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IIW Collection

Bastien Chapuis
Eric Sjerve Editors

Sensors,
Algorithms and
Applications for
Structural Health
Monitoring
IIW Seminar on SHM, 2015
IIW Collection

Series editor
IIW International Institute of Welding,
ZI Paris Nord II, Villepinte, France
The IIW Collection of Books is authored by experts from the 59 countries
participating in the work of the 23 Technical Working Units of the International
Institute of Welding, recognized as the largest worldwide network for welding and
allied joining technologies.
The IIW’s Mission is to operate as the global body for the science and
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exchange among scientists, researchers and industry.
Published books, Best Practices, Recommendations or Guidelines are the
outcome of collaborative work and technical discussions-they are truly validated by
the IIW groups of experts in joining, cutting and surface treatment of metallic and
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cutting, thermal spraying, adhesive bonding and microjoining. IIW work also
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standardization, inspection, health and safety, education, training, qualification,
design and fabrication.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13906

Bastien Chapuis Eric Sjerve
•

Editors

Sensors, Algorithms
and Applications
for Structural Health
Monitoring
IIW Seminar on SHM, 2015

123
Editors
Bastien Chapuis Eric Sjerve
NDE Department IRISNDT
CEA LIST Edmonton
Gif-sur-Yvette Canada
France

ISSN 2365-435X ISSN 2365-4368 (electronic)

IIW Collection
ISBN 978-3-319-69232-6 ISBN 978-3-319-69233-3 (eBook)
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Preface

Structural health monitoring (SHM) involves introducing a sensor, or an array of

sensors, into an engineered structure to monitor it periodically for structural
degradation due to its operating environment. The sensors provide nondestructive
measurements to give information about critical structural properties, such as wall
thickness measurements for corrosion detection, crack initiation or growth moni-
toring for welds susceptible to cracking, vibration monitoring of a structure that is
susceptible to fatigue, and stress measurements for structures where either peak
stresses or detailed stress measurements must be monitored. This data is then
statistically analyzed to determine the current health of the structure, to estimate its
remaining life, and to allow decisions to be made for follow-up maintenance.
SHM is a multidisciplinary field that is currently changing rapidly due to
technological advances, and one that currently does not have well-established
standardization. It is an important field for the IIW, as all welded or otherwise
joined structures require monitoring to extend their lifetimes and to ensure con-
tinued safe operation.
Commissions V (Non-destructive Testing and Quality Assurance of Welded
Products), XI (Pressure Vessels, Boilers and Pipelines), XIII (Fatigue of Welded
Components and Structures), and XV (Design, Analysis and Fabrication of
Welded Structures) held a joint seminar during 68th IIW annual assembly 2015 in
Helsinki (Finland) on this important subject. Many countries and industries around
the world are managing aging infrastructure, and examining ways of extending life
within economic constraints and requirements for public and environmental safety.
The attendance by over 60 representatives from 17 countries demonstrated the
importance of this forum and the knowledge shared by attendees.
Papers were presented in the area of sensor development, including macro-fiber
composite sensors for crack detection and optical fiber Bragg gratings for flaw
detection. The use of welds itself in the structure as SHM sensors and simulation to
determine the probability of detection for different SHM sensor configurations were
also discussed. SHM methods based on vibration signal variations to detect small
defects in composite components or to monitor large structures (hull of a container
ship) were considered. There were also application-specific papers describing SHM

v
vi Preface

applied to industrial components such as a nuclear boiler support spine, an

industrial press, and corrosion monitoring of pipes.
This booklet gathers together several papers related to presentations made during
this joint SHM seminar. It will allow for the attendees to go further on the subject
than what has been presented during the seminar and for the other readers to
discover recent developments in that discipline. Following the success of this first
seminar, IIW will continue to have involvement in SHM through seminars and joint
commission activities.

Gif-sur-Yvette, France Bastien Chapuis

Edmonton, Canada Eric Sjerve
Contents

Introduction to Structural Health Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Bastien Chapuis
Ultrasonic Monitoring of Corrosion with Permanently Installed
Sensors (PIMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Frederic Cegla
Passive SHM System for Corrosion Detection by Guided Wave
Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Tom Druet, Bastien Chapuis, Manfred Jules, Guillaume Laffont
and Emmanuel Moulin
On the Way to Use Welds for Monitoring of Structures Integrity . . . . . 31
Slah Yaacoubi, Daniel Chauveau, Fethi Dahmene
and Mahjoub El Mountassir
Use of Guided Wave Inspections to Monitor the Integrity of Nuclear
Power Station Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Peter Mudge
A Study on Prediction of Fatigue Crack Propagation Life Using MFC
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
D. J. Oh, J. H. Lee, J. M. Lee and M. H. Kim
MMM Applied for Online Monitoring of Fatigue Crack Propagation
in an Industrial Steel Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Anatoly Dubov, Alexander Dubov and Sergey Kolokolnikov
Full-Scale Measurements and Hull Monitoring on Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Adrian Kahl, Hubertus von Selle and Gaute Storhaug
Algorithms for an Optimal False Calls Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Mahjoub El Mountassir, Slah Yaacoubi, Fethi Dahmene
and Daniel Chauveau

vii
Contributors

Frederic Cegla Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College

London, London, UK
Bastien Chapuis NDE Department, CEA LIST, Gif-Sur-Yvette, France
Daniel Chauveau Innovation Department, Institut de Soudure Industrie,
Villepinte, France
Fethi Dahmene Institut de Soudure, Plateforme RDI CND, Yutz, France
Tom Druet NDE Department, CEA LIST, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
Alexander Dubov Energodiagnostika Co. Ltd, Moscow, Russia
Anatoly Dubov Energodiagnostika Co. Ltd, Moscow, Russia
Mahjoub El Mountassir Institut de Soudure, Plateforme RDI CND, Yutz, France
Manfred Jules CEA LIST, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
Adrian Kahl DNV GL, Hamburg, Germany
M. H. Kim Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Pusan
National University, Busan, South Korea
Sergey Kolokolnikov Energodiagnostika Co. Ltd, Moscow, Russia
Guillaume Laffont CEA LIST, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
J. H. Lee Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Pusan
National University, Busan, South Korea
J. M. Lee Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Pusan
National University, Busan, South Korea
Emmanuel Moulin Université de Valenciennes et du Hainaut-Cambrésis,
Valenciennes, France
Peter Mudge TWI Ltd., Cambridge, UK

ix
x Contributors

D. J. Oh Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Pusan

National University, Busan, South Korea
Hubertus von Selle DNV GL, Hamburg, Germany
Gaute Storhaug DNV GL, Hamburg, Germany
Slah Yaacoubi Institut de Soudure, Plateforme RDI CND, Yutz, France
Abstract

Structural health monitoring (SHM) involves introducing a sensor, or an array of

sensors, into an engineered structure to monitor it periodically for structural
degradation due to its operating environment. SHM is a multidisciplinary field that
is currently changing rapidly due to technological advances, and one that currently
does not have well-established standardization. It is an important field for the IIW,
as all welded or otherwise joined structures require monitoring to extend their
lifetimes and to ensure continued safe operation.
Commissions V (Non-destructive Testing and Quality Assurance of Welded
Products), XI (Pressure Vessels, Boilers and Pipelines), XIII (Fatigue of
Welded Components and Structures), and XV (Design, Analysis and Fabrication of
Welded Structures) held a joint seminar during 68th IIW annual assembly 2015 in
Helsinki (Finland) on this important subject.
This booklet gathers together several papers related to presentations made during
this joint SHM seminar. It will allow for the attendees to go further on the subject
than what has been presented during the seminar and for the other readers to
discover recent developments in that discipline.

Keywords Nondestructive testing SHM Structural health monitoring Sensors

Service conditions

xi
Introduction to Structural Health
Monitoring

Bastien Chapuis

Abstract Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) consists of embedding sensors in a

structure to periodically monitor its health. The main motivations for this are to
increase safety, optimize, and anticipate maintenance operations, and to extend the
working life of the structure. Longer term applications of SHM consist of reducing
mechanical safety margins with subsequent weight savings. SHM emerges from the
field of smart structures and encompasses various disciplines such as materials,
fatigue, nondestructive testing, sensors, signal processing, communication systems,
and decision-making processes. It is an emerging field, with a very active research
community, and the initial industrial deployments are being demonstrated as
effective. SHM is at the beginning of the structuring process, with standardization
of the techniques and methodologies still being worked on. However, major
developments are expected in the near future due to the current tremendous pro-
gress of embedded device technologies in daily use brought about by Internet of
Things applications. In this short introductory paper, the current challenges of SHM
are illustrated with some examples coming from different industrial applications.

Keywords NDT
SHM
Structural health monitoring

1 Introduction

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is an emerging field in engineering that

gathers together several techniques such as structural dynamics, materials, signal
processing, or microelectronics that can be used to give at every moment during the
life of a structure a diagnosis of its health and a prognosis of its remaining life.

