5.

Life Processes
Introduction

Invisible molecular movement necessary for life or needed for maintaining living structures.

LIFE PROCESSES:-

Maintenance processes in living organisms is life process.

A process to transfer a source of energy from outside the body of the organism to the inside is nutrition.
Note:-
1. Life on earth depends on carbon based molecules. Depending on the complexity of these carbon
sources, different organisms can then use different kinds of nutritional processes.
2. In the case of a single-celled organism, no specific organs for taking in food, exchange of gases or
removal of wastes because the entire surface of the organism is in contact with the environment.
In multi-cellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the surrounding environment.
Thus, simple diffusion will not meet the requirements of all the cells.

NUTRITION

How do living things get their food?

Some organisms(the autotrophs, include green plants and some bacteria) use simple food
material obtained from inorganic sources in the form of carbon dioxide and water. Other
organisms(the heterotrophs, include animals and fungi) utilise complex substances.
Note:- Heterotrophs survival depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs.

Autotrophic Nutrition
Photosynthesisis the process by which autotrophs take in substances(i.e. carbon dioxide and
water) from the outside and convert them into stored forms of energy(i.e. carbohydrates in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.).

The following events occur during this process:-

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Note:-
1. Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon
by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.
2.In case of Plant:- The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of
starch
3.In case of Animal:- The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form
of glycogen.
 Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves. Gaseous
exchange takes place in the leaves through these pores for the purpose
cross section of leaf of photosynthesis. But exchange of gases occurs across the surface of
stems, roots and leaves as well.The plant closes these pores when it
Nitrogen is an essential element does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The opening and
used in the synthesis of proteins. closing of the pore is a function of the guard cells. The guard cells
Plant used in the form of swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open.
inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.
The potassium hydroxide is
used to absorb carbon dioxide.
Example of variegated leaves –, Heterotrophic Nutrition
money plant or crotons. 1.The form of nutrition depend on the type and availability of food
material as well as how it is obtained by the organism.
2.Some organisms break-down the food material outside the body and
then absorb it. Examples are fungi like bread moulds, yeast and
mushrooms.
3.Some organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing
them. This parasitic nutritive strategy is used by a wide variety of
organisms like cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.

In single-celled organisms, the food may be taken in by the entire

surface. For example, Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-
like extensions(pseudopodia) of the cell surface which fuse over
the food particle forming a food-vacuole. Inside the food vacuole,
complex substances are broken down into simpler ones which then
diffuse into the cytoplasm. The remaining undigested material is
moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.
In Paramoecium, which is also a unicellular organism, the cell has a
definite shape and food is taken in at a specific spot. Food is moved
to this spot by the movement of cilia which cover the entire surface
of the cell.
Nutrition in Amoeba
 . Nutrition in Human Beings
The alimentary canal is a long tube from the mouth to
the anus When we eat mouth filled with ‘waters’. This
is not only water, but a fluid called saliva secreted by
the salivary glands. The saliva contains an enzyme
called salivary amylase that breaks down starch to
give simple sugar. Food tube(oesophagus.) muscles
contract & relax rhythmically in order to push the food
forward called as peristaltic movements.The gastric
glands present in the wall of the stomach release
hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called
pepsin,and mucus. The hydrochloric acid creates an
acidic medium which facilitates the action of the
enzyme pepsin. The mucus protects the inner lining of
the stomach from the action of the acid under normal
conditions.The exit of food from the stomach is
regulated by a sphincter muscle From the stomach, the
food now enters the small intestine. This is the longest
part of the alimentary canal.Herbivores eating grass
need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to
Digested food is taken up by the walls of be digested. Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores
the intestine. The inner lining of the like tigers have a shorter small intestine. The small
small intestine has numerous finger- intestine is the site of the complete digestion of
like projections called villi which carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Bile juice from the liver
increase the surface area for absorption. make acidic food coming from stomach to alkaline for the
The villi are richly supplied with blood pancreatic enzymes to act. Bile salts break them down large
vessels which take the absorbed food to globules fats into smaller globules(emulsification of fat).
each and every cell of the body, where it The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains
is utilised for obtaining energy, building enzymes like trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase
up new tissues and the repair of old for breaking down emulsified fats. The walls of the
tissues. The unabsorbed food is sent into small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal
the large intestine where its wall absorb juice. The enzymes present in it finally convert the
more water from this material. The rest proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrates into
of the material is removed from the body glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
via the anus. The exit of this waste
material is regulated by the anal
sphincter.
 RESPIRATION

The release of energy in this aerobic process is

a lot greater than in the anaerobic process.
Build-up of lactic acid in our muscles during
sudden activity causes cramps. The energy
released during cellular respiration is
immediately used to synthesise a molecule called
ATP which is used to fuel all other activities in
the cell. In these processes, ATP is broken down
giving rise to a fixed amount of energy which can
drive the endothermic reactions taking place in
the cell.

