SUBJECT:

BASIC TECHNOLOGY

CLASS:
J.S.S. 2

TERM: Third

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 SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT

Gear Drive (a) Types of gear; internal gear, external gear and
1 level gear (b) Uses of gears; for power transmission,
changing of direction, selecting speed, etc. (c) Gear
ratio and speed rotation (d) Function of lubricants in
gears.
WOOD (1) 1. WOOD (i) Timber growth, felling, conversion
2 and seasoning (ii) Properties of good timber
preservatives (iii) Common timber defects;
twist, bowing, cupping, etc. (iv)Methods of
cutting veneers etc.

WOOD (2) : (v) Types of Manufactured boards – plywood, chip

board, block board, etc. (vi) Timber: Treatment and
3 timber preservation methods (vii) Importance of
timber treatment.

METALS (i) Production of metals; smelting, casting, etc. (ii)

Carbon properties of steels (iii) Types metal (iv)
4 Metal alloys. CLAY, CERAMICS AND GLASS (i)
Methods of making clay (ii) Stages in producing
Ceramics and Glass materials; shaping, blowing,
firing etc.
PLASTICS AND RUBBER: 1. (i)Methods of production of plastics;
injection molding, calendaring, etc.
(ii)Methods of producing rubber materials;
5 natural and synthetic (iii)Examples of plastics
and rubber products (iv) Advantages and
disadvantages of the different processing
methods. (v) Uses of plastic and rubber.

Isometric Drawing: (a) Examples of Isometric Drawings, Isometric

drawing of simple shape blocks without curves. (b)
6 Examples of Oblique Drawings, Simple Oblique
Drawings.

7 MID-TERM BREAK
Orthographic Projection (i) Principal planes- vertical and horizontal. (ii)
8 Angles of projection- First angle and Third angle. (iii)
Principal views- front, side, plan (iv) Placing principal
views in the quadrants. (v) Dimensioning techniques

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 Perspective Drawing: 1. (A) One- point Perspective drawing (i)
definition (ii) principles (iii) practice (iv)
9 examples and principles (B) Scales and Scales
Drawing (a) Measuring and comparing given
sizes. (b) Scale Drawing: full size, 1:1, scale
reduction e.g. 1:5, 1:10, 1:20. 1:100. etc. (c)
scale enlargement e.g. 2:1, 3:1 etc.

10 REVISION
11 REVISION
12 EXAMINATION
13

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WEEK: ONE

TOPIC: GEAR DRIVE

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
i. define gear and state different types of gears,
ii. State the uses of gears,
iii. calculate gear ratio and speed of rotation,
iv. state the functions of lubricants in gears.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught belt and chain drive by second term.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Gear drive

CONTENT:
A gear is a device used to transmit motion between parallel or inclined shafts that are
meshed to each other (such that the tooth on the wheel mounted on the shafts mesh
together). When two or more gears are in mesh, they are called GEAR TRAIN. Friction
always occurs between the meshed teeth of the gear train. Constant lubrication is
therefore necessary to prevent wearing. The teeth on each gears in mesh must be
uniformly spaced around the gear (that is symmetrical) for them to mesh properly and
to prevent damage of the tooth. Improperly meshed gears can also lead to seizure of the
gear train.
Seizure is the total movement stoppage of the gear train.
Unlike the belt and the chain drive, the driver and the driven gear move in different
direction. To make the driver and the driven gear move in the same direction, another
gear (called the IDLER) is inserted between the two (driver and the driven gear). Driver
gear is the gear that receives power from an engine while the driven gear receives
power from the driver gear.

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Types of gears
1. Spur gear: this has teeth parallel to the shaft of the gear.
2. Helical gear: this has teeth inclined to the shaft of the gear.
3. Worm gears: these are gears formed when a spur gear mesh with a screw.
4. Rack and pinion: these are gears that run on a flat toothed rack.
5. Planetary gears: these consist of a number of spur gear meshed with one another
and another gear with internal gear.
6. Bevel gears: these are gears used when power is to be transmitted between
inclined shafts

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A

1. A ____ is a machine part with teeth that mesh with the teeth of another gear to
transmit motion and power.
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 2. A ____ gear has teeth that are parallel to the axis of rotation.
3. A ____ gear has teeth that are inclined to the axis of rotation.
4. A ____ gear has teeth that are shaped like a herringbone.
5. A ____ gear has teeth that are angled in opposite directions.

Here are the answers to the fill in the gap questions:

1. Gear
2. Spur
3. Helical
4. Herringbone
5. Bevel
SECTION B
(i) What is gear drive?
(ii) Explain briefly the meaning of gear train.
(iii) What is Seizure?

SUB-TOPIC 2: USES OF GEAR

CONTENT:
Uses of gear drive
1. To transmit motion between two inclined or parallel shafts.
2. To change direction of motion.
3. For speed selection ( speed increase and speed reduction)
4. Gears are used for transmitting power /drive between shafts at angles..
Gear ratio
This can be defined as the ratio of the number of teeth on the driven gear to that on the
driver gear
𝑇2
𝐺= T1 is number of teeth on driver gear
𝑇1

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 T2 is number of teeth on driven gear
Speed ratio
This can be defined as the ratio of the speed of the driven gear to the speed of the driver
gear.
𝑺𝟐
𝑺=
𝑺𝟏

S1 speed of the driver gear

S2 is speed of the driven gear
The gear ratio and the speed ratio of a gear train are equal. The speed of rotation of the
driven gear depends on the number of teeth on the driven and the driver gear. Where a
large increase in speed is desired (like in the case of motor car), a compound gear train
is used.

Compound gear
The speed of the driven gear S2 is given as
𝑻𝟐
𝑺𝟐 = 𝑺𝟏 ×
𝑻𝟏
Where each symbols has it usual meaning.
Changing the direction of drive,
Chain drives cannot be used for changing the direction of rotation of drives. Belt drive
cannot be used to change direction of rotation of drive except when belt is crossed.
Gears can be used for changing the direction of motion. The beveled gear is often used
for changing direction of motion between two perpendicular/inclined shafts.
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PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A
1. A ____ gear is used to increase the ____ of a machine.
2. A ____ gear is used to decrease the ____ of a machine.
3. The ____ of a gear system is the ratio of the number of teeth on the input gear to
the number of teeth on the output gear.
4. The ____ of a gear system is the ratio of the output speed of the gear system to the
input speed of the gear system.
5. A ____ gear is used to change the direction of rotation of a machine.
Here are the answers to the fill in the gap questions:
1. Speed reducer
2. Speed increaser
3. Gear ratio
4. Speed ratio
5. Reversing gear
SECTION B
1. State the relationship between the gear ratio and the speed ratio of a gear train.
2. What do we use gear to transmit?
3. Differentiate between drive and the driven.

SUB-TOPIC 3: CALCULATIONS ON GEAR AND SPEED RATIO

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CONTENT:
Question 1: the number of teeth on the driver and the driven gear is 12 and 16
respectively. If the speed of the driver gear is 100rev/min, calculate (i) the gear ratio
(ii) speed of the driven gear
Solution
Number of teeth on the driver gear T1 = 12
Number of teeth on the driven gear T2 = 16
𝑇2
(i) Gear ratio G = ? 𝐺=
𝑇1

16
𝐺 = = 4⁄3
12
4
Gear ratio G =
3

(ii) Speed of the driver gear S1 = 100rpm

𝑇2
Speed of the driven gear S2 = ? 𝑆2 = 𝑆1 ×
𝑇1

16
𝑆2 = 100 × = 133.3𝑟𝑝𝑚
12
Speed of the driven gear S2 = 133.3 rpm
Question 2: A gear train is such that the number of teeth on the driver gear is 20 while
that on the driven is 8. If the speed of the driver gear is 150rev/min. calculate the speed
of the driven gear.
Solution
Number of teeth of the driver gear T1 = 20
Number of teeth on the driven gear T2 = 8
Speed of the driver gear S1 = 150rpm
Speed of the driven gear S2 = ?
𝑇2
𝑆2 = 𝑆1 ×
𝑇1
8
𝑆2 = 150 × = 40𝑟𝑝𝑚
30
Speed of the driven gear S2 = 40rpm

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 16
Question 3: in a compound gear train, the effective gear ratio is . if the speed of the
5
driver gear is 100rev/min, calculate the speed of the driven gear.
Solution
Speed of the driver gear S1 = 100rpm
𝑇2 16
Gear ratio 𝐺 = =
𝑇1 5

Speed of driven gear S2 = ?

𝑇2
𝑆2 = 𝑆1 ×
𝑇1
16
𝑆2 = 100 × = 320𝑟𝑝𝑚
5
Speed of the driven gear S2= 320rpm
5
Question 4: A gear train has a gear ratio of and a driven gear rotating at a speed of
2
180revolution per minute. What would have been the speed of the driver gear?
Solution
Speed of the driven gear S2 = 180rpm
5
Gear ratio 𝐺 =
2

Speed of the driver gear S1 = ?

𝑇1
𝑆1 = 𝑆2 ×
𝑇2
5
𝑆1 = 180 ×
2
180 × 5
𝑆1 =
2
180 × 5 = 𝑆1 × 2
180 × 5
𝑆1 = = 450 𝑟𝑝𝑚
2
Speed of the driver gear S1 = 450rpm
Practical

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The teacher should guide the students on how to use a hard cardboard to construct
gear with uniform tooth with the aid of the construction tools.
Using hard cardboard gear of different radii and their centre with nail at different
portion on a wood, the students should demonstrate the operation of compound gear.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A
1. The gear ratio is calculated by dividing the ____ of the output gear by the ____ of the
input gear.
2. The speed ratio is calculated by dividing the ____ of the output gear by the ____ of
the input gear.
3. The output speed is ____ to the input speed by a factor of the gear ratio.
4. The input speed is ____ to the output speed by a factor of the gear ratio.
5. The gear ratio can be used to ____ the speed of a machine.

Here are the answers to the fill in the gap questions:

1. number of teeth / number of teeth

2. output speed / input speed
3. inversely proportional
4. directly proportional
5. increase or decrease

SECTION B
The number of teeth on the driver and the driven gear is 12 and 16 respectively. If the
speed of the driver gear is 100rev/min, calculate:
(i) the gear ratio
(ii) speed of the driven gear
(iii) State your observation on the result in (i) and (ii).

SUB-TOPIC 4: FUNCTIONS OF LUBRICANTS IN GEARS

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CONTENT:
Lubricants are used in gears to reduce friction, wear, and heat. They also help to protect
the gears from corrosion and contamination. The type of lubricant used in a gear
system depends on the speed, load, and environment in which the gears operate.
There are two main types of lubricants used in gears: grease and oil. Grease is a thick,
oily substance that is applied to the gears and forms a film that reduces friction and
wear. Grease is also good at preventing dirt and contaminants from entering the gear
system. Oil is a thinner lubricant that flows more easily and can provide better cooling.
Oil is often used in high-speed or heavily loaded applications.
The following are some of the most common types of lubricants used in gears:
• Grease: This is the most common type of lubricant used in gears. It is thick and
sticky, which helps to keep it in place and prevent it from leaking. Grease is also
good at preventing dirt and contaminants from entering the gear system.
• Oil: Oil is a thinner lubricant than grease and flows more easily. This makes it a
good choice for high-speed or heavily loaded applications. Oil also has better
cooling properties than grease.
• Synthetic lubricants: Synthetic lubricants are made from synthetic oils and
polymers. They are more resistant to heat and oxidation than mineral oils,
making them a good choice for high-temperature applications.
• EP (extreme pressure) lubricants: EP lubricants contain additives that help to
prevent wear and scoring of the gear teeth. They are often used in high-speed or
heavily loaded applications.
The correct lubricant will help to extend the life of your gears and improve their
performance. It is important to consult with a lubricant expert to choose the right
lubricant for your specific application.
Here are some additional factors to consider when choosing a lubricant for gears:
• Speed: The faster the gears rotate, the more heat they will generate. This means
that a lubricant with good cooling properties is needed.
• Load: The heavier the load on the gears, the more wear they will experience. This
means that a lubricant with good load-carrying properties is needed.
• Environment: The environment in which the gears operate can also affect the
choice of lubricant. For example, in dusty environments, a lubricant with good
dust-dispersing properties is needed.
• Cost: The cost of the lubricant is also a factor to consider.
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It is important to regularly inspect and change the lubricant in your gears. This will help
to ensure that your gears are properly lubricated and protected from wear and damage.

