

Appropriate Uses

A screened subnet architecture is appropriate for most uses.

Encryption: It is the process of locking up information using cryptography.
Information that has been locked this way is encrypted.

Decryption: The process of unlocking the encrypted information using

cryptographic techniques.

Key: A secret like a password used to encrypt and decrypt information. There are a
few different types of keys used in cryptography.

Types of Encryption
There are two types of encryptions schemes as listed below:
 Symmetric Key encryption
 Public Key encryption
What is Symmetric Encryption?

Symmetric encryption is a type of encryption where only one key (a

secret key) is used to both encrypt and decrypt electronic data. The
entities communicating via symmetric encryption must exchange
the key so that it can be used in the decryption process. This
encryption method differs from asymmetric encryption where a pair
of keys - one public and one private - is used to encrypt and decrypt
messages.

What is Asymmetric Encryption?

Asymmetric encryption is also known as public key cryptography, which is a
relatively new method, compared to symmetric encryption. Asymmetric encryption
uses two keys to encrypt a plain text. Secret keys are exchanged over the Internet
or a large network. It ensures that malicious persons do not misuse the keys. It is
important to note that anyone with a secret key can decrypt the message and this is
why asymmetric encryption uses two related keys to boosting security. A public
key is made freely available to anyone who might want to send you a message. The
second private key is kept a secret so that you can only know.
A message that is encrypted using a public key can only be decrypted using a
private key, while also, a message encrypted using a private key can be decrypted
using a public key. Security of the public key is not required because it is publicly
available and can be passed over the internet. Asymmetric key has a far better
power in ensuring the security of information transmitted during communication.
Asymmetric encryption is mostly used in day-to-day communication channels,
especially over the Internet. Popular asymmetric key encryption algorithm includes
EIGamal, RSA, DSA, Elliptic curve techniques, PKCS.

Difference Between Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption

 Asymmetric
Key Differences Symmetric Encryption
Encryption

Smaller cipher text Larger cipher text

Size of cipher text compares to original compares to original
plain text file. plain text file.

Used to transmit big Used to transmit small

Data size
data. data.

Asymmetric encryption
Symmetric key
Resource requires high
encryption works on low
Utilization consumption of
usage of resources.
resources.

RSA 2048-bit or higher

Key Lengths 128 or 256-bit key size.
key size.

Much safer as two keys

Less secured due to use
are involved in
Security a single key for
encryption and
encryption.
decryption.

Symmetric Encryption Asymmetric Encryption

uses a single key for uses two keys for
Number of keys
encryption and encryption and
decryption. decryption
 Asymmetric
Key Differences Symmetric Encryption
Encryption

It is a modern encryption
Techniques It is an old technique.
technique.

A single key for Two keys separately

encryption and made for encryption and
Confidentiality
decryption has chances decryption that removes
of key compromised. the need to share a key.

Asymmetric encryption
Symmetric encryption is
Speed is slower in terms of
fast technique
speed.

RC4, AES, DES, 3DES, RSA, Diffie-Hellman,

Algorithms
and QUAD. ECC algorithms.

What is CGI?

The Common Gateway Interface, or CGI, is a set of standards that define how
information is exchanged between the web server and a custom script.

CGI Architecture Diagram

Features of CGI:
 It is a very well defined and supported standard.
 CGI scripts are generally written in either Perl, C, or maybe just a
simple shell script.
 CGI is a technology that interfaces with HTML.
 CGI is the best method to create a counter because it is currently the
quickest
 CGI standard is generally the most compatible with today’s browsers
Advantages of CGI:
 The advanced tasks are currently a lot easier to perform in CGI than in
Java.
 It is always easier to use the code already written than to write your
own.
 CGI specifies that the programs can be written in any language, and on
any platform, as long as they conform to the specification.
 CGI-based counters and CGI code to perform simple tasks are available
in plenty.
Disadvantages of CGI:
There are some disadvantages of CGI which are given below:
 In Common Gateway Interface each page load incurs overhead by
having to load the programs into memory.
 Generally, data cannot be easily cached in memory between page loads.
 There is a huge existing code base, much of it in Perl.
  CGI uses up a lot of processing time.

What is URL?
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator is the global address of
documents and other resources on the World Wide Web. Its main
purpose is to identify the location of a document and other resources
available on the internet, and specify the mechanism for accessing it
through a web browser.

For instance, if you look at the address bar of your browser you will
see:
https://www.tutorialrepublic.com/html-tutorial/html-url.php
— This is the URL of the web page you are viewing right now.