V-1667-15 (XV-1493-15)

B. Chapuis (&)
NDE Department, CEA LIST, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

B. Chapuis and E. Sjerve (eds.), Sensors, Algorithms and Applications for Structural
Health Monitoring, IIW Collection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69233-3_1
2 B. Chapuis

This is done through a full system that comprises sensors and actuators, commu-
nication systems, and data processing units, from which part of it (at least the
sensors) are embedded in the structure itself.
In its first function, diagnosis, SHM is very similar to Non-Destructive Testing
(NDT). Indeed, these two fields use common physical techniques of investigation,
and the interaction between the two domains and communities are numerous, at
least in order to compare the results and to validate the approach if necessary.
But SHM must go further than NDT. First, its “embedded” aspect induces
sufficient constraints that it is generally impossible to simply miniaturize an existing
NDT system and integrate it into the structure. The global monitoring strategy must
generally be completely reconsidered, sometimes back to design of the structure.
Second, the notion of “prognosis”, i.e., estimating the residual life of the structure
(or at least anticipating the flaw growth evolution until the next maintenance
operation), is fully included into SHM. This is a very complex aspect that requires a
deep knowledge of material damage mechanisms. Thus, SHM is not only a damage
detection process but also includes monitoring of its history and of the environment
to which it has been submitted. At least, an SHM system must be able to detect an
event above a predefined threshold in order to trigger a further NDT inspection.
However, SHM systems will not eliminate completely “classical” NDT. First, it
seems impossible to design a set of systems that can monitor the entirety of a
structure as complex as a plane or a bridge. Second, the precision of the diagnosis
obtained with an integrated system will often be insufficient. Because of this, SHM
is more likely to be an alarm system to identify zones where further inspection is
required in order to facilitate and predict maintenance operations. NDT and SHM
are therefore complementary, and a full health management strategy must be set up
in order to take into account the advantages and limitations of both methods.
The two main domains that are the origin of this discipline are aeronautics and
civil engineering (especially for bridges). Nowadays, SHM is commonly applied in
other disciplines such as wind turbines, oil and gas (pipes), and railways.
A good synthesis of the state of the art of the discipline is presented since 1997 every
odd year in the International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring (IWSHM) in
Stanford (California) and every even year in the European Workshop on Structural
Health Monitoring (EWSHM) in a different country (France-2002, Germany-2004,
Spain-2006, Poland-2008, Italy-2010, Germany-2012, France-2014).
The success of these congresses is growing, which illustrates the interest given to
the discipline (see Fig. 1).
The physical implementation of an SHM system is very specific to the appli-
cation and the structure being monitored. We will present in the next part the major
aspects of SHM: the objectives and the technical challenges.
Then, some examples of recently developed SHM systems will be briefly
described. These few examples will be advantageously completed by the other
papers that are included in this booklet.
Introduction to Structural Health Monitoring 3

Fig. 1 SHM papers per origin (countries) and per event from IWSHM1999 to EWSHM2014 [6]

2 Objectives and Technical Challenges

2.1 Definitions and Objectives

A document published by SAE International in 2013, ARP6461 “Guidelines for

Implementation of Structural Health Monitoring on Fixed Wing Aircraft”, defines
SHM as “The process of acquiring and analyzing data from onboard sensors to
evaluate the health of a structure” [1].
More than the definition by itself, this guideline is very interesting since it is the
first document written by the SHM community to standardize terminology and
methodologies (for aerospace) after years of discussion. It was written by the SAE
G-11 SHM Aerospace Industry Steering Committee, and it is recognized as a major
step toward the transfer of SHM technologies from laboratories to real field
environments.
The main objective of an SHM system is to ensure the health of the structure
until the next maintenance operation. From the information that the system delivers,
4 B. Chapuis

the user wants to optimize the use of the structure both for safety and in terms of
increased operational availability.
Indeed, as part or all of the SHM system is embedded in the structure, the
inspection might possibly be automated and repeated as often as possible. Provided
that the information delivered are reliable, this should prevent catastrophic failures
and unanticipated downtimes. The automation of the diagnosis should also limit the
influence of human subjective interpretation of results that occur in some “classical”
inspection operations.
Five levels of information can be given by the SHM system:
• Level 1: detection of damage,
• Level 2: location of the damage,
• Level 3: characterization (type) of the damage,
• Level 4: sizing (severity) of the damage, and
• Level 5: remaining life of the structure (prognosis).
SHM is often viewed as a way to simplify and/or anticipate maintenance
operations. The system might be implemented in areas difficult to monitor due to
inaccessibility problems. This is particularly true for some components of aircrafts
that require significant dismantling work to provide accessibility, or in the case of
offshore wind farms for which regular human presence is extremely difficult.
However, the main advantage of SHM consists in anticipating downtimes of the
structure, which offers large potential gains in terms of logistics.
SHM systems can also be used to increase the lifetime of a structure. As an
example, this is the case in civil engineering where aging bridges in different
countries all over the world are being equipped with monitoring systems to extend
their working life.
Different strategies can be used to design an efficient SHM system, and they can
be grouped into three categories as presented in Fig. 2.
The first one consists of monitoring the operational environment of the structure,
which is called “operational monitoring” in ARP6461. In this case, parameters such
as temperatures, loads, etc. are then used to build an indirect evaluation of structure
usage. The main difficulty of this approach consists of the exhaustive list of
monitored parameters that might contribute to structural degradation.
A second approach aims at directly monitoring the integrity of the material, i.e.,
looking for defects like in NDT. This requires very specialized sensors, which are
generally close to the inspected area. This is called “damage monitoring” in
ARP6461. The reliability of the inspection system must be carefully demonstrated
(probability of detection and inspected area) to ensure the SHM system is providing
accurate and useful data.
A third approach, applicable mainly for large structures such as bridges or wind
turbines, consists of monitoring the shape of the structure to detect deformations
outside tolerable limits that might indicate failure of a subcomponents or usage of
the structure beyond the working limits it has been designed for.
Introduction to Structural Health Monitoring 5

Fig. 2 Main categories of monitoring strategies

A single SHM system can comprise several types of sensors of different kinds,
and whatever the strategies chosen, the data must be merged, processed, and
evaluated through different advanced algorithms to ensure the structure’s health.

2.2 Technical Challenges

Up to now, several technical challenges have limited the deployment of SHM

systems in industry. The first one is the difficulty to design such complex SHM
systems that require different technologies that are not always commercially
available (sensors, data processing units, communications systems, etc.). All of
these components must perform reliably (i.e., with good performance and
acceptable false alarm rates) during at least the working life of the structure.
Durability concerns must therefore often be solved since SHM systems might be
deployed in harsh environments. Integration of the system in the structure must
also not be a source of supplementary defects. This is especially the case when
sensors like fiber optics are embedded in composite materials, and often additional
testing might be required to demonstrate that. A big challenge in the design comes
from the constraints that arise from each embedded system: limited embedded
processing capabilities, limited access to energy or energy storage, and limited
data transmission bandwidth. This generally requires the development of ad hoc
solutions for data transmission protocols and energy management strategies.
6 B. Chapuis

In order to establish a prognosis of a structure’s residual life, it is necessary to

have good knowledge of material aging mechanisms and load distribution char-
acteristics (time and intensity distribution probabilities) but this information might
be difficult to determine.
Finally, even if ARP6461 is the first step, standardization of the technologies
that are used in SHM and established certification methodologies are necessary
before large adoption by industry.

3 Examples of SHM Systems

We will briefly present in this section three examples of SHM systems that are
deployed in the field. This is far from being representative of the diversity of
technologies that are used in SHM and more detailed examples will be illustrated in
the other papers that have been presented in this seminar.

3.1 Wind Farms

An example of structures for which there has been a successful deployment of SHM
system in industry is wind turbines. These structures are often deployed in very
harsh environments (offshore, low temperatures, etc.) and they can be subjected to
dramatic failures of blades (see Fig. 3) or tower. Maintenance operations can be

Fig. 3 Wind turbine blade failure [7]

Introduction to Structural Health Monitoring 7

Fig. 4 Blade inspection might require physical access to operators [10]

very difficult, meaning it is advantageous to replace human maintenance activities

with automatic inspection systems (see Fig. 4).
Monitoring the vibrations of the wind turbine (either of the tower or of the
blades) is a solution to anticipate some failures and to increase operational avail-
ability of the turbine.
For example, there is a risk of icing for wind turbines installed in Northern
Europe or in mountain environments. Interruption of electricity production is
required by authorities if ice thrown from blades poses a threat to people and
animals. As an alternative to stopping production when temperature becomes too
low, a solution proposed by the German company Wölfel consists of mounting on
each blade at least one sensor unit consisting of a two-dimensional accelerometer
and a temperature sensor [2].
Data processing is used to build an “ice indicator” that ensures, after compen-
sation of temperature and operating conditions, a clear distinction between the
normal vibrations of the blade and the structural response due to icing of the blade,
as shown in Fig. 5. This allows regulating the operation of the wind turbine
ensuring maximum energy production with the lowest risk of ice throw.
This successful example of SHM implementation is now deployed in several
wind farms in Northern Europe.
8 B. Chapuis

Fig. 5 Example of indication given by the system IDD.Blade® [2]

3.2 Bridges

Several bridges in the world have been equipped with instrumentation to monitor
their structural health condition in terms of their environmental loads (wind, traffic,
temperature, etc.) and response to evaluate and predict their current and future
performance.
An example of a large-scale implementation of such a system is given by the
so-called “Wind And Structural Health Monitoring System (WASHMS)” devel-
oped in Hong Kong in the past decade [3]. Five long-span cable-supported bridges
have been instrumented, namely the Tsing Ma (suspension) Bridge, the Kap Shui
Mun (cable-stayed) Bridge, the Ting Kau (cable-stayed) Bridge, the Western
Corridor (cable-stayed) Bridge, and the Stonecutters (cable-stayed). A large number
of sensors (up to 1700 per bridge) of different types have been installed at specific
locations on the bridges (see Fig. 6). A modular architecture is able to acquire,
process, and store the acquired data continuously, as shown in Fig. 7. With the
acquired monitoring data, many investigations on condition assessment and damage
detection of large-scale cable-supported bridges have been conducted [4].