IMPORTANCEOF APPLYING LUBRICANTS TO GEARS

(i) Lubricant prevents the gear surfaces from corrosion.
(ii) Lubricant prevents wear and tear of moving parts.
(iii) It reduces frictional effect.
(iv) Lubricant serves as a cooling agent to reduce the heat generated.
(v) It serves as cushion for the machine by filling the space between metal parts.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A
1. What type of lubricant is ____ for general-purpose applications?
2. What type of lubricant is ____ in high-speed or heavily loaded applications?
3. What type of lubricant is ____ made from synthetic oils and polymers?
4. What type of lubricant contains ____ that help to prevent wear and scoring of the
gear teeth?
5. ______ types of lubricant is important to regularly inspect and change?

Here are the answers to the fill in the gap questions:

1. Grease is the most common type of lubricant for general-purpose applications.

2. Oil is the most common type of lubricant in high-speed or heavily loaded
applications.
3. Synthetic lubricants are made from synthetic oils and polymers.
4. EP (extreme pressure) lubricants contain additives that help to prevent wear and
scoring of the gear teeth.
5. It is important to regularly inspect and change all type lubricant in your gears.

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 SECTION B

1. What is lubricant?
2. Why is it important to regularly inspect and change the lubricant in your gears?
3. Mention two (2) factors to be considered when choosing lubricant for your gear.

CONCLUSION
Gears are essential components in many machines and devices. They transmit power
and motion between rotating shafts, and they can be used to change the speed, torque,
or direction of rotation. Gears are typically made of metal, but they can also be made of
plastic or other materials.
The use of lubricants is important for gears for several reasons. First, lubricants reduce
friction between the gear teeth. This helps to prevent wear and tear on the gears, and it
also helps to keep the gears running smoothly. Second, lubricants help to cool the gears.
As the gears rub against each other, they generate heat. Lubricants help to carry away
this heat, preventing the gears from overheating. Third, lubricants can help to seal the
gears, preventing dirt and moisture from entering. This helps to extend the life of the
gears.

TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay
question)
SECTION A
1. Which of the following is not a use of gears?
A. To transmit power
B. To change the speed of rotation
C. To change the direction of rotation
D. To amplify force
E. To reduce friction
2. Which of the following is not a type of gear?
A. Spur gear
B. Helical gear
C. Bevel gear

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 D. Worm gear
E. Rack and pinion
3. Which of the following is the most important function of a lubricant in gears?
A. To reduce friction
B. To cool the gears
C. To seal the gears
D. To prevent wear and tear
E. To amplify force
4. Which of the following is the most common type of lubricant used for gears?
A. Oil
B. Grease
C. Synthetic lubricant
D. Water
E. Air
5. Which of the following is the best way to apply lubricant to gears?
A. Spray it on
B. Pour it on
C. Drip it on
D. Dip the gears in it
E. Brush it on
6. How often should you change the lubricant in your gears?
A. Every few months
B. Every year
C. Every 1,000 hours of operation
D. Every 10,000 hours of operation
E. Every 100,000 hours of operation
7. What are the signs of wear and tear on gears?
A. Excessive noise
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 B. Vibration
C. Heat
D. All of the above
8. What should you do if you notice signs of wear and tear on your gears?
A. Ignore it
B. Have the gears serviced by a qualified technician
C. Replace the gears
D. Both B and C
9. What are the benefits of using synthetic lubricants for gears?
A. They offer better performance in extreme conditions
B. They are more resistant to oxidation and thermal breakdown
C. They last longer than oil or grease
D. All of the above

10. What are the disadvantages of using synthetic lubricants for gears?
A. They are more expensive than oil or grease
B. They can be more difficult to find
C. They may not be compatible with all types of gears
D. All of the above
SECTION B
1. Gears are mechanical components that transmit __________ between rotating shafts.
2. The most common type of gear, used to transmit motion between parallel shafts,
is the __________ gear.
3. In a __________ gear system, the gear teeth are cut at an angle to the gear's axis,
allowing for smooth and quiet operation.
4. The purpose of using a __________ gear is to change the direction of rotation by 90
degrees.
5. Helical gears and spur gears belong to the category of __________ gears.
6. Worm gears are particularly useful when a __________ speed reduction is required.

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 7. The meshing of gears without proper lubrication can lead to increased __________
and wear.
8. Lubricants in gear systems serve to reduce __________ and dissipate heat generated
during operation.
9. An __________ lubrication system involves immersing gears in an oil bath to ensure
consistent lubrication.
10. The choice of lubricant viscosity depends on factors such as gear __________
and operating conditions.
Feel free to use these questions to test your knowledge or create educational materials
on gears and their properties.
SECTION C
1. What is gear drive?
2. Explain briefly the meaning of gear train.
3. Describe briefly the functions of three types of gears.
4. The gear ratio of a gear train is 7/4and the speed of the driver gear is 80rpm.
What is the speed of the driven gear?
5. (i)Mention two lubricants for gears.
(iii) State three importance of lubricants to gears

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Transmission: The process of transferring motion or power from one part of a
machine to another using gears.
Rotation: The circular movement around an axis, often used to describe how gears
move.
Teeth: The projections on the edge of a gear that engage with the teeth of another
gear to transmit motion.
Meshing: The interaction of gear teeth when they engage with each other.
Gear Ratio: The ratio of the number of teeth between two meshing gears, which
determines the speed and torque relationship.
Speed: The rate at which an object or gear rotates, often measured in revolutions per
minute (RPM) or rotations per second (RPS).
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 Torque: The rotational force generated by a gear that causes it to turn another gear.
Power Transfer: The transfer of mechanical energy from one gear to another,
enabling work to be done.
Direction: The way in which a gear's rotation is transferred to another gear, which
can change the direction of motion.
Axle: The central shaft around which a gear rotates.
Pinion: A small gear that engages with a larger gear, often used to transmit motion.
Spur Gear: A type of gear with straight teeth that are parallel to the gear's axis, used
for transmitting motion between parallel shafts.
Helical Gear: A type of gear with angled teeth that resemble a helix, providing
smoother and quieter operation compared to spur gears.
Bevel Gear: A gear with teeth that are cut on an angle, used to change the direction of
motion between non-parallel shafts.
Worm Gear: A gear with a screw-like thread that meshes with a toothed wheel,
providing high gear reduction.
Rack and Pinion: A gear mechanism consisting of a linear rack (straight teeth)
interacting with a pinion gear to convert rotational motion into linear motion.
Planetary Gear System: A complex gear arrangement where multiple gears rotate
around a central gear, allowing for various speed and torque combinations.
Sprocket: A toothed wheel with a chain or belt passing over it, used in chain drives to
transmit motion.
Chain Drive: A system that uses a chain and sprockets to transmit power between
distant components.
Lubrication: The application of a lubricant, such as oil or grease, to reduce friction
and wear between gear teeth during operation.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

In the heart of an ancient clock tower, an intricate system of gears and cogs controls the
movement of the clock's hands. However, something unusual has happened: the gears
seem to have shifted out of place, causing the clock's hands to move at erratic speeds.

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Your task is to restore order to the clockwork mechanism by correctly arranging the
gears. There are three gears: Gear A, Gear B, and Gear C. Each gear has a different
number of teeth: Gear A has 20 teeth, Gear B has 30 teeth, and Gear C has 40 teeth.
The clock's minute hand is attached to Gear A, the hour hand is attached to Gear B, and
Gear C serves as an intermediary between the two, transferring their motion.
Your challenge: Arrange the gears in a sequence that will make the clock's minute and
hour hands move at their usual, constant speeds, while also maintaining the correct
timekeeping relationship between them. The minute hand should make a complete
rotation (360 degrees) in 60 minutes, and the hour hand should complete a rotation in
12 hours.
Can you figure out the correct arrangement of the gears to solve this clockwork puzzle?
(Note: This puzzle involves understanding the concept of gear ratios to make the clock's
hands move smoothly and accurately.)

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
"Like the perfectly meshed gears of a well-designed machine, our determination and
collaboration drive us forward, transforming challenges into achievements." – Ekanem,
Ubong A.

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WEEK: TWO

TOPIC: PROCESSING OF MATERIALS

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
i. explain timber growth, felling, and seasoning,
ii. state properties of good timber preservatives,
iii. state common timber defects,
iv. list and explain different methods of cutting veneers.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught properties of wood in basic 7 first term.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Production of Wood Materials, Timber Growth and Felling.

CONTENT:
Wood is one of the oldest materials in technology. It is composed of cellulose, lignin and
other minor materials such as starch, resins, wax and gum. When closely observed,
wood is seen to be made up of tiny thread-like units called fibers.
Wood is classified as either hardwood or softwood. The older the tree, the bigger it
becomes. When the trees become mature, it is felled by the use of axe or chain saw and
sliced into standard market sizes for different purpose in furniture making and
construction of buildings.
Hard Wood: These are got from deciduous tree. They have broad leaves and their seeds
are enclosed in cases. Some examples include Mahogany, Afara, Opepe, Abura, Omo,
Agba, Sapele, Oak, Jarrah and Teak.
Soft Wood: These are got from coniferous trees (i.e. trees that bear naked seeds which
are in cones). They have narrow leaves and grow in the temperate regions of the world.
Examples include cedar, pine, fir, larch, spruce and European whitewood.
TREE GROWTH
Trees undergo two types of growth:

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 1. Primary or vertical growth. This takes place mainly near the tips of the
root and shoots of the tree and continues for the most part of the plant’s
life.
2. Secondary or horizontal growth. This results in increase in girth and
takes place mostly in the cambium.
STAGES OF PROCESSING WOOD
The stages of processing wood before becoming useful are:
i. Felling
ii. Conversion
iii. Seasoning
iv. Preservation.

FELLING OF TREES
The felling of trees for timber use is done broadly in two areas in Nigeria.
I. The Free Area
II. The Forest Reserve Area.
1. The Free Area: This is the area outside the forest reserve area and it is
owned by individuals. The amount of money paid to the government by
the timber contractor for permission to cut down any tree in the Free
Area for commercial purposes is called Tariff.
2. The Forest Reserve Area: This is the government owned area. The forest
reserved area is guarded by the forest guards. Hence, it is difficult for
anybody to cut down any tree in the forest reserve area without the
permission from the government. The amount of money paid for the
timber to be cut down in the forest reserve area depends on the volume
of the trees to be cut down. Hence, this is termed O.T.V i.e Out Turn
Volume.

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The portable powered saw used in cutting down trees is called Chain saw.

METHODS OF TRANSPORTING LOGS.

Logs are transported from the forest to sawmill, where they are sawn into the required
lengths and sizes of planks. Methods of transporting logs are:
I. By Road Transport

II. By Train

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III. By Waterways.

CONVERSION OF WOOD.
The conversion of wood is the process of sawing logs of timber with wood working
machines (Sawing machine) in the Sawmills into planks of required sizes or marketable
sizes or commercial sizes. The popular methods of conversion of logs of timber into
planks are:
I. The plain (through and through) method
II. The quarter sawn method
III. The tangential sawn method
1. Plain Sawn Method: The plain sawn method is also known as through and
through method. In plain sawn method, planks are sawn parallel to the axis of the
tree trunk. This method of sawing planks is used for producing planks which are
needed for doors, windows and roofs of houses. The planks are cut parallel to the
axis of the wood.