The URL Syntax

The general syntax of URLs is the following:
scheme://host:port/path?query-string#fragment-id
A URL has a linear structure and normally consists of some of the
following:

 Scheme name — The scheme identifies the protocol to be used

to access the resource on the Internet. The scheme names
followed by the three characters :// (a colon and two slashes).
The most commonly used protocols are http://, https://, ftp://,
and mailto://.
 Host name — The host name identifies the host where resource
is located. A hostname is a domain name assigned to a host
computer. This is usually a combination of the host's local name
with its parent domain's name. For
example, www.tutorialrepublic.com consists of host's machine
name www and the domain name tutorialrepublic.com.
 Port Number — Servers often deliver more than one type of
service, so you must also tell the server what service is being
requested. These requests are made by port number. Well-known
 port numbers for a service are normally omitted from the URL.
For example, web service HTTP runs by default over port 80,
HTTPS runs by default over port 443.
 Path — The path identifies the specific resource within the host
that the user wants to access. For example, /html/html-
url.php, /news/technology/, etc.

 Query String — The query string contains data to be passed to

server-side scripts, running on the web server. For example,
parameters for a search. The query string preceded by a question
mark (?), is usually a string of name and value pairs separated by
ampersand (&), for example, ?
first_name=John&last_name=Corner, q=mobile+phone, and so on.

 Fragment identifier — The fragment identifier, if present,

specifies a location within the page. Browser may scroll to display
that part of the page. The fragment identifier introduced by a
hash character (#) is the optional last part of a URL for a
document.

FTP
o FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
o FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting
the files from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the
computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

Why FTP?
Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and
straightforward, but sometimes it can cause problems. For example, two
systems may have different file conventions. Two systems may have
different ways to represent text and data. Two systems may have different
directory structures. FTP protocol overcomes these problems by establishing
two connections between hosts. One connection is used for data transfer,
and another connection is used for the control connection.
Advantages of FTP:
o Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the
fastest way to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
o Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the
operations to get the entire file.
o Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and
password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
o Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth.
Suppose you are a manager of the company, you send some information to
all the employees, and they all send information back on the same server

Uses of FTP

1. FTP websites

Websites can be hosted using a variety of communication protocols, and hypertext transmission
protocol secure (HTTPS) is probably the most common one.

2. FTP web applications for file downloads

Several online download services rely on file transfer protocol, as it is a simple and efficient way
to host files. FTP supports a basic level of security by using a username and password. This
allows file sharers to build gate domains, where only those with the proper credentials can access
a file. Keep in mind that the file transfer protocol is limited to 2GB on web browsers, making it
unsuitable for sharing large files above this threshold.

3. FTP clients for storage and file sharing

Users can install FTP software applications like Cyberduck that enable file transfers via the FTP
communication protocol.
4. Single file-sharing or download

FTP is generally faster than other protocols when downloading a single file. It consumes fewer
resources and has a higher maximum bit rate than HTTP

5. Sharing non-sensitive information

A major use case for FTP is for sharing publicly available resources. This is because a plaintext
sign-in process authenticates FTP transactions. The user name, password, and other control
information are sent to the server in an unencrypted form. This makes it unsuitable for
confidential data like emails but perfect for publicly available resources. It prioritizes
convenience over security, suitable for downloading open-source software, non-copyrighted
media, etc.

6. FTP automation

File transfer protocol allows users to automate file transfer tasks, such as uploading files during
low traffic hours. Users can make their websites and file-sharing applications more efficient by
scheduling transfers beforehand, using one of the many automatic FTP uploaders available.
Files.com, WinSCP, and Core FTP are some of the most popular options. Also, the inherent
architecture of FTP makes it ideal for automated processes. For instance, Microsoft has many
pre-configured Power Automate workflows to handle FTP tasks.

7. Business to business data transfer

Enterprises can leverage FTP to share files with other organizations over a private network. It is
easy to set up and configure an FTP server without getting into the complexities of HTTPS. One
can gain from several free and open-source FTP download clients, and a private network helps
protect files from online threats. However, the technique prioritizes convenience, efficiency, and
resource optimization over security – something that enterprises should keep in mind when
exploring FTP use cases.

TCP/IP protocols

TCP/IP is a family of communication protocols used to connect computer systems in a network.

It is named after two of the protocols in the family: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP). Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a member of the TCP/IP family.