3.3 Aeronautics

Along with civil engineering, aeronautics is one of the major fields for SHM
investigations. However, at the present time, very few SHM systems have been
implemented on aircraft and none is certified to replace conventional nondestructive
inspections. One of the most advanced solutions is the so-called Comparative
Vacuum Monitoring (CVM) system designed to detect small cracks (less than half a
mm) at the surface of a component in known “hot spots” (for example near rivets).
It consists of a thin self-adhesive rubber patch with interconnected galleries, to
which air pressure is applied (see Fig. 8). Any propagating crack under the sensor
breaches the galleries and the resulting change in pressure is monitored.
Introduction to Structural Health Monitoring 9

Fig. 6 Sensors installed on Stonecutters Bridge (Hong Kong) [4]

After years of research and trials with this technology, Delta/Boeing selected the
737 NG Wing Box fitting cracking problem as the application for a formal certi-
fication of CVM by the American Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2015
[5].

4 Conclusions and Perspectives

Examples of SHM system deployment in industry are limited at the present time
despite the promising benefits that can be expected in terms of safety and opera-
tional availability of the structure. This is mainly due to the very recent develop-
ment of this discipline that integrates a variety of “classical” technologies to build a
full and complex SHM system whose reliability must be proven before being
installed on critical structures.
However, research in this field is very intense and several new applications
should be demonstrated in the near future.
Major progress is expected by the use of simulation to design and demonstrate
performance of SHM systems. Developments of new sensors (fiber optics, MEMS,
etc.) or new inspection methods (guided waves) will increase the quantity and
10 B. Chapuis

Fig. 7 Architecture of the wind and structural health monitoring system (WASHMS) deployed on
Hong Kong bridges [3]

Fig. 8 a Schematics of a CVM sensor [8], b flexible CVM sensor [9]

quality of information that can be obtained from the structure. Combined with new
data processing algorithms that take advantage of such a high volume of infor-
mation (such as machine learning), this will lead to a more reliable ability to
diagnose and predict a structure’s health. New architectures of SHM systems,
Introduction to Structural Health Monitoring 11

especially based on wireless networks, will also help to simplify on-site

implementations.
Finally, SHM will also widely benefit of the current revolution of the Internet of
Things (IoT), which is introducing sensors, memories, communication systems, and
power resources in many objects of daily use. Making these technologies cheaper
and standardized, it will accelerate the transfer of SHM from laboratory research
into the industrial field.

References

1. SAE International (2013) Guidelines for Implementation of Structural Health Monitoring on

Fixed Wing Aircraft, ARP6461
2. Kraemer P, Friedmann H, Ebert C (2015) Vibration-based ice detection of rotor blades in
wind turbines—the industrial realization of an SHM-system. In: Proceedings of the 10th
IWSHM, Stanford
3. Wong K-Y, Ni Y-Q (2009) Modular architecture of SHM system for cable-supported bridges,
encyclopedia of structural health monitoring. Wiley, USA
4. Ni Y, Wong K (2012) Integrating bridge structural health monitoring and condition-based
maintenance management. Civil Structural Health Monitoring Workshop, Berlin
5. Swindell P (2014) FAA structural health monitoring research program. Airlines for
America NDT forum, Atlantic City
6. Ferdinand P (2014) The evolution of optical fiber sensors technologies during the 35 last years
and their applications in structure health monitoring. In: Proceedings of the 7th EWSHM,
Nantes
7. Health and Safety Executive (2013) Study and development of a methodology for the
estimation of the risk and harm to persons from wind turbines, RR968
8. http://www.smsystems.com.au/content/products/to_how-it-works.asp
9. https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/releases/2007/aircraft.html
10. http://www.offshorewind.biz/2014/09/03/rtn-unveils-turbine-blade-maintenance-courses/
Ultrasonic Monitoring of Corrosion
with Permanently Installed Sensors
(PIMS)

Frederic Cegla

Abstract Ultrasonic wall thickness monitoring using permanently installed sensors

has become a tool to monitor pipe wall thicknesses online and during plant oper-
ation. This talk aims to give a short introduction to the benefits and drivers of the
technology as well as the technical challenges that had to be overcome during the
development of the waveguide sensor that is Permasense Ltd.’s flagship product.
The presentation will present the underlying measurement principle and then give
some more detail on key parameters that influence the measurement, such as
temperature and surface morphology. It will also be shown how these effects can be
managed. Some example data of application used in industry will be presented and
the paper will end with a look into the near future and describe technology that will
become available soon.

Keywords Ultrasonics
Corrosion
Structural health monitoring

SHM

1 Introduction

Ultrasonic wall thickness measurements or ultrasonic thickness gauging is one of

the most commonly employed tools to check that corrosion or erosion has not
degraded metal work in industrial plant. The methods are well documented and
there are industrial standards that describe how to carry out the measurements [1, 2].
Traditionally, all measurements were carried out manually. This means that an
operator goes out to the location of the plant where the measurements are required;
he gains access to the component (removing insulation, building scaffolding, or

V-1669-15.

F. Cegla (&)
Imperial College London, London, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 13

B. Chapuis and E. Sjerve (eds.), Sensors, Algorithms and Applications for Structural
Health Monitoring, IIW Collection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69233-3_2
14 F. Cegla

rope access can be required) and then carries out the actual measurement. Because
of the restricted access to some components, this procedure is not carried out
frequently. Furthermore, because of coupling and positioning errors on repeat
manual measurements, there is a rather large uncertainty on these measurements.
Therefore, over the last decade, permanently installable, wireless thickness gauging
sensors have been developed. Once installed, these sensors remain fixed in the same
location and send back data at regular pre-configurable intervals. Several systems
are on the market. The information relayed here will be kept as general as possible;
however, the author has been deeply involved in the creation of the Permasense
Ltd. wireless ultrasonic monitoring system, and therefore some information that is
displayed might be biased toward this particular system [3].
It is of utmost importance that permanently installed sensors are as rugged as
possible and therefore their coupling and attachment mechanisms are key.
Furthermore, it needs to be ensured that the sensor can withstand the operating
conditions (e.g., temperature) at the location where the transducer is to be installed.
In the Permasense system, both these problems were solved by means of the use of
a robust waveguide that isolates the fragile transducers and electronics from the
measurement error. The waveguide is thin and slender so that it can isolate large
temperature differences over short distances. The transducer is attached to the
sample under test by means of two welded studs which apply load onto the contact
patches and enable dry coupling of the waveguide to the pipe surface. This has
proven to be much more reliable than bonding of the transducer.
This paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 describes the key features of the fully
wireless ultrasonic corrosion monitoring system as it is deployed in an industrial
plant and shows some example long-term wall thickness trends. Section 3 is con-
cerned with the effects of temperature on the monitored wall thickness and Sect. 4
is concerned with the effects of changes in surface morphology. Finally, conclu-
sions are drawn from the presented information.

2 A Complete Industrial Ultrasonic Monitoring System

2.1 Overview of Components

Figure 1 shows an overview of the Permasense Ltd. wireless ultrasonic corrosion

monitoring system. Sensors are installed at monitoring locations in the industrial
plant, and they communicate wirelessly with each other (forming a mesh network)
and relay data to a gateway that is connected to the general business IT network of
the plant. Via the network the gateway communicates with a database server on
which all the information is stored and users can visualize the data in the database
from any office PC that has network access.
Ultrasonic Monitoring of Corrosion … 15

Fig. 1 Overview and pictures of the Permasense Ltd. wireless ultrasonic corrosion monitoring
system

2.2 A Typical Thickness Measurement

Figure 2 shows the geometry of the waveguide sensor on a metal sample of

thickness T. The measurement is a pitch-catch measurement from the transmitting
transducer Tx to the receiving transducer Rx. The ultrasonic signal travels via
different wave paths resulting in the arrival of distinct wave packets as can be seen
in the ultrasonic signal of Fig. 2b. The arrival time difference between echoes is
directly linked to the component thickness via the ultrasonic shear velocity in the
material that is being tested. To estimate the component thickness, the arrival time
difference is established and turned into a distance by multiplication with the wave
velocity. The final result is a thickness value.