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 2. Quarter Sawn Method: This method is simply the sawing of timber plank after
plank. The Quarter sawn method is the method of conversion of timber along the
rays of the wood. In quarter sawn method, planks are cut at right angles to the
growth rings. This method of sawing planks is used for producing planks which
are cut with the growth rings running through the thickness of the planks.

Tangential Sawn Method: Tangential sawn method of sawing planks in which the planks
are cut so that their wide edges are tangential to the growth rings.

Some of the machines used for conversion of trees are:

a) The circular saw

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 b) The horizontal log band saw
c) The vertical log band saw
d) The frame saw.
SEASONING OF WOOD.
Wood contains a great deal of water. The water content must be reduced by a process
known as seasoning before the wood can become useful. Seasoning of wood is the
process of drying or reducing the excess water in the wood. The excess water is called
moisture content.
Methods of seasoning wood:
There are two methods of seasoning wood.
1. The Air seasoning( Natural Seasoning)
2. The Kiln Seasoning ( Artificial Seasoning)
1. The Air Seasoning: This is also called Natural seasoning. This method of
seasoning wood involves stacking the wood in the open shed for a long period
of time and allows it to dry naturally. The stacked planks (wood) are arranged
on top of one another with pieces of small wood called stackers in between
them in order to allow the free circulation of air.
Advantages:
➢ It is relatively cheap.
➢ It requires little attention
Disadvantages:
➢ The rate of drying is slow, so it takes a very long time to be seasoned.
➢ There is no control over the drying process.

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 2. The Kiln Seasoning: This method of seasoning wood, involves stacking the
timber in a specially heated chamber. The planks are stacked in the same way
as in the air seasoning, but the planks are placed in a specially heated chamber
called kiln. In this process, the rate of drying planks is faster than air seasoning
method.

REASONS FOR SEASONING WOOD

1. It makes the wood become lighter in weight.
2. It makes the wood become more stable.
3. It makes the wood to take paints, polishes and preservatives easily.
4. It makes the wood to be durable i.e. last longer
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 5. It reduces the attack of fungi and insects on wood.
6. It reduces the moisture content of the wood.
To calculate the moisture content present in the wood:.

M.C = Wet weight Dry weight X 100

Dry weight. 1
Example 1
A sample of wood weighs 70kg when wet and after seasoning weighs 40kg. What is the
percentage moisture content?
Solution: M.C = Wet sample – Dry sample X 100
Dry sample 1
Wet sample= 70kg
Dry sample= 40kg
M.C= ?
70 - 40 X 100
40 1
30 X 100
40 1
M.C=75%

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A
1. The process of converting a tree into lumber is called _____.
2. The amount of time it takes for a tree to grow to maturity depends on the _____.
3. The best time to fell a tree is during the _____ season.
4. The process of drying timber to remove moisture is called _____.
5. The best way to store seasoned timber is in a _____ place.
SECTION B
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 1. What is timber?
2. Mention two places where felling of trees for timber is carried out in Nigeria.
3. State why wood seasoning id important.

SUB-TOPIC 2: Properties of good timber preservatives

CONTENT:
Here are the properties of good timber preservatives :
Toxicity: The preservative should be toxic to insects, fungi, and other wood-destroying
organisms.
Penetration: The preservative should be able to penetrate into the wood fibers to
protect them from the inside out.
Durability: The preservative should be able to last for a long time without losing its
effectiveness.
Cost-effectiveness: The preservative should be affordable and easy to obtain.
Safety: The preservative should be safe to use and handle, even for young students.

Here are some examples of timber preservatives that meet these properties:
• Copper sulfate
• Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
• Alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ)
• Boron
• TimberTreat
It is important to note that not all timber preservatives are created equal. Some
preservatives are more effective than others, and some are more harmful to the
environment. It is important to choose a preservative that is appropriate for the specific
application and that is safe for the people who will be using it.

Here are some additional tips for choosing a timber preservative:

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 ▪ Read the label carefully to make sure that the preservative is approved for the
intended use.
▪ Follow the instructions on the label carefully when applying the preservative.
▪ Wear gloves and goggles when applying the preservative to protect yourself from
skin contact and eye exposure.
▪ Dispose of any leftover preservative properly.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A
1. A good timber preservative should be _____ to insects, fungi, and other wood-
destroying organisms. (toxic)
2. The preservative should be able to _____ into the wood fibers to protect them from
the inside out. (penetrate)
3. The preservative should be _____ to last for a long time without losing its
effectiveness. (durable)
4. The preservative should be _____ and easy to obtain. (cost-effective)
5. The preservative should be _____ to use and handle, even for young students.
(safe)
SECTION B
1. Explain why toxicity is an important property of a good timber preservative.
2. Discuss the importance of penetration in a good timber preservative.
3. Why is durability an important property of a good timber preservative?

SUB-TOPIC 3: Common Timber Defects

CONTENT:
A defect in timber is any feature in timber that reduces the market value, strength,
quality and durability of timber.
Types of defects in timber.
Defects in timber can be grouped into two types:
I. The Natural defects
II. The Artificial defects.
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THE NATURAL DEFECTS:
The Natural defects in timber are those defects that are caused by natural occurrences
such as thunder, rain, growth circumstances etc. Examples of natural defects are:
1. Shakes : These are disruptions in the wood fibre which show up as splits and
separation of parts of the stem of a tree. The following are the different types of
shakes.
(i) Heart shakes: This is visible on the cross-section of the centre of the log,
extending along the rays

(ii) Star Shakes: This is similar to the heart shake, but with more spilts like star.
(iii) Cup Shakes: These are visible cracks which go round the growth ring of the
wood.
(iv) Ring Shakes: These are circular cracks on the timber.
2. Knots: knots are the portions of the branches enclosed within the growing wood.
The defect spoils the appearance and reduce the strength and properties of the
wood. There are two types of knots, namely: Live knots and dead knots,

3. Cross grain: This is a term describing the deviation of the wood fibres from a
direction parallel to the longitudinal (i.e. length wise) axis of the tree. This can be
spiral, diagonal or interlocked.
4. Reaction Wood: This is a defect found in leaning (or bending) trees. Some parts of
the timber appear compressed and denser.

THE ARTIFICIAL DEFECTS:

The artificial defects are those defects that are caused by human beings through
careless handling of the wood while processing.
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Examples :

➢ Cup: This is the concave curvature across the face of the timber.
➢ Bow: This is either concave or convex curvature along the length of the plank.
➢ Check: This is the separation of the wood along the grains of the wood.
➢ Twist: This is the spiral form of distortion along the length of the plank.
➢ Insect Attack: This is the visible minute holes seen on the surface of the wood.
The insects always attack sap wood.
➢ Warps: The warp in timber is called twists. They are caused by improper
seasoning procedures of wood fibers.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A
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 1. A _____ is a natural defect in timber that occurs when a branch dies off and the
base becomes enclosed by a second layer of wood. (knot)
2. A _____ is a defect in timber that occurs when the wood splits along the grain.
(check)
3. A _____ is a defect in timber that occurs when the wood dries unevenly and warps
or twists. (bow)
4. A _____ is a defect in timber that occurs when the wood is damaged by insects or
fungi. (decay)
5. A _____ is a defect in timber that occurs when the wood is damaged by fire.
(charring)
SECTION B
1. What is a bow?
2. What is a knot?
3. What is a check?

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay
question)
SECTION A
Processing Timber
1. Which of the following is not a step in the processing of timber?
o (A) Felling
o (B) Seasoning
o (C) Sawing
o (D) Burning
2. The process of drying timber to remove moisture is called:
o (A) Felling
o (B) Seasoning
o (C) Sawing
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 o (D) Burning
3. The best time to fell a tree is during the:
o (A) Dormant season
o (B) Wet season
o (C) Dry season
o (D) Summer season
Properties of Good Preservatives
4. Which of the following is not a property of a good timber preservative?
o (A) Toxicity
o (B) Penetration
o (C) Durability
o (D) Cost-effectiveness
5. The preservative that is most harmful to the environment is:
o (A) Copper sulfate
o (B) Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
o (C) Alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ)
o (D) TimberTreat

Common Timber Defects

6. Which of the following is not a common timber defect?
o (A) Knot
o (B) Check
o (C) Bow
o (D) Warp
7. Which of the following defects is caused by insects or fungi?
o (A) Knot
o (B) Check
o (C) Bow
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 o (D) Decay
8. Which of the following defects is caused by uneven drying?
o (A) Knot
o (B) Check
o (C) Bow
o (D) Warp
9. A good timber preservative should have __________ properties to protect wood
from decay and insects. a) Aesthetic b) Biocidal c) Reflective d) Conductive
10. The effectiveness of a timber preservative should last for a(n) __________
period. a) Short b) Indefinite c) Temporary d) Extended

Answers:
1. (D) Burning
2. (B) Seasoning
3. (A) Dormant season
4. (D) Cost-effectiveness
5. (B) Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
6. (D) Warp
7. (D) Decay
8. (C) Bow
9. (B) Biocidal
10. (D) Extended
SECTION B
1. The process of converting logs into lumber is called ______.
2. A ______ is a defect in wood that occurs when a branch dies and falls off.
3. A ______ is a defect in wood that occurs when the fibers of the wood are not
aligned properly.
4. A ______ is a defect in wood that occurs when the wood is not properly seasoned.
5. A ______ is a defect in wood that occurs when the wood is attacked by insects or
fungi.
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 6. A good timber preservative should be ______, ______, and ______.
7. The most common type of timber preservative is ______.
8. Timber preservatives can be applied by ______, ______, or ______.
9. The effectiveness of a timber preservative can be extended by ______ and ______.
10. The effectiveness of a timber preservative should last for ______ years.
Here are the answers to the questions:
1. Sawing
2. Knot
3. Check
4. Cupping
5. Decay
6. Toxic, non-toxic, and effective
7. Creosote
8. Pressure impregnation, brushing, and spraying
9. Keeping the timber dry and protected from sunlight
10. 10 to 20

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

• Stain: A liquid that is applied to wood to change its color. Stains can be used to
enhance the natural beauty of wood or to create a specific look.
• Sawing: The process of cutting wood into boards or other shapes. Sawing is used
to produce lumber and other wood products.
• Seasoning: The process of drying wood to a moisture content that is suitable for
use. Seasoning helps to prevent wood from warping, cracking, and shrinking.
• Shaping: The process of giving wood a desired shape. Shaping can be done by
sawing, planing, sanding, and other methods.
• Capping: A process of applying a protective coating to the end grain of wood.
Capping helps to prevent the end grain from absorbing moisture and swelling.
• Checking: A defect in wood that occurs when the wood dries unevenly. Checking
can cause the wood to crack.
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 • Chlorinated copper arsenate (CCA): A type of timber preservative that is used to
protect wood from decay and insect attack. CCA is a toxic substance, so it is
important to handle it with care.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Search the following words:

PRESSURE
LAMINATE
VARNISH
CARVING
SAWING

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
"From the raw strength of timber to the enduring legacy it becomes, our hands shape
not just wood, but time itself. Through meticulous processing and steadfast
preservation, we transform nature's gift into a lasting testament of craftsmanship and
sustainability."- Ekanem, Ubong A.

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WEEK: THREE (3)

TOPIC: PROCESSING OF WOOD (2)

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the student should be able to:
i. define veneers and state different methods of making veneers,
ii. identify and differentiate different types of manufactured boards,
iii. explain how timber is treated and preserved,
iv. state different methods of applying preservatives on timber.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught wood processing last week.

SUB-TOPIC 1: VENEERS
CONTENT:
Veneers : A veneer is a thin layer or sliced sheet obtained from wood. The thickness of
the veneers ranges from 0.5mm – 3.0mm

Method of making veneers

1. Rotary method
2. Slicing method
3. Eccentric method

1. Rotary Method. The rotary method requires the wood to be steamed in other to
loosen the fiber and make it easy to peel with knives attached to the lathe

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 machine. With the lathe machine, large sheets of veneers can be produced and cut
to marked sizes for commercial purposes.