The protocols in the TCP/IP family correspond, in many cases, to the layers of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. Table 1 shows HTTP and the underlying layers of the TCP/IP
family in terms of the OSI model. The Systems Network Architecture (SNA) layers, which
approximately match the OSI layers, are also shown.
LayerOSI SNA TCP/IP
7 Application Application HTTP
Presentatio
6 Presentation (empty)
n
5 Session Data flow (empty)
4 Transport TransmissionTCP
3 Network Path control IP
2 Data link Data link Subnetwork
1 Physical Physical Subnetwork
Table 1. The layers of the TCP/IP protocol family

Internet Protocol (IP)

IP is a network-layer protocol that provides a connectionless data transmission service
that is used by TCP. Data is transmitted link by link; an end-to-end connection is never
set up during the call. The unit of data transmission is the datagram.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 TCP is a transport-layer protocol that provides a reliable, full duplex, connection-
oriented data transmission service. Most Internet applications use TCP.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is an application-layer protocol that is used for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia

information systems. HTTP is the protocol used between web clients and

What is a router?
A router is a device that connects two or more packet-switched networks or
subnetworks.

How does Router work?

A router analyzes a destination IP address of a given packet header and
compares it with the routing table to decide the packet's next path. The list
of routing tables provides directions to transfer the data to a particular
network destination. They have a set of rules that compute the best path to
forward the data to the given IP address.
Routers use a modem such as a cable, fiber, or DSL modem to allow
communication between other devices and the internet. Most of the routers
have several ports to connect different devices to the internet at the same
time. It uses the routing tables to determine where to send data and from
where the traffic is coming.

A routing table mainly defines the default path used by the router. So, it may
fail to find the best way to forward the data for a given packet. For example,
the office router along a single default path instructs all networks to its
internet services provider.

There are two types of tables in the router that are static and dynamic.
The static routing tables are configured manually, and the dynamic routing
tables are updated automatically by dynamic routers based on network
activity.

Features of Router

o A router works on the 3rd layer (Network Layer) of the OSI model, and
it is able to communicate with its adjacent devices with the help of IP
addresses and subnet.
o A router provides high-speed internet connectivity with the different
types of ports like gigabit, fast-Ethernet, and STM link port.
o It allows the users to configure the port as per their requirements in
the network.
o Routers' main components are central processing unit (CPU), flash
memory, RAM, Non-Volatile RAM, console, network, and interface card.
o Routers are capable of routing the traffic in a large networking system
by considering the sub-network as an intact network.
o Routers filter out the unwanted interference, as well as carry out the
data encapsulation and decapsulation process.
o Routers provide the redundancy as it always works in master and slave
mode.
o It allows the users to connect several LAN and WAN.
o Furthermore, a router creates various paths to forward the data

o A URL consists of five parts: the scheme, subdomain, top-level

domain, second-level domain, and subdirectory.
o Below is an illustration of the different parts of a URL.
o

Let's break down this URL structure below.

o URL Structure
o Scheme

The scheme tells web servers which protocol to use when it accesses a page on
your website.
o Nowadays, HTTPS — which stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure — is
the most common scheme. It tells your web browser to encrypt any information
you enter onto the page, like your passwords or credit card information, so
cybercriminals can’t access it. This security protocol protects your website
visitors and implementing it will help your site rank better on Google. That's why
implementing SSL is a must-do on any technical SEO guide.
o Other schemes you might see are mailto://, which can open your computer’s
default email service provider to help you draft an email to the email address you
entered in the URL, and ftp://, which is a standard protocol for transferring
computer files between a client and server on a computer network.
o Subdomain
o

If your website is like a house, your subdomains are like specific rooms
in that house. A subdomain in a URL indicates which particular page of
your website the web browser should serve up. For instance,
subdomains like “blog” or “offers” will provide your website’s blog page
or offers page.

o Subdomains also bucket your website into its main content categories and shows
Google and your visitors that there's more information on your site than just a
homepage.
o Second-level Domain
o

Your second-level domain (SLD) is the name of your website. It helps

people know they’re visiting a certain brand’s site. For instance, people
 who visit “mlb.com” know they’re on Major League Baseball’s website,
without needing any more information.
o Top-level Domain
o

The top-level domain (TLD) specifies what type of entity your

organization registers as on the internet.

o For example, “.com” is intended for commercial entities in the United States, so a
lot of American businesses register with a top-level domain of “.com”. Similarly
“.edu” is intended for academic institutions in the United States, so a lot of
American colleges and universities register with a top-level domain of “.edu”.
o Subdirectory
o

A subdirectory — also known as a subfolder — helps people as well

as web crawlers understand which particular section of a webpage
they’re on.

o For instance, if you own an online store that sells t-shirts, hats, and mugs, one of
your website’s URLs could look like “https://shop.yourstore.com/hats”. Notice that
the subdomain is “shop” and the subdirectory is “hats." That means this URL
would serve up the “Hats” page, which is a subfolder of the “Shop” page. T-shirts
and mugs would be other subfolders of this page