Fig. 2 a Illustration of ultrasonic signal path and b typical ultrasonic signal that is received by a
sensor
16 F. Cegla

2.3 Example Wall Thickness Measurement Trends

Figure 3 shows thicknesses that were monitored over the period of about 3.5 years
in a plant component where the wall thickness remained constant. The plot
demonstrates the very good repeatability and measurement frequency that can be
obtained with a permanently installed monitoring system.
Figure 4 shows the wall thickness trend measured on another component in a
plant. Here, it is clearly visible that wall loss is taking place. The wall loss rate is
roughly 1 mm/year; however, there is also a period where no wall loss/corrosion is
taking place. The measurement frequency and precision of the automated mea-
surements make it possible to gather information on wall thickness changes that
would not be obtained with conventional manual ultrasonic measurements.
Conventional measurements would have much higher error bars (i.e., measurement
uncertainty) and would record data much less frequently. This is indicated by the
box plot on the right of Fig. 4 which illustrates ±1 standard deviation of the
measurement uncertainty (indicated by the extent of the box; ±2 standard devia-
tions for the whiskers) that has been quoted for manual UT measurements [4]. The
additional information can be used to take decisions about corrosion mitigation
strategies, the effect of operating conditions on the plant, or if component retirement
should be considered in the near future.

Fig. 3 Constant wall thickness monitored over the period of *3.5 years
Ultrasonic Monitoring of Corrosion … 17

Fig. 4 Wall thickness trend showing wall loss due to corrosion and intermittent period of no
corrosion, also indicated on the right is the uncertainty that is expected to result from manual
ultrasonic measurements

3 Effects of Temperature on the Ultrasonically Monitored

Wall Thickness

The ultrasonic wave velocity in steels is a function of temperature. This can

introduce changes into wall thickness measurements, if these measurements are not
made at the same temperature. Figure 5 shows the velocity temperature behavior of

3250
Carbon steel
3200 Stainless steel 304
Shear wave velocity (m/s)

3150

3100

3050

3000

2950

2900
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (C)

Fig. 5 Shear wave velocity as a function of temperature for carbon steel and stainless steel 304
18 F. Cegla

a 10-mm-thick carbon steel plate and that of a 10-mm-thick stainless steel 304 plate
that was measured in the laboratory. While overall the velocities are within 1% and
both steels behave similarly, there are subtle differences in slope which can cause
errors in the temperature compensation if large temperature swings are encountered
or if a very good measurement precision is required. Based on the carbon steel
measurements the ultrasonic velocity reduced as 0.56 m/s per °C or 0.017% per °C.
This would cause a thickness error of *0.17% or 17 lm in 10 mm wall thickness
for a 10 °C temperature change. For the stainless steel, the results are slightly
different and the velocity reduced as 0.78 m/s per °C or 0.024% per °C. Here, a
thickness error of 24 lm in 10 mm wall thickness for a 10 °C temperature change
would result. If the wrong calibration curve for carbon or stainless steel were used,
an error of *7 lm in 10 mm wall thickness for a 10 °C temperature change could
result. Therefore, for very precise measurements, both temperature compensation
and choice of the correct calibration data becomes important.
Gajdacsi [5] also analyzed the performance of temperature compensation of
ultrasonic signals with a thermocouple that is attached to the outside of a fluid
carrying pipe wall if the pipe wall is heated by the internal fluid. He showed that
under steady temperature conditions there is little error in the temperature com-
pensation when data from the external thermocouple is used. Under these condi-
tions, sub-lm changes in wall thickness can be tracked [6]. However, if there is
unsteady heating or cooling of the pipewall, then larger errors can result due to the
nonuniform temperature distribution within the pipe wall. Depending on the rate of
change of temperature, errors in the order of lm could result. It can be concluded
that very advanced temperature compensation methods would be required to reli-
ably track thickness changes below the lm mark using ultrasonic techniques.

4 Effects of Corrosion-Induced Surface Morphology

Changes

In this section, we are interested in the effect that uneven surface morphology
changes have on ultrasonically monitored thicknesses. Corrosion is a complicated
phenomenon and is a large field of study. It is a degradation mechanism that can
result in thickness loss of many forms. The loss can be spatially uniform as in
etching or spatially nonuniform as in pitting corrosion and any combination of the
two depending on the material and environmental conditions. It is therefore
important to note that every component will have spatial variation of its thickness
due to the nature of the corrosion process. Furthermore, it is very simplistic to
condense the resulting surface condition into a single thickness value that results
from an ultrasonic thickness gauging measurement. It is the end user of the
information who needs to decide what metric is important to him, does he/she
require the mean, max, or minimum thickness?
Ultrasonic Monitoring of Corrosion … 19

In corrosion engineering, it is common to use the weight loss of coupons or

electrochemical potential or current measurements to infer a corrosion rate. When
doing these measurements, one inherently averages over the area of the component,
and this effectively results in a mean wall thickness loss evaluation. In the field, it is
therefore accepted that some form of mean or average is reported when quoting a
corrosion rate. For the purpose of this work, it was therefore decided to compare
ultrasonic wall loss trend measurements on rough surfaces to the mean wall
thickness change.
Gajdacsi et al. [5, 7] investigated the effect of surfaces morphology changes on
the error in ultrasonically evaluated corrosion rate compared to the actual under-
lying corrosion rate by means of simulation. They simulated the evolution of many
hundreds of random rough surfaces with the same statistical properties, simulated
ultrasonic signals reflected from these surfaces, and used different signal processing
algorithms to estimate the wall loss trend/corrosion rate from the ultrasonic data.
They concluded that standard signal processing algorithms resulted in rather large
corrosion rate error estimates and developed a new signal processing algorithm that
they termed adaptive cross-correlation (AXC). This new algorithm performed much
better and was able to monitor corrosion rates (90% of simulated population) to
within −10 to +25% of the actual trend of the mean wall loss for spatially random
and evolving thickness loss (Gaussian rough surfaces of RMS 100–300 lm and
correlation length 1 mm). This means that if the actual underlying mean wall loss of
the rough surface was 1 mm/year, in 90% of cases, the algorithm would report a
rate in between 0.75 and 1.1 mm/year. These figures were quoted for the worst-case
surface conditions and the algorithm did perform better on flat surface morpholo-
gies and evolutions. Figure 6 summarizes the trend error results for the different
algorithms (first arrival [FA], peak-to-peak [P2P], cross-correlation [XC] and

Fig. 6 Trend error distributions as computed by Gajdacsi [5, 7] on simulated ultrasonic

monitoring data from rough evolving surfaces. The results show the performance of different
signal processing algorithms
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
that a deed will be given; further payment being secured by
mortgage.
Building associations are not common in all sections of the country.
Those who are ambitious to build, and are not provided with
facilities which a building association offers, may ask what to do.
The answer is short: form an association. This can be done in a
small community. Two hundred shares paid in, say, by fifty people,
would represent a hundred dollars a week. Any one who wishes to
do this can provide himself with text-books and other information on
the subject, which are now published in different parts of the
country. Any bookseller with a good catalogue can give the
necessary information.
It is sometimes assumed by those unfamiliar with building-
association methods, that they only provide means for building
small, low-cost houses. This is an error. It is not at all unusual that
complete houses, costing from three to five thousand dollars, are
built by men of large means, who secure their money from a
building association. One has, say, forty or fifty thousand dollars
profitably occupied in a regular business; he may not care to disturb
this money except to buy a lot with which to establish a basis of
credit with the building association. The price of the lot may vary
from one-fourth to one-half the total investment. One wishes to
borrow three thousand dollars from an association on the plan which
is subsequently fully described. He would have to take out fifteen
shares on a payment of fifty cents a share a week. This would
represent seven dollars and a half weekly, or about thirty dollars a
month. On the plan where the interest and premium are charged in
addition to the regular weekly dues, a little over fifty dollars a month
would be required to keep up the building-association charges. This
would be less than house rent. These calculations are made
assuming that the premium is not more than ten cents and the
interest six per cent.
 CHAPTER XXXIX.
BUILDING ASSOCIATIONS.—WHY DIVIDENDS ARE LARGE AND INTEREST
LOW.—BUILDING ASSOCIATIONS AND SAVINGS BANKS.—ASSOCIATION
SECURITIES.—BUILDING-ASSOCIATION METHODS.—DIFFERENT PLANS.—
BORROWING FROM A BUILDING ASSOCIATION.—A BUILDING-ASSOCIATION
REPORT.