2. Slicing Method. The timber is safely attached to the slicing machine. The knife or
the cutting blade on the machine will be set on the wood depending on the
thickness of the veneer required. The thickness is set after every stroke. On
switching on the machine, it slices the sheet of wood to the required thickness
depending on the purpose of the veneer.

3. Eccentric Peeling. In eccentric peeling method, the log of wood is first cut into
four parts each of which is called quarter log. Each log is placed on the lathe
machine with the sapwood at the centre. The peeling of the veneer commences
from the heartwood to the sapwood.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A
1. Veneers are thin sheets of wood used for ________purposes and to enhance the
appearance of furniture.( decorative)
2. The process of making veneers involves _____or peeling thin layers of wood from a
larger log.( slicing)
3. Veneers are commonly used to cover the surface of __________, cabinets, and even
walls.( furniture)
4. A popular method of cutting veneers is to use a rotary cutter, which peels a
continuous sheet of wood from the log.
5. Veneers are often glued onto a substrate to create strong and durable surfaces.
SECTION B
1. What are veneers?
Veneers are thin sheets of wood that are used to cover the surface of furniture,
cabinets, and other objects for decorative purposes.
2. How are veneers made?
Veneers are made by slicing or peeling thin layers of wood from a larger log. This
can be done using methods like rotary cutting or slicing with a knife.
3. Why are veneers glued onto a substrate?
Veneers are glued onto a substrate to create a strong and durable surface. The
substrate provides stability and support to the thin veneer, making it suitable for
various applications.
Remember, when discussing veneers and their production methods with basic 8
students, it's important to use simple language and provide clear explanations to
ensure understanding.

SUB-TOPIC: MANUFACTURED BOARD

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CONTENT:
Manufactured boards, also known as engineered wood or composite boards, are
materials made from wood fibers, particles, or veneers that are bound together using
adhesives, heat, and pressure. These boards are designed to have specific properties
and are used for various purposes in construction, furniture making, and more.
Types and Manufacture of Laminated Boards
Laminated boards are man-made boards manufactured by gluing two or more veneers
together, wood waste, synthetic and impregnated paper bonds. Types and methods of
manufacture of laminated boards are as follows;
1. Examples of Man-made boards.
I. Plywood

II. Particle board

III. Laminated board

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IV. Chip board

V. Composite board

VI. Pattern board

VII. Block boards

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 1. Plywood: Plywood is produced by bonding three or more veneers together with
strong glue. The grain of each sheet of veneer is laid at right angle to each other.
After successfully bonding the sheets of veneers together, they are cut in different
sizes for commercial purposes such as 2440mm X 1220mm with thickness,
ranging from 1 to 25mm.
2. Chipboards: Chipboards are produced with wood chips. The chips which are
wastes from wood are mixed with glue. After mixing thoroughly with glue they
are pressed together and heated to form boards. The boards can be veneered to
form smooth surfaces. Chipboards can be used in the construction of kitchen
cabinets.
3. Blockboards: Blockboards are made of strips of wood placed side by side and
covered with veneers. It is similar to plywood. But it is thicker, stronger and
cannot be bent easily. They can be used in the construction of different types of
cabinets including tables, cupboards and room dividers.
4. Hardboards: They are manufactured from waste wood mixed and mashed with
hardeners and bonding materials like glue. After mixing with glue or any other
bonding material they are pressed with great pressure and high temperature.
Hardboards can be faced with veneer, enamel and plastics.
5. Laminated Plastics: They are manufactured from synthetic resin and impregnated
paper. The materials are bonded together with great pressure and heat is applied.
Laminated plastics do not allow the passage of water through them. They are
strong and durable.

ADVANTAGES OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS

Manufactured boards have the following advantages over solid wood.
i. They are available in flat large sheets.
ii. They can be cut easily and worked on.
iii. They can be easily nailed without splitting.
iv. They can be bent to form curves.
v. They do not check or warp like solid wood.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
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 SECTION A
1. Veneers are thin sheets of wood used for _______ purposes and to enhance the
appearance of furniture.( decorative)
2. Plywood is a type of manufactured board made by layering thin sheets of wood
veneers (plies) together, with each layer's grain direction _______to the adjacent
layer. (perpendicular)
3. Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF) is known for its ________ and uniform surface,
making it ideal for painting or finishing.( (smooth)
4. Particleboard is made from wood particles and adhesive that are pressed
together under heat and pressure to create a board with ________density.(
consistent)
5. Oriented Strand Board (OSB) is often used in ______ for applications like flooring,
walls, and roofs due to its strength and affordability.( construction)
SECTION A
1. What are veneers? Veneers are thin sheets of wood used for decoration and
improving the look of furniture and other items.
2. Name three types of manufactured boards. Three types of manufactured boards
are plywood, Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF), and Particleboard.
3. What are the advantages of manufactured boards? Manufactured boards have
advantages such as being cost-effective, having uniform properties, and reducing
the need to cut down large trees since they use wood particles or veneers.

SUB-TOPIC 3: TREATMENT AND TIMBER PRESERVATION

CONTENT:
This is the process of prolonging the life span of wood by the application of wood
preservatives.
Wood preservatives are applied to the planks to prevent insect and fungal attack.
Wood Preservatives: These are the chemicals used to poison the destructive agents in
the wood. Examples are fungi, insects, and termites. Some of the chemicals used as the
wood preservatives are solignum, creosote, phenols, paints etc.
Types of wood preservatives:
There are three major types of wood preservatives depending on the method of mixing.
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 1. Water soluble preservatives: These are the chemicals that can be mixed
thoroughly with water only.
2. Oils soluble preservatives: These are the chemicals that can be mixed thoroughly
with oils only.
3. Solvent soluble preservatives: These are the chemicals that can be mixed
thoroughly with evaporating liquids only.
Methods of Applying the Preservatives:
The methods of applying good preservatives to dry wood are:
i. Brushing Method: This is the process of using brush to apply preservatives
to the wood.
ii. Spraying Method: This is the process of using spraying gun to apply
preservatives to the wood.
iii. Cold Immersion Method: This is the method of immersing (dipping) planks
in an unheated solution of preservatives for one or two days.
iv. Open Tank Method (Hot and Cold Method): This is the process in which the
plank is immersed in a tank containing hot liquid preservatives. This
process is normally used for Treating poles and fence posts.
v. Pressure Treatment Method: This is process in which planks are placed
inside an enclosed metal cylinder. In the process, the preservatives are
being forced into the plank under high pressure. This enables the wood to
be preserved either by pumping the solution into the entire cell cavity or by
merely coating the cell wall with the preservatives and finally draining the
cell cavity, leaving the cell saturated with preservatives, when the process is
completed.
Properties of Good preservatives:
The following are the properties of good preservatives:
I. It must be poisonous to the destructive agents.
II. It must be safe to handle
III. It must be permanent to the wood on application
IV. It must be easy to apply on the wood
V. It must be chemically stable for a long time on application to the wood.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
SECTION A
1. One method of applying preservatives on timber is _________, where the
preservative is painted onto the wood's surface.(Brushing)
2. __________is a method where timber is immersed in a preservative solution to allow
it to soak and absorb the treatment.( Dipping)
3. ________involves using special equipment to force preservatives deep into the
timber under ______ pressure.( Pressure treatment, high)
4. ________is a technique where preservatives are applied using a nozzle, creating a
fine mist that covers the timber.( Spraying)
5. __________is a method in which timber is placed in a vacuum chamber before being
exposed to preservatives, allowing them to be drawn in as the vacuum
is__________.( Vacuum treatment, released )
Short Answer Questions:
1. How is the dipping method used to apply preservatives on timber? In the dipping
method, timber is submerged in a preservative solution, allowing it to soak and
absorb the treatment to protect it from decay and insects.
2. What is pressure treatment for timber preservation? Pressure treatment involves
using special equipment to force preservatives deep into the timber under high
pressure. This helps ensure that the preservatives penetrate the wood's inner
layers for better protection.
3. Name two methods of applying preservatives that involve using liquids. Two
methods involving liquids are brushing (painting the preservative) and spraying
(applying the preservative as a fine mist using a nozzle).

CONCLUSION
In summary, wood processing in basic technology education for eighth graders covers
essential processes such as harvesting, cutting, shaping, joinery, sanding, finishing,
assembly, safety, and sustainability. This knowledge equips students with practical skills
to work with wood and instills an understanding of responsible resource use and
craftsmanship.
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TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay
question)
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Which process involves transforming raw wood into useful products? a) Logging
b) Harvesting c) Timber processing d) Tree planting
2. Which of the following is a common effect of timber exposure to moisture? a)
Increased strength b) Decreased durability c) Enhanced color d) Reduced weight
3. Veneers are thin slices of wood used for: a) Firewood b) Structural support c)
Decoration d) Insulation
4. What is the purpose of applying timber preservatives? a) Enhance the natural
color of wood b) Add fragrance to wood products c) Protect wood from decay and
pests d) Increase the weight of wood
5. Which manufactured board is made from compressed wood fibers? a) Plywood b)
Particleboard c) Veneer board d) Hardboard
6. What is a notable advantage of manufactured boards over solid wood? a) Higher
cost b) Limited availability c) Natural grain patterns d) Consistency in size and
shape
7. Timber processing involves: a) Planting and cultivating trees b) Creating digital
designs of wood products c) Transforming raw wood into usable items d)
Investigating insect habitats in wood
8. Which timber effect refers to the process of altering wood color through chemical
treatment? a) Veneering b) Staining c) Joinery d) Planing
9. The method of applying pressure and adhesive to bond wood layers is called: a)
Cutting b) Veneering c) Laminating d) Sanding
10. Which type of timber processing helps prevent wood from rotting and
insect damage? a) Cutting b) Sanding c) Preserving d) Joinery
Fill in the Gap Questions:
1. Veneers are thin _______ of wood used for decorative purposes.
2. The process of applying timber preservatives is known as wood _______.
3. _______ is a manufactured board made from compressed wood fibers and adhesive.
4. Timber processing involves transforming raw wood into _______ products.
5. One advantage of manufactured boards is their consistent _______ and shape.
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 6. Timber exposed to moisture can experience reduced _______ and decay.
7. Joinery involves _______ wood pieces securely.
8. The method of altering wood color through chemical treatment is called _______.
9. _______ involves cutting thin layers from a log to create veneers.
10. _______ boards are known for their sustainability due to responsible forestry
practices.
Essay Questions:
1. Explain the process of timber processing and its importance in creating
functional wood products.
2. Describe two common effects of timber exposure to moisture and how these
effects can be minimized.
3. Discuss the process of cutting veneers from a log and how they are used in
woodworking.
4. Detail the methods used to apply timber preservatives, including their benefits in
wood durability.
5. Compare and contrast solid wood with manufactured boards, highlighting the
advantages of manufactured boards for eighth-grade students learning about
basic technology.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

Plywood: A manufactured board made by gluing together layers of thin wood veneers
with alternating grain directions to create a strong and versatile sheet material.
Particleboard: An engineered wood product produced by compressing wood particles,
such as sawdust and wood chips, with adhesive to form a dense and flat board.
MDF (Medium-Density Fiberboard): A type of manufactured board made by
compressing wood fibers with adhesive to create a smooth and uniform board with
medium density, commonly used for furniture and cabinetry.
OSB (Oriented Strand Board): An engineered wood panel made by arranging wood
strands in specific orientations and binding them with adhesive to create a sturdy board
used for construction and structural applications.