Building-association methods become more popular as they are

better understood. Savings banks are unnecessary in communities
where building associations are common. The savings bank will give
place to the building association, for the reason that the latter
affords greater security and more profit to the depositors at the
same time that it affords greater conveniences to the borrowers. It is
often asked by those not fully acquainted with building-association
methods, “How is it that the association pays such large dividends,
and the borrower such a small rate of interest? The profit is made by
the loaning of money; and, consequently, the borrower must pay a
high price for his money, or the association does not make large
dividends.”
This appears to be a logical argument. However, it is not true that
the borrower pays a high price for his money. The dividends
declared are made from the borrowers, by the rapid compounding of
interest and other sources of profit. Money paid in as interest is
immediately re-invested as a loan, and thus pays interest the next
week. The interest on this is at once put to use, and so on. It is
compounded. The premium paid for money is another source of
profit. This comes from the borrower, and represents a part of the
cost of the money to him; but, unless the premium is excessive, the
earnings on his stock counterbalance the amount paid as premium,
so that in the end a borrower does not pay in excess of the regular
rate for his money at the same time that the stockholder is more
largely benefited.
A building association has only a tithe of the expenses of a bank.
The cost of doing business is very small. An association has a very
great advantage over a bank in its earning capacity in that it does
not have to carry a surplus. All of its money is invested at all times.
Frequently it is receiving interest upon money that is not a part of its
assets. This happens when an application for a loan has been
accepted, a building is under way, and the money not all paid out.
The percentage of loss in a building association is necessarily smaller
than in the best-conducted bank. Its securities are all first mortgages
on productive real estate, and loans are made to members only, and
under the condition that the immediate repayment of the loan be
commenced. The security begins to improve at once, by the
repayment of a part of the principal each week. It is usual for each
member of a family to become interested in the immediate
repayment of a loan. The payment of building-association dues is
constantly in mind; as they become due from week to week, they
cannot be overlooked. The fact that the debt is growing less, and, as
well, the incentive to avoid small fines in case of failure to make
payment, contribute to the value of the security. A loan on an
ordinary basis, secured from a savings bank, insurance or trust
company for a long period, is not thought of in this way. The usual
thought in such a case is to pay the debt in a large sum at a time in
the future. The time of the repayment of an association loan is
always present. The security afforded to building associations is
much better than to savings banks and loan companies, even where
the margin above the amount of loan is less because of this
difference in plan of repayment. Again, the margin of security from
the first is always sufficient to protect a mortgage and the payment
of all foreclosure costs and charges. Furthermore, the rentals in case
of foreclosure are, or should be, sufficient to pay all dues and other
fixed charges. This will prevent loss, and in the end pay for the
property.
Another element of safety in building associations is the small risk of
loss from the duplicity of the officers. This risk is unusually light, for
the reason that in a well-managed building association there is little
in sight to lose. The money is usually all invested. Any small amount
in the hands of the officers is there for only a short time. There are
demands in all well-managed building associations for all the money
in hand. While this is true, it is always required that the officers who
handle the association money give bond for a much larger sum than
it is possible for them ever to have in charge. This makes the loss, if
any, readily collectible.
It may be well to illustrate building-association methods, and thus
call attention intelligently to the points of superiority which one plan
may have over another.
The idea which first gave rise to associations is that of enabling
persons belonging to a class whose earnings are small, to place
themselves in a position where the process of gradual accumulation
is, in a certain sense, compulsory. The method of operation is simple
enough when it is understood. Say that a number of stockholders
agree to form an association with a thousand shares, each share to
represent $200. This would make a full capital stock of $200,000
when all paid in. The various individuals forming the association
subscribe for as many shares as they feel competent to pay upon, it
being agreed that for each share of stock subscribed, fifty cents per
week shall be paid until the sum-total of the payments shall
aggregate $200; at the end of which time a division shall be made
according to the original subscription and subsequent payment. It is
clear that if all are prompt in their payments, the treasury will be
ready for distribution at the end of four hundred weeks. The period
of four hundred weeks will, however, be shortened if all the money
paid in is at once invested at interest upon safe securities, with the
addition of interests compounded weekly, as is the case with these
associations. For instance, it may appear that at the end of three
hundred and twelve weeks, with a payment of fifty cents a week,
and the accrued earnings that are credited to the shares, they are
worth $200, the amount fixed for the value of the stock when it is
paid up. At such a time the depositing members withdraw their
funds, and those who are borrowers pay off their obligations to the
association with stock, and the mortgages are released.
Money in building associations is generally sold to the highest
bidder; that is, those who want to borrow bid a premium for the
money. For instance, a sale of money is advertised. Bids are then
received on the money to be loaned, and it is given to the highest
bidder after the security has been approved. Suppose one wishes to
borrow a thousand dollars. If each paid-up share is to represent two
hundred dollars, five shares must be taken out to represent the
payment of principal on a thousand-dollar loan. It may appear that
the premium bid was ten cents on each share. This means that the
borrower must pay ten cents premium each week, on each share,
during the course of the loan, or until the principal is paid out. Thus
he would pay fifty cents a week as principal, and ten cents a week
as premium, and the interest on two hundred dollars at six per cent,
which would be twenty-four cents a week. Thus he would pay
eighty-four cents a week on each share; or on five shares, four
dollars and twenty cents a week. This would pay out in about five
years, depending upon the average rate of premium, the cost of
doing business, and other conditions which may be readily
understood. When the principal paid in, together with the accrued
earnings, represents two hundred dollars, the obligation to the
building association is released.
There are various plans of starting and arranging building and
savings associations, which differ one from another only in matters
of detail. The price of the share may be two, three, or four hundred
dollars, or any other sum. The amounts paid in a week vary from ten
cents to any larger sum. In the past, most associations have been
started on the series plan, which is defined as follows by Henry S.
Rosenthal of Cincinnati in his “Manual for Building Associations:”—

“In an association, organized on the terminating plan, all the

stock is issued as of one date. A terminating association is
organized on the presumption that all the stock will be
subscribed for at the open meetings. This, however, is seldom
done. The consequence is, that shares sold after the first
meetings must be sold at such prices as to make them equal in
value to those already issued. To do this a sum must be charged
equal to the amount already paid in in instalments by the
subscribers to the original shares. If the regular dues on shares
should be one dollar per week, a person subscribing for a share
after the association has been running ten weeks must pay ten
dollars for the share. In like manner, if the association has been
running for a longer period, he must pay an additional dollar for
each additional week. Moreover, if he does not subscribe until
after the profits have been declared, he must pay such an
additional amount on his share as will correspond to the
earnings of the original shares up to that time. The same rule
holds through the entire existence of the association, each year
making it more difficult to enter. After an association, organized
on this plan, has run for a time, it is impossible for many
persons, who would gladly become members, to raise a
sufficient sum of money to pay up the back instalments, the
initiation fees, the accrued profits, and other incidental
expenses. In its practical workings, therefore, an association
organized on this plan is not well adapted to meet the
conditions of that particular class of persons who most need
such an organization, and are most likely to be benefited by it.
“In a terminating association all the shares are, of course, at all
times of equal value. Whenever the total amounts of the dues
paid in and of accumulated profits equal the par value of all the
shares, the association terminates and its affairs must be wound
up. Each stockholder who has not borrowed his money in
advance receives the full value of his shares. To those who have
secured their money in advance, their mortgages, cancelled and
receipted in full, are returned.
“PERMANENT ASSOCIATION.

“Building associations were established originally on the

terminating plan. It is obvious that working on this plan they
cannot, in some respects, reach their greatest degree of
popularity and usefulness. On this account there has been a
gradual departure from this plan. The first departure from the
terminating plan consisted in an arrangement for issuing the
stock in series instead of all from the same date. Associations
were chartered for a certain number of years, as before, and
with a specified amount of capital stock. But instead of selling
all the stock as of the same date, it was divided into series; one
series being sold as of the date of the beginning of the first
year, the second series as of the date of the beginning of the
second year, and so on until all the shares were sold. The
issuing of a new series does not necessarily occur annually, but
at such periods as are made necessary or desirable by the
business of the association. The serial issue may be monthly,
quarterly, semi-annually, or otherwise, as the directors may
determine. By the time the last series is issued and the stock is
exhausted, the first one or two or more series of shares, if the
business of the association has been prosperous, have usually
reached their full value, and are paid back and cancelled.
Associations conducted on this plan usually have the right to
issue new stock to take the place of that which is cancelled from
time to time, and thus their perpetuity is insured. A successful
association working on this plan can usually secure the issue of
a new charter, and can thus continue its existence. But there are
manifest disadvantages and risks under which an association
operating on this plan must labor.
“Another plan of operation has been inaugurated which has
proved very popular, and which is being generally adopted by
the associations in the different States. Associations are granted
perpetual charters, the amount of the capital stock being fixed
at a certain sum. They are allowed to begin operations as soon
as a certain amount of stock is subscribed. After the association
is in operation, new subscribers are allowed to enter at any time
on an equality with the original subscribers, the stock of each
member dating from the time of his entry. Thus the business of
the association runs along from year to year, until finally all of
the stock is subscribed. After a time the shares first issued begin
 to reach their full value. As they thus mature, the owners draw
out their money,—if they have not borrowed it in advance,—and
their shares are cancelled, and their membership ceases. If they
have borrowed their money in advance, their bonds and
mortgages are returned to them receipted in full. If a member,
whose stock has thus matured, has not borrowed his money in
advance, and does not wish to draw it out, a certificate of paid-
up stock is issued to him, and he leaves his money in the
association as a matter of investment. An association operating
on this plan may, after a time, when its original stock has all
been subscribed through application to the incorporating
authorities, secure the right to increase its stock. If, in the
course of time, this increased stock becomes exhausted,
another increase may be secured in a like manner, and so on
indefinitely.”