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Hardboard: A dense and rigid manufactured board created by compressing wood fibers
with heat and pressure, often used for applications like paneling and furniture backing.
Veneer Board: A type of manufactured board consisting of a core material (usually
particleboard or MDF) with a thin layer of decorative wood veneer applied to the
surface.
Chipboard: An engineered wood product produced by compressing wood chips and
particles with adhesive to form a cost-effective and versatile board, commonly used in
furniture and interior applications.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Brain Teaser: Jack was working on a woodworking project using untreated wood. He
wanted to ensure his creation would last for a long time, so he decided to apply a timber
preservative. However, he wanted to be eco-friendly and chose a preservative that was
known for being safe for the environment. The preservative he chose is commonly used
for treating wood and is derived from a natural mineral.
Can you guess which timber preservative Jack chose for his project?

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
1. "Just as we preserve our dreams, timber preservatives protect wood's dreams of
lasting for generations."
2. "In the hands of craftsmen, timber preservatives become the guardians of time,
allowing nature's beauty to endure."
3. "As the sun and rain dance upon wood, timber preservatives stand as nature's
allies, shielding its elegance from the elements."
4. "Sustainability whispers in every brushstroke of timber preservatives, a promise
to future forests and the stories they hold."
5. "In the realm of woodworking, timber preservatives are the silent sentinels,
transforming vulnerable wood into enduring legacies."
6. "A touch of preservation today is a gesture of respect to the craftspeople of
tomorrow and the timeless beauty of wood."
7. "With each application of timber preservatives, we honor the past and forge a
path for the wood's future grace."
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 8. "The art of woodworking extends beyond hands and tools; it involves the heart of
preservation, ensuring wood's tales live on."
9. "Wood, like life, gains character with age. Timber preservatives are the guardians
of this evolution."
10. "Timber preservatives: where science meets art, and wood's history is
written in the language of preservation."
Feel free to use these quotes to inspire discussions, presentations, or reflections on the
importance and impact of timber preservatives.

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WEEK: FOUR

TOPIC: PROCESSING OF METALS

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
i. explain the uses of ferrous and non-ferrous metals,
ii. state and explain different methods of producing metals,
iii. list and explain carbon properties of steel,
iv. define alloys of metals and state different types of alloy.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught processing of wood previous week.

SUB-TOPIC 1:

CONTENT:
Metallic materials are materials which are referred to as good conductors of heat and
electricity. Metals are gotten from Iron ore which is the raw material for metal
production. The Iron Ore is dug from the ground along with the impurities such as
silica, alumina, phosphorus and sulphur etc. The impurity is also known as gangue.
Processing of metals can be done through the following stages:
i. Smelting
ii. Casting
iii. Alloying
iv. Forming
v. Shaping
vi. Finishing

1. Smelting: is the process of removing impurities from iron ore through the
application of heat. Smelting takes place in a high temperature oven known as
blast furnace. The blast furnace is a smelting (burning plant) used for processing
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 iron ore into pig-iron. To smelt iron-ore in the blast furnace, hot air is blown from
the bottom part of the blast furnace (tuyeres) and other chemicals or additives
such as coke (which serves as fuel) and limestone (which removes impurities)
are added to the iron-ore through the top opening of the furnace to remove
impurities known slag. After removing the impurities from Iron Ore, the product
left is called Pig-Iron. The Pig iron in its ordinary state cannot be used without
further processing; as it contains saturated iron and high percentage of carbon.
This is weak and can break easily. Hence, it forms the basis of all ferrous metals
containing about 4 to 5% carbon.
In order to render pig iron usable such as cast Iron, steels and wrought Iron, the
percentage of carbon in it must be reduced by reheating processes through casting,
forming, alloying etc.

1. Cast Iron: This is obtained when pig Iron is put into a cupola furnace. In this
furnace, the carbon content is reduced to about 3.5%. The molten Iron is then
poured from the furnace into a container, called mould, so as to solidify it. This
process of pouring molten iron into a mould to solidify into a described shape is
called casting, hence, the name cast iron.
Examples of cast iron
i. Ductile (chilled) cast iron
ii. Malleable cast iron
iii. Grey cast iron
iv. White cast iron.

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 2. Steel: This is obtained when the carbon content of pig iron is reduced to 1.5 or
less. Steels are named according to the carbon content present in them. These
steels are called Plain Carbon Steels because they are made up of carbon and iron.
I. Low carbon steel: (mild steel) this contains about 0.3% or less of carbon.
II. Medium carbon steel: This contain between 0.3%- 0.5% of carbon.
III. High carbon steel: This contains between 0.6%- 1.5% of carbon.
Furnaces used for steel productions are open hearth and Bessemer converter.
3. Wrought Iron: The wrought iron is obtained by removing the carbon content
present in the pig iron. It is soft, easily bent and does not break or rust easily. This
is almost pure iron with little slag on it. The wrought iron has no carbon content
in them. It is almost rust proof. It is malleable and ductile and can be easily forged
into the required shape. Wrought Iron is used in the manufacture of chairs,
boilers, plates, gears and so forth.
Casting: This is the process of melting and pouring molten metal into the mould where
it cools down to solidify.
Smelting: This is the process of extracting metals from its iron-ore to a liquid state by
heating. In this process, all impurities are extracted from the Iron- Ore to form pig-iron.
Annealing: This is the process by which metals can be softened.
ALLOY STEELS
All steels are alloys because they contain both iron and carbon. Alloy steel is a
combination of plain carbon steel and one or more other elements which are placed in
the electric furnace and then heated. This molten mixture is then poured into a mould
container and then cooled to solidify. The alloy steels are:
I. High tensile steels: This is also known as Nickel - chrome alloys. These contain
iron, carbon, nickel and chromium. They are used for making machine parts
which require high tensility and strength.
II. High Speed steels: These contain iron, carbon, tungsten and chromium. Other
forms of high speed steels contain cobalt and vanadium. They are used as
cutting edges in machines where friction causes excessive heat due to
continuous cutting.
III. Stainless steels: These contain Iron, carbon, Nickel or chromium. Nickel and
chromium are principally used as coating for the metals so as to make it
resistant to corrosion. They are produced in electric furnace.

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PROCESSING OF NON-FERROUS METALS:
The non-ferrous metals are the metals which do not have iron content in them,
therefore they are not magnetic.
Examples: Copper, Aluminum, Zinc, Gold and Tungsten.
Iron ore is loaded into a furnace and then melted. The desired metal in a molten state is
then separated from the mixture. The molten metal is then poured into containers so as
to solidify. When this is done on a large scale, a reverberating furnace is used. The
furnace is built of clay or other suitable earthen materials and further reinforced with
steel on its outer walls.
Kiln furnace
A furnace is a solid structure in which a lot of heat energy is generated to produce
metal. The different types of furnaces in which different types of metals are produced
are:
Blast furnace: This is the structure used for producing pig-iron from Iron Ore.

Bessemer converter: This is the structure used for producing steel from pig iron.

Open hearth furnace: This is the structure used for producing steel from pig-iron.

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Electric Arc-furnace: This is the structure used for producing stainless steel.

Cupola furnace: This is the structure used for producing cast iron from pig-iron.

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Pudding furnace: This is the structure used for producing wrought-iron.

Reverberating furnace: This is the structure used for producing non-ferrous metals.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
Fill in the Gap Questions:
1. Alloy steels are composed of iron as the base metal and significant amounts of
__________ elements, which enhance their mechanical properties and performance
in specific applications.
2. Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain significant amounts of
__________ in their composition.
3. One of the primary uses of non-ferrous metals is in the aerospace industry, where
their lightweight and corrosion-resistant properties are highly valued for
manufacturing __________ parts.
4. The process of shaping non-ferrous metals through the application of mechanical
force and temperature is known as __________.
5. Brass is an alloy composed of copper and __________, often used for decorative
items and musical instruments due to its attractive appearance and acoustic
properties.
Short Answer Questions:
1. What are alloy steels, and what is their main advantage over regular carbon steels?
2. Name two common non-ferrous metals and describe their primary uses.
3. Explain the process of extracting non-ferrous metals from their ores.

SUB-TOPIC 2: METAL ALLOY

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CONTENT:
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. A non-ferrous alloy is a mixture of two or
more non-ferrous metals.
Examples of non-ferrous alloys are Brass, Bronze, Soft Solder, Duralumin, etc.
i. Brass: Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc
Brass= copper(10% to 35%) + Zinc(5% to 22%)
ii. Bronze: Bronze is a mixture of copper, Tin and Phosphorus.
Bronze = Copper(78% to 95%) + Tin(5% to 22%) + phosphorus (5% to 20%)
iii. Soft solder:
Soft solder = Lead + Tin
iv. Duralumin: Duralumin is a mixture of copper, Aluminium and
Magnesium
Duralumin = Copper + Aluminum + Magnesium.

Forms of metal.
1) Bars
2) Wires
3) Sheets
4) Rod
5) Pipes
6) Plates
7) Tubes
8) Channels.
9) Square/ Triangular metals

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
Fill in the gap questions
1. A metal alloy is a combination of two or more __________.
2. Non-ferrous alloys are made up of metals that do not contain __________ in
significant amounts.
3. Brass is an alloy made by combining copper and __________.
4. Steel is an alloy primarily composed of iron and __________.
5. Alloys often exhibit improved properties due to the synergistic effects of their
__________.
Short Answer Questions:
1. What is a metal alloy, and why are they important for everyday life?
A metal alloy is a mixture of two or more elements, where at least one element is a
metal. Alloys are important for everyday life because they combine the desirable
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properties of different metals, resulting in materials with enhanced characteristics. For
example, alloying metals can lead to increased strength, better resistance to corrosion,
and improved electrical conductivity. These enhanced properties make alloys useful in
various applications, from making strong structures to crafting durable tools.
2. Explain the composition of non-ferrous alloys with an example.
Non-ferrous alloys are composed of metals other than iron. An example is bronze,
which is made by combining copper and tin. Copper contributes strength and good
conductivity, while tin enhances the alloy's hardness and ability to be cast into intricate
shapes. Bronze has been historically used for sculptures, tools, and ornaments due to its
pleasing appearance and versatility.
3. Name and describe three different forms in which metals can exist.
• Solid Form: Most metals are solid at room temperature. They have a
characteristic metallic luster, are malleable (can be hammered into thin
sheets), and are good conductors of heat and electricity. Examples include
iron, copper, and aluminum.
• Liquid Form: Some metals, like mercury, are liquid at room temperature.
These liquid metals are unique because they do not follow the usual solid
properties of metals. Mercury is known for its distinctive silvery
appearance and use in thermometers.
• Alloys: Alloys are combinations of two or more metals. They can be solid,
like stainless steel (a combination of iron, chromium, and nickel), or liquid,
like certain types of solder (used for joining metals together). Alloys often
possess properties different from their individual components, such as
increased strength or resistance to corrosion.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, metallic materials, including carbon steel and alloy steel, are essential
components of our modern world. Understanding their properties and how they are
processed helps us appreciate their role in various applications, from everyday objects
to advanced technologies.
TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay
question)
Multiple Choice Questions:
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 1. Which of the following is NOT a ferrous metal? a) Iron b) Copper c) Steel d) Cast
Iron
2. The carbon percentage in mild steel is approximately: a) 0% b) 0.1% c) 0.5% d)
1.0%
3. Alloying elements are added to metals to: a) Decrease strength b) Improve
corrosion resistance c) Make them brittle d) Reduce melting point
4. Which type of metal is a combination of iron and carbon? a) Brass b) Aluminum
c) Stainless steel d) Copper
5. The process of heating and cooling metal to improve its properties is called: a)
Annealing b) Forging c) Welding d) Polishing
6. Bronze is an alloy of copper and: a) Iron b) Tin c) Aluminum d) Zinc
7. Non-ferrous metals do not contain significant amounts of: a) Iron b) Carbon c)
Copper d) Aluminum
8. The primary purpose of adding carbon to steel is to: a) Make it softer b) Increase
its electrical conductivity c) Improve its strength d) Reduce its density
9. Stainless steel is known for its: a) Low corrosion resistance b) Brittle nature c)
High strength and corrosion resistance d) Poor electrical conductivity
10. An example of a ferrous alloy is: a) Brass b) Bronze c) Cast iron d)
Aluminum alloy
Fill in the Gap Questions:
1. Processing of ferrous metals involves techniques like __________ and quenching to
modify their properties.
2. The percentage of carbon in steel determines its __________ and hardness.
3. Non-ferrous metals have advantages like __________ and resistance to rust.
4. Alloying elements like chromium and nickel are added to steel to create __________
steel.
5. __________ is a process of heating and cooling metal to relieve internal stresses.
6. Brass is an alloy made by combining copper and __________.
7. Annealing makes metal __________ and more malleable.
8. The process of combining two or more metals to create an alloy is called __________.