Herewith is given an extract from the yearly report of a successful

savings and loan association on the perpetual plan. It will illustrate
more fully the method and results of this method than could a less
formal description. It may be explained in this connection that in this
society the payments are uniform for depositing and borrowing
members; that is, instead of having the premium and interest added
to the weekly dues, the amount of premium and interest is charged
against the weekly payment of fifty cents. Ten cents is the limit of
premium, the officers and stockholders believing that to be as much
as any one should pay.
OBJECT.

The Plymouth Savings and Loan Association, No. 2, is organized with

two main objects in view:—
First.—To furnish a convenient, safe, and profitable method of
investing the savings of working people.
Members can come in and go out at will.
Subscriptions can commence at any time without having to pay
back dues or wait for new series.
Withdrawing members obtain their money without loss (fines
excepted), and are paid as promptly as the finances of the
Association will admit, without having to wait ninety days. In the
history of the Association there have been no delays.
Second.—To furnish persons who wish to borrow for any purpose
the means for doing so at a reasonable rate of interest. In other
words, it is an association composed of borrowers and lenders,
and established for their mutual convenience. It gathers
together the savings of the people, which, scattered and in
small sums, could not be invested to advantage, and loans the
money thus obtained on first mortgage security, and in sums to
suit, to those who wish to build, to pay off mortgages, or for
other purposes.
All members of the Association are, therefore, divided into two
classes:—
First.—Those who desire to use the society as a means of saving
or investing money. These are called depositing members.
Second.—Those who wish to make use of the organization as a
means of borrowing money. These are called borrowing
members.
MANAGEMENT.

The Plymouth Savings and Loan Association is a strictly co-operative

or mutual organization. All the shareholders are pro rata owners
of all the assets of the society. Every member is a partner in the
enterprise in proportion to the amount paid in by him. He is
entitled to his share of all the earnings of the Association, and
he must also stand his share of the losses, if there be any.
The By-laws contain the rules and regulations under which
money is received and loaned, or otherwise disposed of, and the
business of the society is carried on by a Board of Directors,
elected annually by the members.
SHARES AND SHAREHOLDERS.

The amount of interest which each member has in the

Association is indicated by the number of his shares.
Shares are $200 each, and no member can hold more than
twenty-five shares. The weekly payment required is fifty cents
on each share of stock.
When a member joins the Association he indicates the amount
of weekly payment he desires to make by the number of shares
for which he subscribes. He may, however, if he wishes, pay
more than his shares call for, and such over-payments will
receive dividends the same as the regular weekly instalments.
Each member is supposed to keep up his payments until what
he has paid in, together with the dividends declared thereon,
shall amount to the face value of his shares, at which time he
must cease payments, and either take his money out, or, if the
society be willing, allow it to remain and draw dividends.
DIVIDENDS.

On the 1st of January and July of each year the net earnings of
the Association are divided pro rata among all the members,
and the amount due each member is credited on his pass-book.
Persons joining the association between January and July must
continue payments until the following January before the
dividend will be credited, and those joining between July and
January must likewise pay until the following July; and if the
money be withdrawn before that time, the dividend will be
forfeited.
The right to dividend also ceases from the date of the notice to
withdraw the stock.
When dividends are credited on the pass-books they are just
like money paid, and are themselves entitled to draw dividends
the same as cash payments. Thus it will be seen that all
dividends compound semi-annually.
The following table will show how long it takes to pay up a
share to face value by paying the regular dues only, supposing
the society to earn six per cent dividends per annum.[1] It also
shows the value of each share at the close of each year:—

First year Dues $26 00

“ Dividends 78 $26 78
Value at close of first year $26 78
Second year Dues $26 00
“ Dividends 2 41 28 41
Value at close of second year $55 19
Third year Dues $26 00
“ Dividends 4 53 30 53
Value at close of third year $85 72
Fourth year Dues $26 00
“ Dividends 6 10 32 10
Value at close of fourth year $117 82
Fifth year Dues $26 00
“ Dividends 8 34 34 34
Value at close of fifth year $152 16
Sixth year Dues $26 00
“ Dividends 10 41 36 41
Value at close of sixth year $188 60
Seventh year (16 weeks) Dues $8 00
“ Dividends 3 40 11 40
$200 00
Time, 6 years and 16 weeks.
Total dues paid $164 00
 Total dividends 36 00
$200 00

[1] The present rate of dividend is nine per cent, with an

added surplus.

METHOD OF LOANING MONEY.

The society loans money only to members. For each $200 share
held by a member he may borrow $200, secured by first
mortgage on real estate, interest on which is twenty-four cents
per week.
The right to precedence in borrowing is sold at auction at stated
times at the office of the Association (notice of which is given
beforehand) to the member who bids or agrees to pay the
highest weekly premium in addition to the twenty-four cents per
week interest. Ten cents per week is the average rate at which
money was sold during the year 1887, and is now selling.
Members not desiring or not able to attend the sale of money in
person may have some one else bid for them, or they may leave
a written bid with the Secretary, on blanks prepared for that
purpose, who will make it for them at the sale.
The society also loans to depositing members in sums equal to
ninety per cent of the dues paid in. Security is had by the
member pledging his stock for the payment of the loan and
interest due (if any) on notes prepared for that purpose.
Interest on such loans has for the present been placed at the
rate of eight per cent per annum.
PAYMENTS.

The depositing and borrowing members alike pay fifty cents per
week per share. There are no additions for expenses, interest,
premiums, or fines. These are charged up at the close of each
dividend period, or at the closing up of an account.
Each borrower is required to pay at least fifty cents per week on
each $200 of loan made to him, which is credited as follows:—
First the premium and interest are taken out, the interest being
twenty-four cents. When the premium bid is ten cents, both
together would amount to thirty-four cents. Then the balance,
which in this case would be sixteen cents, is credited as a
payment on the share on which the loan is taken. These
payments are continued until the amount credited on the
shares, together with the dividends thereon, will equal the
amount loaned. For instance, suppose the loan to be $200, and
the premium bid to be ten cents per week,—

The payment each week would be 50 cents

The premium each week would be 10 cents
The interest each week would be 24 cents
34 cents
The credit on the share each week would be 16 cents

These credits of sixteen cents per week begin to draw dividends

on the succeeding dividend period, which are compounded
semi-annually, and the weekly payments must be continued
until the weekly credits of sixteen cents and the dividends
thereon amount to $200.
Members are at liberty to pay every two weeks or monthly, and
as much beyond the required weekly payment as they may
desire to. The overpayments are credited like any regular
payment and share in the dividends.
This enables borrowers to pay their loans off as fast as their
circumstances will admit. This method is very helpful, as the
interest and premium will be stopped on as many full shares as
are paid off, and the cost of a loan is materially reduced
thereby.
The minimum payment only is fixed. The borrower may at any
time pay the whole balance due on the loan and have it
cancelled at once.
It is always good policy for a borrower to pay more than the
weekly dues if he can, in order that in case of sickness, loss of
work, or other unforeseen hindrance, he may be paid ahead,
and hence suspend payment for a time without being fined or in
danger of losing his property.
By the following table it is shown that with the premium at
twenty-four cents on each $200, and that the society is able to
earn six per cent per annum dividends (both of which are being
done now[2]), and the required weekly dues only being paid, a
loan will be paid up in fifteen years and six months. This time,
as already mentioned, can be shortened at the will and ability of
the borrower, and may be paid off at any time without any
penalty whatever. This is a great advantage, and the society can
do this only because of the great demand for loans, and the
money does not have to lie idle if a loan is paid off, but is
immediately loaned again. Here is a loan which you may take
fifteen years to pay if you wish, or you may pay it off at any
time.
TABLE.

SHOWING COURSE OF LOAN OF $1,000.

Premium 50 cents per week.