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 9. Cast iron is a ferrous alloy with a high carbon content and excellent __________
properties.
10. Non-ferrous metals are often used in applications where __________ is
important.
Essay Questions:
1. Explain the difference between ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and provide
examples of each.
2. Describe the importance of carbon in steel. How does the carbon percentage
influence the properties of steel?
3. Discuss the various methods involved in the processing of ferrous metals to
improve their properties for specific applications.
4. Explore the concept of alloying. Provide examples of common alloys and explain
the reasons for alloying metals.
5. Enumerate some common uses of metals in our daily lives and various industries,
highlighting their specific properties that make them suitable for these
applications.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

alloy – a mixture of more than one metal
ferrous metal – contains iron
non-ferrous metal – does not contain iron

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Brain Teaser: Metal Transformation Puzzle
Can you decipher the steps involved in transforming a raw metal into a shiny, functional
object? Unscramble the letters to reveal the metal processing technique.
G OR G N I F
Hint: This technique involves heating and shaping the metal.
Answer: Forging

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INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
"The process of processing metals is a journey of transformation. From raw ore to
finished product, metal is molded and shaped by the hands of skilled workers. It is a
process that requires patience, precision, and creativity. But when it is done right, the
result is a beautiful and lasting work of art."
This quote highlights the importance of the processing of metals and the skill and
dedication of the people who work in this field. It also reminds us that the process of
transformation can be difficult, but it is ultimately rewarding.
Here are some other inspirational quotes on the processing of metals:
• "Metal is a material that can be shaped and molded into anything you can
imagine. It is a symbol of strength, durability, and beauty. The process of
processing metal is a testament to the ingenuity and creativity of humans."
• "The processing of metals is a complex and challenging process, but it is also a
rewarding one. It is a process that requires a deep understanding of the
properties of metals and the ability to apply that knowledge to create something
new and innovative."
• "The processing of metals is a journey of discovery. As we learn more about the
properties of metals and the different ways to process them, we are able to create
new and amazing things. The possibilities are endless."
I hope these quotes inspire you to learn more about the processing of metals and to
appreciate the beauty and strength of these materials.

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WEEK: FIVE

TOPIC: PROCESSING OF CERAMICS, CLAY, AND GLASS.

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the students should:

i. explain how ceramics and glass is processed,
ii. state the properties of ceramics and glass,
iii. state the uses of glass and ceramics,
iv. State the properties plastic and rubber,
v. explain how plastic and rubber is processed,
vi. state the uses of plastic

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught processing of materials previous week.

SUB-TOPIC 1: PROCESSING OF CERAMICS, CLAY, AND GLASS

CONTENT:
Processing of ceramics:
Ceramics are collections of clay, cement, glass and tiles products. In the processing of
ceramic materials, mud and clay are obtained and cleared of all the impurities.
Afterwards, the materials are mixed with water thoroughly pounded until a smooth,
even mixture is obtained. The next process is shaping of the mixture into the desired
objects. The art of making moist clay materials into various objects is called pottery. A
person who makes things with clay is called a potter.
There are two methods by which ceramic materials can be processed.
i. The pinch method
ii. The potter’s wheel method.
The Pinch method: This is the traditional method of using fingers to carefully mould
and shape objects.

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The Potter’s wheel method: This is the method with a rotating disc upon which the clay
is mould.

There are 4 stages involved in the production of ceramics:

i. Molding
ii. Shaping
iii. Decorating.
iv. Firing.
In pottery the following are involved:
a) Mixing
b) Shaping
c) Drying, and
d) Firing.
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Processing of Glass
The mineral glass belongs to the group of ceramics materials; it is made from inorganic
resin made from refining petroleum products. Most glasses in use are the inorganic
type. Basically, inorganic glass is produced by melting together various proportions of
silica, lime-stone, dolomite by firing them in a furnace known as kiln. The molten
substance is allowed to cool slowly through the process called Annealing. The process
of drying clay product completely to remove moisture content to 0% is known as bone
dry. The fired clay product is called bisque.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
Fill in the Gap Questions:
1. The process of shaping ceramics using a potter's wheel is called __________.
2. Clay is a natural material that becomes hard and durable after being fired in a
__________.
3. Glass is made by melting sand, soda ash, and __________ together at high
temperatures.
4. The process of giving shape to molten glass by blowing air into it is known as
__________.
5. Ceramics are often fired in a kiln at temperatures ranging from __________ to
achieve their final hardness and strength.
Short Answer Questions:
1. Explain the process of pottery making using clay.
2. What is glassblowing, and what are its primary applications?
3. How is glass different from other materials like metals and ceramics?

SUB-TOPIC 2: PROCESSING OF PLASTIC AND RUBBER

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CONTENT:
EXAMPLES OF POLYMER PRODUCTS
S/N PLASTIC PRODUCTS RUBBER PRODUCTS

1 Cloth (polyesters) Tubes and tyres

2 Kitchen Utensils Gloves
3 Cups, plates and spoons Boots and raincoats (as well as
shoes)
4 Furniture Balloons and toys
5 Pipes, tubes and accessories Adhesive products
for building construction
6 Bowls, storage drums and Automotive industry products
containers (e.g. hoses, bumpers, dampers,
anti-vibration mounts, fan
belts, gaskets, etc.)
7 Syringes, and other medical Other personal care products
supplies and components (rubber band, pencils, erasers,
hot water bottles)
8 Cases and components of
electrical and electronic
appliances, etc.
PLASTICS
Plastics are commonly used both as household items and in big industries. Ordinarily, it
is known as a non-metallic lightweight material which comes in various colors. The
manufacture of plastics involves the combination of several different components
chiefly obtained from petroleum, cellulose, and coal.
Properties of Plastics
I. Plastics are lightweight materials, much lighter than wood, ceramics
and metals.
II. They have low resistance to heat. They are easily deformed by heat.
III. They do not rust or corrode.
IV. They are good insulators of heat and electricity and that is why they are
used as handles of pots, pressing irons, plugs.
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 V. It can retain its colour for a long period.
VI. It is very useful in the house as plates, etc.

Classification of Plastics
Plastics are of two types: Thermoplastics and Thermoset.
Thermoplastics: These are plastics which become molten again under heat and can
therefore be remolded. Examples include most plastic articles used in the homes such
as cups, buckets, jerry cans, etc.

Thermoset: They are those plastics which cannot be melted into liquid form by heating.
Examples are those used in handles of pressing irons, knives and cooking pots, gas and
water pipe lines, medical equipment, construction machinery parts, signage, storage
boxes, electrical plugs and casings, kitchen appliances etc. Thermosets are used where
high temperature is anticipated.

Manufacturing and Processing of Plastics.

Plastics are derived from organic materials obtained from petroleum. Its production can
simply be broken up into the following stages:
i. Obtaining the basic unit called monomer from petroleum.

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 ii. Polymerization (i.e. joining a large number of molecules) of the monomer
to form resins.
iii. Combining the resin with appropriate materials to produce the required
plastics.
iv. Moulding and shaping of the plastics into different forms.

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Methods of producing plastics
The plastic materials can be heated and molded into the required form or shapes
through the following processes.
i. The compression moulding
ii. The Injection moulding
iii. The Extrusion
iv. The Calendaring
v. The vacuum forming.
The compression molding: This is the method of forming plastic materials in a mould by
means of the application of pressure and heat energy. This method is employed in
forming thermoset plastics.

The injection molding: This is a method of forming an object by injecting hot molten
metals by means of plungers.

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The Extrusion: This is the method of heating a plastic material and forcing it through a
mould followed by continuous cooling. It is a method used in the manufacture of
thermoplastic pipes.

The Calendaring: This is a method for producing thermoplastic sheets in paste form
between heated and cooled rollers.

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The vacuum forming: This is an enclosed method from which air had been completely
removed. It is a method for making plastic cups.

RUBBER
Rubber is an elastic organic and inorganic material which can easily be stretched and
return to its original position when the force is released. There are two types of
rubber—natural rubber and synthetic rubber.
Properties of Rubber
I. They are elastic.
II. They are water resistant and will float on water. This is why they are
used as floats for swimming.
III. They are good electrical insulators. This is why electric wires are
covered with rubber.
IV. It is sturdy and durable.
V. It can easily absorb pressure.
VI. It absorbs sound.
Manufacture and Processing of Rubber/ Methods of Processing rubber
Natural rubber is made from latex (a milky white liquid) obtained from the rubber tree
known as ‘ Hevea brasiliensis.’ Synthetic rubber on the other hand is obtained from
petroleum products. The Natural Latex as found in nature is a white milky sap like fluid.
This is used as the raw material for manufacturing natural Rubber. It is extracted from
rubber trees.

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The synthetic rubber also called neoprene (artificial rubber) is produced by the
combination of various chemicals, coal, lime stone, water and sodium chloride by
process called polymerization.

Properties of ordinary rubber are not very desirable since they wear out and scratch
easily. It needs to be vulcanized to improve its properties. In vulcanization, sulphur is
added to the ordinary rubber at high temperatures in the presence of some other
compounds. Rubber products are shaped into their form by a number of processes
which you will learn about in future.
Carbon black, produced mainly by burning crude oil in special furnaces, is used in tyre
compound as reinforcing filler.
Vulcanization of Rubber: is the process of improving the quality of rubber by adding
sulphur and other chemicals to rubber so as to make the rubber stronger and more
elastic.
Uses of Rubber:
• Rubber is a very good shock absorber and is therefore used for making
soles of shoes as well as tyres and inner tubes for motor vehicles
• It is also used for making rubber sandals, rain-boots, catapults, etc.

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 • For covering electric wires.
The manufacturing of rubber can be processed by any of the following methods:
i. The vacuum forming
ii. Extrusion
iii. Calendaring
iv. Compression moulding
1. Vacuum forming :

2. EXTRUSION

v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

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 3. The Calendaring

4. The compression moulding.

ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS
1. It is very light than most metals.
2. It can retain its colour for a long period.
3. It is not affected by water.
4. It is not adversely affected by sunlight.
5. It is very useful in the house as plates
6. It is a good insulator.
ADVANTAGES OF RUBBER
1. It is sturdy and durable
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 2. It can easily absorb pressure
3. It is a good shock absorber
4. It is not easily affected by light and little heat
5. It is resistant to air, water vapour and sunlight
6. It absorbs sound.
7. It absorbs noise
8. It is a good insulator.
DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS
1. It cannot take intense heat
2. It cannot carry heavy loads like most metals
3. It can tear when subjected to intense pressure
4. If dropped carelessly, it can constitute a nuisance.
DISADVANTAGES OF RUBBER
Its elastic property can be a disadvantage in some cases.

Uses of Plastic
I. It is used for chairs and tables in homes
II. It is used as container bags in supermarkets and as pure water container.
III. It is used as body fender for cars.
IV. It is used in engines of cars where intense heat is not needed.
V. It is used where heat is not experienced like the rotor, etc.
VI. It is used as body parts for most of our musical instruments, piano, flutes and
speaker, etc.

Uses of Rubber
I. It is used as shock absorber.
II. It is used to carry the engines of a motor and other heavy dead weight.
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 III. It is used to absorb sound.
IV. It is used to absorb light.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
Fill in the Gap Questions:
1. Rubber is known for its __________ property, allowing it to stretch and return to its
original shape.
2. Plastics are synthetic materials made from __________, which are derived from
petroleum.
3. The use of rubber is common in making __________, such as tires, footwear, and
hoses.
4. Plastics are widely used for packaging due to their __________ and lightweight
nature.
5. Rubber's resistance to water and chemicals makes it suitable for creating
__________ products like gloves and seals.
Short Answer Questions:
1. What are the primary properties of rubber that make it useful for various
applications?
2. Name some common uses of rubber and plastics in our daily lives.
3. What are some advantages of using rubber and plastics?

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the processing of ceramics, glass, plastics, and rubber plays a pivotal role
in shaping the modern world and meeting diverse human needs. Each of these
materials undergoes distinct processes that harness their unique properties, resulting
in a wide range of practical applications.
TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay
question)
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Rubber is known for its property of: a) Conducting electricity b) Stretching and
returning to shape c) High melting point d) Transparency
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 2. Plastics are made from: a) Natural fibers b) Wood c) Petroleum-based materials
d) Metal alloys
3. Ceramics are known for their: a) Flexibility b) High conductivity c) Brittle nature
d) Biodegradability
4. Glass is primarily composed of: a) Iron b) Copper c) Sand and soda ash d) Rubber
5. The use of rubber is common in making: a) Aluminum cans b) Glass containers c)
Tires and footwear d) Ceramic vases
6. The main advantage of plastics is their: a) High cost b) Heavy weight c) Durability
and versatility d) Biodegradability
7. Which property of rubber makes it suitable for shock absorption? a)
Transparency b) Conductivity c) Elasticity d) Rigidity
8. Ceramics are commonly used for making: a) Flexible clothing b) Fragile
electronics c) Durable tiles and dishes d) Liquid containers
9. The machine used for producing plastics is called a: a) Blender b) Kiln c) Injection
molding machine d) Lathe
10. Glassblowing is a technique used to create: a) Metal sculptures b) Ceramic
tiles c) Glass objects by shaping molten glass d) Rubber shoes
Fill in the Gap Questions:
1. Rubber's elasticity allows it to __________ and return to shape.
2. Plastics are known for their __________ and versatile nature.
3. Ceramics are often used for making durable __________ and insulators.
4. Glass is made by melting __________ and soda ash together.
5. Rubber's resistance to water and chemicals makes it useful for creating __________.
6. Plastics can be molded into various shapes and sizes due to their __________.
7. Ceramics are brittle materials that can withstand __________ temperatures.
8. Glass objects are often created by shaping molten glass through the technique of
__________.
9. Rubber's ability to absorb shocks makes it suitable for products like __________.
10. Plastics are commonly used in __________ materials like bottles and
containers.
Essay Questions:
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 1. Explain the properties of rubber and how they make it suitable for various
applications. Provide examples.
2. Describe the process of making ceramics and highlight their primary uses in our
daily lives.
3. Discuss the advantages of using plastics as compared to other materials. Give
examples of their diverse applications.
4. Explain the differences between glass and ceramics in terms of composition,
properties, and applications.
5. Discuss the importance of recycling rubber, plastics, ceramics, and glass for
environmental sustainability. Provide examples of how these materials can be
recycled and repurposed.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

rubber – a strong substance that can bend easily .
glass – made from silica sand; not strictly speaking a ceramic

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Brain Teaser: Material Transformation Puzzle
Unscramble the letters to reveal different processes used in transforming ceramics,
glass, plastic, and rubber.
1. Cerilspom
2. Sltinuiofvreca
3. Aihgnmtlon
4. Blwosigasln
5. Aittnetjcon oldgibw
6. Cckbmleoaini
7. Iscnijto omlding
8. Ivlcaioztnnue
9. Tioclcetirepz
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 10. Graslhwnbai
Answers:
1. Slip casting
2. Vulcanization
3. Annealing
4. Glassblowing
5. Injection molding
6. Kiln combustion
7. Injection molding
8. Vulcanization
9. Polymerization
10. Glassblowing
Regenerate

(Each topic should be enriched with worked examples, images, past WAEC SSCE/NECO
SSCE / BECE JSCE questions.)

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
1. "Just as a potter shapes clay into a masterpiece, we shape our world with the
materials we process."
2. "In the furnace of creativity, glass, plastic, rubber, and ceramics are transformed
into the artistry of function."
3. "From molten glass to molded plastic, our hands hold the power to shape
innovation."
4. "Like a sculptor with clay, we mold the future through the transformative
processes of materials."
5. "The fusion of art and science in processing ceramics, glass, plastic, and rubber
creates a symphony of possibilities."
6. "In the hands of artisans and engineers, ceramics, glass, plastic, and rubber
become the building blocks of progress."
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 7. "As glassblowers breathe life into molten sand, so do we breathe life into our
ideas, shaping them into reality."
8. "The world of materials processing is a canvas for creativity, where rubber meets
road, and plastic molds dreams."
9. "From the kiln's fire to the injection mold's precision, we turn raw matter into
functional marvels."
10. "With each kiln's whisper and each mold's embrace, we craft the stories of
ceramics, glass, plastic, and rubber."

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WEEK: SIX

TOPIC: ): ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
i. define isometric drawing and understand its purpose.,
ii. explain terms in isometric drawing,
iii. draw simple isometric block.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught plane shape.

SUB-TOPIC 1: ISOMETRIC DRAWING

CONTENT:
The method of drawing solid objects which shows the three dimensions length, width
and depth in one view is called pictorial drawing. The pictorial drawing can be divided
into three groups:
(a) The isometric drawing
(b) The oblique drawing
(c) The perspective drawing
DEFINITION OF ISOMETRIC DRAWING
The isometric drawing is the pictorial method of drawing an object in which all the
isometric axes are projected to an angle 300 to the horizontal. The isometric drawing
shows three axes of an object i.e.
(a) The length
(b) The width
(c) The height
The isometric axes are inclined at an angle 1200 to one another. There are (3) three
isometric axis one of them is vertical, the other two receding axes are appositely
inclined at an angle of 300 to the horizontal. The angle between any two isometric axes
is 1200

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www.deeperlifehighschool.org …leadership with distinction
 ISOMETRIC DRAWING
Today We Are Learning To
• Produce an Isometric Drawing
• Use the drawing board
• Use the drawing rulers correctly
• Assess our own work

NOTE: Dear colleagues, the slides drawing shown just above is an animation to teach
students on techniques in drawing isometric
Just click on it and sit back to watch the show.

CONCLUSION
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. What is the purpose of isometric drawing? a) To draw realistic portraits b) To
create three-dimensional objects on a flat surface c) To create abstract artwork d)
To write secret messages
2. In isometric drawing, the three axes are spaced ______ degrees apart. a) 60 b) 90 c)
120 d) 180
3. Which of the following is used to maintain proportion while drawing in
isometric? a) Circular grid b) Triangular grid c) Square grid d) Hexagonal grid
4. Isometric drawing is commonly used in which fields? a) Cooking b) Gardening c)
Engineering d) Storytelling
5. When drawing a cube in isometric, the top face is connected to the bottom face
using _______ lines. a) Vertical b) Diagonal c) Horizontal d) Curved
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 6. Isometric drawings help us understand the _______ of objects. a) Color b) Size c)
Sound d) Taste
7. Which of the following shapes can be easily drawn using isometric grids? a) Circle
b) Triangle c) Rectangle d) Oval
8. Isometric drawing is a way to create a _______ effect on a flat surface. a) 2D b) 3D
c) Colorful d) Transparent
9. Isometric grids are made up of a series of _______ triangles. a) Scalene b) Isosceles
c) Equilateral d) Right
10. Isometric drawing is like making objects look _______. a) Invisible b) Smaller
c) Flatter d) 3D
Fill in the Gap:
1. Isometric drawing helps us create a _______ representation of three-dimensional
objects.
2. The three axes in isometric drawing are equally spaced at _______ degrees.
3. The _______ grid helps us keep our drawings in proportion.
4. Isometric drawing is often used in fields like architecture and _______.
5. The top face of a cube is connected to the bottom face using _______ lines.
6. Isometric drawing helps us understand the size and _______ of objects.
7. Isometric grids are made up of equilateral _______.
8. Isometric drawing creates a 3D effect on a _______ surface.
9. Isometric drawing is a technique to draw objects in a way that they look _______.
10. Isometric drawing makes flat drawings look _______.
Essay Questions:
1. Describe what isometric drawing is and why it is important in various fields.
2. Explain the concept of isometric axes and how they are related to the isometric
grid.
3. Walk through the steps of drawing a cube using the isometric grid.
4. How does isometric drawing help us understand the proportions of objects?
5. Can you think of some real-life examples where isometric drawing might be used?
Describe how it would be beneficial in those situations.
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 6. Practice to draw the blocks below, with drawing instrument and with freehand
sketch.

These questions should help you assess your basic 8 students' understanding of
isometric drawing concepts at various levels. Feel free to adapt them to suit your
teaching style and classroom needs.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

1. Isometric Drawing: A method of creating a three-dimensional representation of
objects on a two-dimensional surface.
2. Isometric Axes: The three axes (horizontal, vertical, and depth) that are equally
spaced at 120 degrees from each other in isometric drawing.
3. Isometric Grid: A grid of equilateral triangles used to help maintain proportion
and perspective in isometric drawings.
4. Proportion: The relative size and scale of various elements in a drawing,
maintained using the isometric grid.
5. Three-Dimensional (3D): Objects that have depth, width, and height, as opposed
to two-dimensional (2D) objects that only have width and height.
6. Two-Dimensional (2D): Flat drawings that have width and height but no depth.
7. Equilateral Triangle: A triangle with all sides of equal length and all angles of
equal measure, forming the basis of the isometric grid.
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 8. Orthographic Drawing: A type of technical drawing that shows multiple views
(front, top, side) of an object, often used in conjunction with isometric drawings.
9. Dimension: A measure of size in a specific direction, such as length, width, or
height.
10. Projection: The method of representing a three-dimensional object in two
dimensions.
11. Depth: The third dimension, indicating the distance an object extends away
from the viewer in an isometric drawing.
12. Scale: The relationship between the size of the drawing on paper and the
actual size of the object being represented.
13. Perspective: The way objects appear smaller as they move farther away,
creating the illusion of depth and distance in a drawing.
14. Cube: A three-dimensional shape with six equal square faces, often used as
a simple object to practice isometric drawing.
15. Rectangular Prism: A three-dimensional shape with six faces, all of which
are rectangles. It's like a stretched cube.
16. Cylinder: A three-dimensional shape with two circular faces and a curved
surface connecting them.
17. Pyramid: A three-dimensional shape with a polygonal base and triangular
faces that meet at a single point called the apex.
18. Cone: A three-dimensional shape with a circular base and a curved surface
that tapers to a point called the vertex.
19. Sketch: A rough, freehand drawing used to quickly visualize an idea or
concept before creating a more detailed representation.
20. Engineering: The application of scientific principles to design and build
structures, systems, and devices

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

There is a staircase with 10 steps. Each step is 1 unit high. The staircase is drawn in
isometric projection. How many steps are visible in the isometric drawing?
The answer to this puzzle is 8.

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In an isometric drawing, all three axes are drawn at 30-degree angles to each other. This
means that all of the steps of the staircase are visible in the drawing, but they are not all
visible at the same time. Only 8 of the steps are visible at any given time.
To see this, imagine that you are standing in front of the staircase. You can see all 10
steps of the staircase, but only 8 of them are visible at the same time. The top two steps
are not visible, because they are facing away from you. The bottom 8 steps are visible,
but they are not visible in their entirety.
If you move to the right or left, you will see the right and left sides of the staircase in
their entirety, but the top and bottom steps will no longer be visible. If you move
forward or backward, you will see the front and back sides of the staircase in their
entirety, but the top and bottom steps will still not be visible.
Therefore, the answer to the puzzle is 8. Only 8 of the 10 steps of the staircase are
visible in the isometric drawing at any given time.
I hope this explanation is helpful. Please let me know if you have any other questions.