Interest $1.20 per week.
Six per cent dividends compounded semi-
annually.
First Year:
$1,000
Loan
00
$130
Payments for year
00
 $88
Interest and premium
40
Less dividends 62
Net cost of loan 87 78
Principal reduced 42 22
Second Year:
Balance due at end of first year $957 78
Payments for year 130 00
Premium and interest 88 40
Less dividends 3 18
Net cost of loan 85 22
Principal reduced 44 78
Third Year:
Balance due at end of second year $913 00
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 5 91
Net cost of loan 82 49
Principal reduced 47 51
Fourth Year:
Balance due at end of third year $865 49
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 8 79
Net cost of loan 79 61
Principal reduced 50 39
Fifth Year:
Balance due at end of fourth year $815 10
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 11 88
Net cost of loan 76 52
Principal reduced 53 48
Sixth Year:
Balance due at end of fifth year $761 62
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 15 12
 Net cost of loan 73 28
Principal reduced 56 72
Seventh Year:
Balance due at end of sixth year $704 90
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 18 60
Net cost of loan 69 80
Principal reduced 60 20
Eighth Year:
Balance due at end of seventh year $644 70
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 22 26
Net cost of loan 66 14
Principal reduced 63 86
Ninth Year:
Balance due at end of eighth year $580 84
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 26 13
Net cost of loan 62 27
Principal reduced 67 73
Tenth Year:
Balance due at end of ninth year $513 11
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 30 27
Net cost of loan 58 13
Principal reduced 71 87
Eleventh Year:
Balance due at end of tenth year $441 24
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 34 65
Net cost of loan 53 75
Principal reduced 76 25
Twelfth Year:
 Balance due at end of eleventh year $364 99
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 39 30
Net cost of loan 49 10
Principal reduced 80 90
Thirteenth Year:
Balance due at end of twelfth year $284 09
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 44 22
Net cost of loan 44 18
Principal reduced 85 82
Fourteenth Year:
Balance due at end of thirteenth year $198 27
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 49 41
Net cost of loan 38 99
Principal reduced 91 01
Fifteenth Year:
Balance due at end of fourteenth year $107 26
Payments for year 130 00
Interest and premium 88 40
Less dividends 54 99
Net cost of loan 33 41
Principal reduced 96 59
Six Weeks:
Balance due at end of fifteenth year $10 67
Payments for six weeks 15 00
Interest and premium 10 20
Less dividends 5 87
Net cost of loan 4 33
Principal reduced 10 67
Time, fifteen years and six weeks.
$1,965
Total amount of payments
00
Total interest and premium 1,336 20
 Total dividends 371 20
Net cost of loan 965 00

[2] Since this report was made the earnings have been nine
per cent, with an added surplus.

With the reasonable prospect in view that the Association will be

able to pay larger dividends at some future time, it will be easy
to understand that the cost and the time of payment of a loan
will thereby be correspondingly reduced.
MORTGAGES.

All loans must be secured by first mortgage on real estate in

Marion County, Ind. An appraising committee, consisting of
three members of the Association, appraise the value of all real
estate offered as security for loans and report to the board. No
loan can be made until the security has been approved by the
Board of Directors.
This Association is now paying four per cent semi-annual
dividends, and adding largely to its surplus.

A new feature in building-association work has recently been put

into practice. The association will buy for cash a house and lot, or
buy a lot and build a house thereon, and sell at a fair price to the
member whose application is accepted. Where the house and lot are
bought at a cash price, it is usual to charge a ten per cent bonus
when selling it on time to a member. The purchaser then completes
the transaction by securing the purchase money to the association,
the same as in case of a loan on any other property, except that
instead of a deed from the association he will receive a lease, with
an agreement to sell and convey to him the premises as soon as
one-third of the purchase money shall have been paid in regular
dues on his stock. His stock will be assigned as collateral security,
and the payments will be credited as rent until the deed is made.
Then the purchaser will execute his mortgage for the unpaid balance
due on the property on the terms of his original bid for the money. It
is usual to require a cash payment equal to the amount of the
bonus; that is, ten per cent of the purchase price. This is a valuable
feature in building-association methods. It adds to the profits of the
association. This plan is adaptable to private enterprise, and is liberal
in its terms to the purchaser.
In most associations organized on the perpetual plan, as previously
described, the demand for funds is greater than can be supplied
from depositing members. This has given rise to the “paid-up stock”
feature of building associations. Under this plan one may invest
money in any sum according to the terms of the charter and secure
from the association a certificate of paid-up stock which participates
in the regular dividends of the company. In this way, funds in larger
amounts may be secured than come from the ordinary payments by
regular weekly dues. It is not unusual for individuals to purchase
paid-up stock to the amount of several thousand dollars. This is a
great help to an association which is short of funds, as it serves to
increase its membership by addition of borrowers. There is no better
place to invest trust funds than in the paid-up stock of well-managed
building associations. Primarily, for the reason that each stockholder
is pledged in the amount of his stock to pay principal and six per
cent interest on all withdrawals; hence, the funds may be withdrawn
at any time, and six per cent interest thereon demanded.
Furthermore, building-association stock is not taxable in most States.
Individual and moneyed corporations are coming to consider the
matter of loans, and means leading to their repayment, on the
building-association plan. This will be brought about largely by the
low price of money throughout the country at this time. Savings
banks, mortgage companies, and life-insurance organizations are
finding it difficult to loan their funds at a price that will pay their
fixed obligations; hence, they are seeking means which will lead to a
more profitable investment of their funds. The building-association
plan of loaning money is one solution of the problem. The low price
of money is one of the elements which within the next few years will
enable nearly every one who so desires to secure a home through
the building association, or some plan which has its outgrowth
therefrom.

CHAPTER XL.
PURCHASE OF A LOT.—THE BEST THE CHEAPEST.—A GOOD LOT AS A BASIS
OF SECURITY.—THE BASIS OF VALUE IS THE RENTAL.

There are many things to consider in connection with the building of

a house other than those which are constructive. One may lay aside
that which has to do with appearances, convenience, stability, and
all that is architectural, and yet have food for thought in connection
with the making of a home. For instance, the lot. No one can afford
to build on one that is absolutely cheap, or one that is cheap
because it is not well located or favorably thought of by the large
number of people. A lot that is absolutely cheap is not often worth
even what is paid for it. One of small means can least of all afford to
put his money in a questionable piece of property. A lot may be
relatively cheap, and be a good investment. For instance, there is a
street lined with comfortable houses. On this street live people of
more or less wealth and unquestioned ambition. Three or four
squares beyond the last house of this street the lots may be
relatively cheap. The sum asked for them is not great, for the reason
that few care to go out so far. Still, by adopting a little of the pioneer
spirit, one can make a purchase of these lots and be reasonably
certain of being rewarded for his foresight. It is much better to buy
such a lot, and live for a year or two without immediate neighbors,
than to buy one which is absolutely cheap because the surroundings
are positively unfavorable.
A man of small means least of all can afford to buy a lot that cannot
readily be sold for all it cost. We often hear people say, in regard to
lots that are surrounded unfavorably, “What is the difference? It
suits us; we can be as happy and comfortable there as any place. If
we like it, why should any one else complain?” No one else will
complain. It may occur that the owner of this absolutely cheap
property may wish to sell. He may become embarrassed in his
business, or one of many things may happen to cripple him
financially. If he can sell at all, it is at a sacrifice. If a mortgage is
foreclosed, there is no reasonable chance of redemption. If the lot is
well located, and he becomes financially embarrassed, he can sell for
full value and thus relieve himself. If there is danger of foreclosure, a
sale can be readily effected, and thus all danger of loss be averted.
The idea in buying a lot is to get one which can be readily sold. This
is an important matter.
In carrying out this principle, one of moderate means will often buy
a lot of higher cost than is apparently justifiable. However, this may
be the best thing for him to do. It may be good business. If he
wishes to borrow money with which to build, he has a better basis
for credit. If he puts his house on a good lot, there is opportunity of
selling it because of its favorable location, and thus the danger of
embarrassment is averted. One can afford to borrow money to build
on a good lot, for the reason that there is little danger of losing
either the lot or the money. The house and the lot, if it rates well in
the public mind, can be easily sold. The lot should not be selected or
the house built, if its sale is not entirely possible. There are towns as
well as localities in which no one of moderate means can afford to
buy or build. Yet such locations are often selected because they are
cheap, and living is cheap. The fact of this cheapness is against it.
The property is cheap because it is worth little or nothing. It is cheap
because no one can get out what he puts into it. This may apply to a
lot in a particular town, a particular part of a town, or to property in
general in a county or a State. Thus it is that no one of moderate
means can afford to buy absolutely cheap property.
A young man once went to an architect to advise with him in regard
to the selection of a lot. He said,—
“There are two lots on a certain street that I can get for $1,200
each. That is a little more than I want to pay, as even then I would
have to borrow more money than I wish in order to build my house.
One of the best lots I know anything about is on another street, but
I can hardly think of that, for they ask $1,500 for it.”
“I know the lot,” said the architect, “and the $1,500 lot is the one to
buy. The $1,200 lots are of questionable value. The surrounding
conditions are such that their value is not liable to increase. The
$1,500 lot is in the swim; two squares below, lots cannot be bought
for $2,400; in fact, they are not in the market. They are owned by
people who desire to hold them. In two years you will be reasonably
certain to realize at least twice the difference between the values of
the $1,500 and the $1,200 lots. In one case, the value of the lot is
not liable to increase; it may decrease. In the other instance, there
is reasonable certainty of a large increase within a short time. It is
on the edge of high values.”
“But I shall have to borrow so much money with which to build, if I
take the high-priced lot.”
“What of it? Say your house is going to cost you $3,000. You say you
have $2,800 in cash. In one instance you would have to borrow
$1,400, and in the other $1,700. You are running much less risk in
borrowing $1,700 than you are in borrowing $1,400. If you had to
sell, there is a reasonable certainty that you could always make a
profit on your $4,500 investment, and a very questionable
probability as to the $4,200 investment.”
There are those who do some very remarkable things for the sake of
keeping out of debt, which, in the end, develops into more loss than
would be possible in the case of debt. For instance, one will buy a
lot for $1,500, and put a $1,500 house on it. In time the value of the
lot increases; at the same time the value of the house decreases.
The lot in itself would be worth more if the house were off it. It is a
cheap house on a good lot. Thus it is that such property is often sold
and the improvements counted as nothing. Again, exactly the other
thing may happen. An expensive house may be built on a cheap lot.
When finished the house is worth much less than it cost because it is
not well located. One cannot expect to get full value for the lot
without moving the house, and altogether the situation is
disagreeable. How much better it would be, from a business
standpoint, not to build at all, use the money some other way, or
borrow enough money to have the house and lot properly located.
In one case there is positive loss; in the other, a reasonable certainty
of profit.
Another thing for a man of moderate means to bear in mind in
building a house is, that the investments as to the house and lot
should be such that in case of rental the return derived would pay a
fair interest on the investment, and leave a sufficient margin for
taxes and repairs. As long as this condition exists, there need be no
fear of loss through foreclosure. The sale of the property may
become necessary through embarrassment in business, loss of
situation, or illness; but in such a case the property can either be
sold without loss, or it can be rented at a figure that will pay all fixed
charges, which fact in itself establishes a value above its cost price.
If these principles are all carried out, there is little chance of loss.
 INDEX.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