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
• "Isometric drawing is a powerful tool that can be used to create realistic and
informative drawings. It is a skill that can be learned by anyone, and it can be
used in a variety of fields, from engineering to art." – Ubong Ekanem
• "Isometric drawing is a great way to visualize three-dimensional objects. It can
help you to understand how objects work and how they fit together. It can also be
used to create realistic drawings that can be used for communication or
presentation." - Unknown
• "Isometric drawing is a challenging but rewarding skill. It takes practice and
patience to master, but it is worth it in the end. When you can create an accurate
and realistic isometric drawing, you will be able to communicate your ideas
clearly and effectively." - Unknown

WEEK SEVEN: MID TERM BREAK

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WEEK: EGHT

TOPIC: OBLIQUE DRAWING

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
i. understand the concept of oblique drawing,
ii. create basic oblique drawings of simple objects.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught isometric drawing previous week.

CONTENT:
OBLIQUE DRAWING:
Oblique drawing is a type of pictorial drawing in which all the receding sides of an
object are drawn at an angle other than 90 degrees to the picture plane. This gives the
drawing a three-dimensional appearance, but it is not as realistic as an isometric
drawing.
There are two main types of oblique drawing: cavalier oblique drawing and cabinet
oblique drawing.
• In cavalier oblique drawing, all the receding sides are drawn at a 45-degree angle
to the picture plane. This means that all the dimensions of the object are
exaggerated in the drawing.

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 • In cabinet oblique drawing, the receding sides are drawn at a 30-degree angle to
the picture plane. This means that the dimensions of the object are not
exaggerated as much as in cavalier oblique drawing.

USES OF OBLIQUE DRAWING:

Oblique drawings are often used in engineering and architecture to create quick and
easy drawings of objects. They can also be used in art and design to create more
creative and stylized drawings.
To draw an oblique drawing, you will need:
• A piece of paper
• A pencil
• A ruler
• A protractor (optional)
The first step is to draw the three axes of the object. The axes should be drawn at the
desired angle to the picture plane.
Once the axes are drawn, you can start drawing the object. All of the receding sides of
the object should be drawn at the same angle to the axes.
You can use a protractor to help you draw the lines accurately.
Once the object is drawn, you can add dimensions to the drawing, if necessary.
Here are some tips for drawing oblique drawings:
• Use a light pencil so that you can easily erase your mistakes.
• Start with simple objects and work your way up to more complex objects.
• Use a protractor to help you draw the lines accurately.
• Practice drawing oblique drawings regularly to improve your skills.

CONCLUSION
Multiple Choice Questions:
1. What is oblique drawing primarily used for? a) Creating realistic perspectives b)
Accurate measurements c) Showing interior details d) Sketching freehand
drawings
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 2. In oblique drawing, which of the following lines are drawn parallel to the picture
plane? a) Vertical lines b) Horizontal lines c) Receding lines d) Hidden lines
3. Which angle is commonly used for the receding lines in a cavalier oblique
drawing? a) 30 degrees b) 45 degrees c) 60 degrees d) 90 degrees
4. Which type of oblique drawing uses a reduced angle for receding lines to create a
more accurate representation? a) Cabinet oblique b) Cavalier oblique c) Isometric
projection d) Orthographic projection
5. The angle between the receding lines and the horizontal lines in a cabinet oblique
drawing is typically: a) 30 degrees b) 45 degrees c) 60 degrees d) 90 degrees
6. Which of the following best describes the purpose of oblique drawing? a)
Creating detailed technical plans b) Showcasing intricate 3D designs c)
Displaying surface finishes d) Illustrating scale proportions
7. Which line is used to represent the actual size and shape of an object in oblique
drawing? a) Construction line b) Hidden line c) Measuring line d) Object line
8. In oblique drawing, which type of line is used to indicate hidden edges that are
not visible from the chosen angle? a) Dotted line b) Solid line c) Dashed line d)
Center line
9. Which of the following is a common application of oblique drawing? a) Land
surveying b) Portrait painting c) Architectural design d) Musical composition
10. Which oblique drawing method provides a more realistic representation of
an object's depth? a) Cabinet oblique b) Cavalier oblique c) Isometric projection
d) Planometric projection
Fill in the Gap Questions:
1. In oblique drawing, the lines that are drawn parallel to the _______ are called
receding lines.
2. The angle between the receding lines and the horizontal lines in a cabinet oblique
drawing is usually _______ degrees.
3. Oblique drawing is commonly used for illustrating objects with more focus on
their _______ details.
4. A _______ oblique drawing uses a reduced angle for greater accuracy.
5. The purpose of oblique drawing is to create a _______ representation of three-
dimensional objects.
6. _______ lines are used to represent hidden edges in oblique drawings.
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 7. The line that represents the actual size and shape of an object is called the _______
line.
8. Oblique drawings provide a clearer representation of objects compared to simple
_______ drawings.
9. The term "oblique" refers to lines that are _______ to each other.
10. Isometric projection and _______ projection are other methods used for
creating three-dimensional drawings.
Essay Questions:
1. Explain the concept of oblique drawing and its significance in conveying three-
dimensional information to viewers. Provide examples of situations where
oblique drawing is preferred over other methods.
2. Compare and contrast cavalier oblique and cabinet oblique drawings. Discuss the
differences in terms of angle measurements, visual accuracy, and practical
applications.
3. Describe the process of creating an oblique drawing for a basic geometric shape
of your choice. Include the necessary steps, such as determining the receding
lines and constructing the final drawing.
4. Explore the limitations of oblique drawings in accurately representing complex
three-dimensional objects. Discuss situations where other forms of technical
drawings, such as isometric projection or orthographic projection, might be more
suitable.
5. Choose a real-world object, such as a piece of furniture or a household item, and
create a detailed oblique drawing for it. Explain the specific features and details
you chose to include to effectively communicate its design and functionality.
6. Below is an oblique drawing, Identify the drawing instruments used for the
drawing, hence, reproduce shape.

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PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
"Oblique drawing teaches us to see the world from multiple angles, revealing the hidden
dimensions of creativity within every line."

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WEEK: NINE

TOPIC: PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the lesson the students should be able
to:
i. explain perspective drawing,
ii. explain and differentiate the types of perspective drawing,

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught oblique projection previous week

SUB-TOPIC 1: PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

CONTENT:
Perspective drawings are the pictorial drawing which shows the three (3) of an object
at once. In a perspective drawing, all the lines on an object converge to a point called

vanishing point (P

CONTENT: (a) Uses and types of perspective drawings

(i) One point perspective
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(ii) Two points perspective.

Uses and types of perspective drawings

Naturally, distant objects appear smaller than their real sizes e.g. the stars, the sun, the
moon etc. For instance, the farther we look down a long corridor in a building, the
closer it appears to come. Perspective drawing therefore shows the pictorial
representation of the apparent reduction in size of a distant object. Since architecture
deals with large objects like buildings, perspective drawing becomes more useful in
making architectural drawings realistic than either isometric or oblique drawing.
Distant parts of a building are shown in perspective as tapering to a point, just as they
appear to an observer of the actual building. Perspective projection can be in one point
or two point perspective.

One point perspective: In this type of projection, the object is draws such that the edges
are made to converge to a point called varnishing point.

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Two-point perspective: in this case, there are two vanishing points. The object tends to
tape in two directions, one to each vanishing point.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
Fill in the Gap Questions:
1. Perspective drawing is a technique used to create the illusion of _______ on a two-
dimensional surface.
2. The point where all lines seem to converge in perspective drawing is called the
_______ point.
3. In one-point perspective, all lines converge to a single _______ point on the horizon
line.
4. _______ perspective involves showing three dimensions on a flat surface using
horizontal, vertical, and receding lines.
5. Adding shading and _______ to perspective drawings can enhance their realism and
depth.

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Essay Questions:
1. The Magic of Perspective Drawing: Transforming Flat to Fabulous
Perspective drawing has the power to turn a blank piece of paper into a world teeming
with depth and realism. Explain the concept of perspective drawing to your fellow
students, shedding light on how it creates the illusion of three-dimensional space.
Discuss the difference between one-point and two-point perspective, and provide
examples of how this technique is used in art, architecture, and everyday life to bring
scenes to life.
2. A Journey into Depth: Unveiling One-Point and Two-Point Perspective
Embark on a journey of exploration as you delve into the world of one-point and two-
point perspective. Explain the key differences between these two techniques, including
the placement of the vanishing points and the resulting visual effects. Use simple
diagrams and examples to show how each technique works, and encourage your
readers to try their hand at creating their own perspective drawings.
3. Bringing Imaginations to Life: Creating a Perspective Drawing
Imagine turning your imaginative ideas into lifelike drawings that pop off the page.
Walk your readers through the process of creating a basic perspective drawing. Start
with setting up the horizon line and vanishing points, and then guide them in sketching
the main subject. Explain how to add depth by adjusting the size and placement of
objects as they recede into the distance. Encourage your peers to experiment with
different scenes and perspectives to develop their artistic skills.
Feel free to use these essay questions to engage basic 9 students in a thoughtful
exploration of perspective drawing concepts and its applications.

CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay
question)
1. Perspective drawing is a technique that creates the illusion of _______ in a two-
dimensional space.
2. The point at which parallel lines appear to converge in perspective drawing is
called the _______ point.
3. In two-point perspective, there are two _______ points located on the horizon line.
4. The _______ line represents the viewer's eye level in perspective drawing.

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 5. In perspective drawing, objects that are closer appear _______ and larger.
6. A _______ point perspective drawing has one vanishing point and is often used for
scenes with a clear front-facing view.
7. The vanishing point for receding vertical lines in one-point perspective is located
on the _______ line.
8. In three-point perspective, there are _______ vanishing points.
9. The technique of adding shading and lighter tones to create the illusion of depth
in perspective drawing is called _______.
10. The use of _______ in perspective drawing helps determine the size and
placement of objects as they recede into the distance.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

1. Perspective Drawing: A technique used in art to create the illusion of three-
dimensional space and depth on a two-dimensional surface.
2. Horizon Line: A horizontal line that represents the viewer's eye level and
separates the sky from the ground in a perspective drawing.
3. Vanishing Point: A point on the horizon line where parallel lines appear to
converge in perspective drawing.
4. One-Point Perspective: A type of perspective drawing where all receding lines
converge to a single vanishing point on the horizon line.
5. Two-Point Perspective: A type of perspective drawing where receding lines
converge to two vanishing points on the horizon line.
6. Three-Point Perspective: A type of perspective drawing that includes a third
vanishing point, typically used for extreme angles and dramatic views.
7. Foreshortening: The visual distortion that occurs when objects or parts of objects
are closer to the viewer and appear shorter in perspective.
8. Orthogonal Lines: Lines that extend from the edges of an object to the vanishing
points, helping to create the illusion of depth.
9. Converging Lines: Lines that appear to meet or converge at a vanishing point in
perspective drawing.
10. Depth: The perception of distance in a drawing, achieved through the use of
perspective techniques.
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 11. Scale: The relative size of objects in a drawing, used to depict distance and
proportion accurately.
12. Diminution: The gradual reduction in size of objects as they recede into the
distance in a perspective drawing.
13. Eye Level: The height at which the viewer's eyes are positioned in relation
to the scene, often aligned with the horizon line.
Feel free to use this vocabulary list to deepen your understanding of perspective
drawing and communicate ideas related to this artistic technique more effectively.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

Imagine you are standing on a straight road that stretches into the distance. As you look
down the road, you notice that the road's edges seem to come together at a single point
in the distance. What artistic principle does this phenomenon relate to in perspective
drawing? How can you apply this principle to create a convincing sense of depth and
distance in your drawings?
Think about how lines converge in perspective drawing and how this can be used to
create the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. This brain
teaser encourages you to connect real-world observations with artistic techniques!

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:

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