“A” door, 226.

Air supply to heating apparatus, 75-79.
American architecture, 26-28.
American architectural development, 104-105.
Architects’ estimates, 278-281.
Architect, the, and the housewife, 9-27.
Architectural design, 101-105.
Areas, 206.
Ash-pits, 206.
Attic, 62.
Attic bedrooms, 63, 138.
Automatic heat regulators, 81.

Back plastering, 237.

Base, 228, 229.
Basement, 56.
Bath-tub, 73, 74, 230, 255-258.
Bath-tub wood-work, 230, 231.
Bedrooms, 60-63.
Bedrooms in attic, 63.
Bedroom closets, 61.
Bedroom, first floor, 164.
Bedrooms, grates in, 62.
Bedroom for servants, 62.
Bond in brick-work, 201, 202.
Brick, hollow walls of, 203.
Brick of wood, 204.
Brick joints, 199.
Brick pavement, 212.
Brick piers, 200.
Brick, selection of color, 202.
Brick veneer, 203.
Brick-wall foundations, 200-204.
Brick-work, 199-206, 209-212.
Brick-work bond, 201, 202.
Broom closets, 61.
Broom-rack, 232.
“B” schedule, 268.
Building associations and savings banks, 296, 297.
Building association, a new feature in, 310.
Building association, object, 302.
Building associations, permanent plan, 300, 301.
Building-association profits, 295.
Building-association report, 302-310.
Building associations, safety of, 296, 297.
Building association, terminating plan, 299, 300.
Building-association methods, 293-311.
Building by the day, 281.
Building contract, 284-287.
Building material, cost of, 273.
Business points in building, 275-287.

Capacity of cistern, 210.

Carpenter work, 213-235.
Casings outside, 218.
Cathedral glass, 245.
Cedar closet, 232.
Cellar, 51-53, 133.
Cellar brick-work, 203, 204.
Cellar closet, 52, 53.
Cellar doors, 226, 227.
Cellar laundry, 54-58.
Cellar plan, 142.
Cellar sink, 254.
Cellar-sink wood-work, 230.
Cellar-way, outside, 206.
Cement pavement, 212.
Chamber decoration, 99.
Chimneys, 204-206.
Chimney-breasts, 205, 206.
Chimney tops, 204.
China-closet fittings, 46.
China-room, 44-46, 232.
Cistern, 210, 211.
Cistern filter, 211.
Cistern-water supply, 71.
Clock shelf, 232.
Closets, bedroom, 61, 138.
Closets, broom, 61.
Closet fittings, 231, 232.
Closet of cedar, 232.
Coal-bins in cellar, 51, 52.
Colored bricks, 202, 203.
Colored plastering, 237.
Color of mortar, 202.
Combination stairs, 59, 60, 137-141.
Combination pantry, 45, 132.
Competition in building, 281-283.
Conservatory, 99.
Contracting methods, 277-287.
Copper, 240, 241.
Cost of appurtenances, 271, 272.
Cost of building material, 273, 274.
Cost of one-story houses, 163.
Cost schedules, 264, 267-269.
Cost of a house, 264-274.
Cut stone work, 208, 209.

Damp course, 200.

“D” door, 227.
Deck roof, 216.
Depth of foundation, 200.
Dining-room, 37, 38, 96-99.
Dish-warming, arrangement for, 84.
Dish-washing, 11, 42.
Doors and frames, 225-227.
Dough-board, 46, 47.
Double joists, 215.
Down spouts, 240.
Draining, 198, 199.
Drain board, 43, 230.
Drain connections, 261.
Drain from refrigerator, 241.
Drain outside, 71.
Drain ventilation, 71.
Dressed shingles, 218.
Drop siding, 217.
Dry-box, 48, 232.

“E” door, 227.

Eastlake, Charles, 104.
Estimates of architects, 278-281.
Evaporation in traps, 67-68.
Evolution of a house-plan, 109-117.
Excavating, 198.
Excavating for plumber, 247, 248.

Fifty convenient houses, plans of, 107.

Fig. "A," frontispiece. Fig. "B," 106.
Fig. 2, 41.
Fig. 3, 43.
Fig. 4, 45.
Fig. 5, 46.
Fig. 6, 67.
Fig. 7, 68.
Fig. 8, 116.
Fig. 9, 116.
Fig. 10, photographic view (page 116).
Fig. 11, 117.
Fig. 12, 124.
Fig. 13, 133.
Fig. 14, 147.
Fig, 15, 149.
Fig. 16, 151.
Fig. 17, photographic view (page 152).
Fig. 18, 154.
Fig. 19, 154.
Fig. 20, 160.
Fig. 21, 168.
Fig. 22, 169.
Fig. 23, 181.
Fig. 24, photographic view (page 182).
Fig. 25, 186.
Fig. 26, photographic view (page 190).
Fig. 27, 191.
Fig. 28, 191.
Fig. 29, 193.
Fig. 30, 199.
Fig. 31, 205.
Fig. 32, 206.
Fig. 33, 215.
Fig. 34, 217.
Fig. 35, 226.
Fig. 36, 227.
Fig. 37, 227.
Fig. 38, 262.
Filters for cisterns, 211.
Finish of floor, 244.
Finishing in oil, 243, 244.
Fireplaces in bedrooms, 62.
Fixtures in plumbing enumerated, 66.
Flashings, 239.
Flat roofs, 240.
Floors, 222, 223.
Floor of kitchen, 49.
Floor finish, 244.
Flour-bin, 47, 233, 234.
Flues, 203.
Fly screens, 228.
Foundation depth, 200.
Foundations, stone, 207, 208.
Force-pump, 249.
Framing, 213-219.
Framing lumber, sizes of, 213, 214.
Fresco tinting, 92.
Freezing of plumbing, 70, 71.
Fuel in cellar, 51, 52.
Furnace, defined, 76.
Furnace and hot-water combination, 83, 84.
Furnace-room in cellar, 52.

Galvanized iron, 241.

Gas-piping, 237, 238.
German siding, 217.
Glazing, 244, 245.
Grates in bedrooms, 62.
Grease sink, 72, 73, 263.
Gutters, 239.

Hall, 33-35.
Hall, reception, 35, 36.
Hardware, 245, 246.
Hard-wood floors, 223.
Heating apparatus, how to get a good, 83, 85.
Heating and ventilation, 75-85.
Heating by hot water, 80, 83.
Heating by steam, 80.
Heating by stoves, 80.
Heating, ideal conditions, 76.
Heating plants, cost of, 81, 82, 83.
Heat regulators, automatic, 81.
Height of stories, 214.
Hip coping, 240.
Hip finish, 217.
Hollow walls of brick, 203.
Hot-air flues in brick walls, 203.
Hot-air pipes of tin, 241.
Hot-water boiler, 71.
Hot water and furnace combination, 83, 84.
Hot-water heating, 80.
Hot-water plumbing, 70.
Hot-water system, 252.
House decoration, 86-100.
House drain, 71.
House ventilation, 75, 79.
Housekeeper, the, and the architect, 11-15, 26-28.
Housekeeping operations, 16-20.
How to secure a home, 289-316.
Humidity of air, 77, 81.
Hydrant, 249.

Inside casings, 228.

Inside shutters, 229, 230.
Inside finish, table of, 224.
Inside wood-work, 222-235.

Joints, rodded, 199.

Joists, 214, 215.
Journey, a, through the house, 29-105.

Kitchens, 39-50.
Kitchen fittings, 42, 43.
Kitchen floor, 49.
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