Note:-
1. At night, no photosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is the major exchange activity at night. During
the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis, hence there is no CO2
release.Oxygen release is the major event at in day.
2. Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is low compared to the amount of oxygen present in the air, the rate
of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms.
3. All respiratory organs have a structure that increases the surface area which is in contact with the oxygen-
rich atmosphere. Since the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide has to take place across this surface, this
surface is very fine and delicate.

Respiration in Human Beings

In human beings air is taken into the body through the
nostrils. The air passing through the nostrils is filtered by
fine hairs. The passage is also lined with mucus which helps
in this process. From here, the air passes through the throat
and into the lungs. Rings of cartilage are present in the
throat. These helps that the air-passage does not collapse.
Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and
smaller tubes which finally terminate in balloon-like
structures(alveoli) The alveoli provide a surface where the
exchange of gases can take place. The walls of the alveoli
contain an extensive network of blood-vessels. During
inspiration ribs lift & diaphragm flatten to make large
chest cavity in order to fills the expanded alveoli. The
blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for
Human Respiratory System release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar air is
taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be
transported to all the cells in the body. During the breathing
In human beings, the respiratory pigment cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always
is haemoglobin which has a very high contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient
affinity for oxygen. This pigment is time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to
present in the red blood corpuscles. be released.
Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water Note:- When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion
than oxygen is and hence is mostly pressure alone cannot take care of oxygen delivery to all
transported in the dissolved form in our parts of the body. Instead, respiratory pigments take up
blood. oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues which
are deficient in oxygen before releasing it
 TRANSPORTATION

Section of Human Heart

Transport & Exchange of O2 & CO2
Transportation in Human Beings
Blood transports food, oxygen and waste materials in our bodies.Blood being a fluid connective
tissue. Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma in which the cells are suspended. Plasma
transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form. Oxygen is carried by the red
blood corpuscles. Many other substances like salts, are also transported by the blood. The blood has
platelet cells which circulate around the body and plug leaks in blood vessels by helping to clot the
blood at these points of injury.
.

The tubes – blood vessels

1. Arteries are the vessels which carry blood away from the heart to various organs of the body. The
arteries have thick, elastic walls as blood flows under high pressure.
2. Veins are the vessels collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to the heart. They do not
need thick walls because the blood is no longer under pressure, they have valves that ensure that the blood
flows only in one direction.
Note:-
On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into smaller and smaller vessels to bring the blood in
contact with all the individual cells. The smallest vessels have walls which are one-cell thick and are called
capillaries. Exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells takes place across this thin wall.
The capillaries then join together to form veins that convey the blood away from the organ or tissue.

Our pump — the heart

The heart is a muscular organ. De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber on the right,
the right atrium, as it relaxes. As the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right
ventricle, dilates. This transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in turn pumps it to the lungs for
oxygenation. Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of the heart on the
left, the left atrium. The left atrium relaxes when it is collecting this blood. It then contracts, while the next
chamber, the left ventricle, relaxes, so that the blood is transferred to it. When the muscular left ventricle
contracts in its turn, the blood is pumped out to the body. The separation of the right side and the left side of
the heart is useful to keep oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing. Such separation allows a highly
efficient supply of oxygen to the body. This is useful in animals that have high energy needs, such as birds
and mammals, which constantly use energy to maintain their body temperature.
Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs, they have thicker muscular walls than the atria
do. Valves ensure that blood does not flow backwards when the atria or ventricles contract.
 Note:- In animals that do not use energy for this purpose, the body temperature depends on the temperature in
the environment. Such animals, like amphibians or many reptiles have three-chambered hearts, and tolerate
some mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood streams. Fishes have only two chambers to their
hearts, and the blood is pumped to the gills, is oxygenated there, and passes directly to the rest of the body. Thus,
blood goes only once through the heart in the fish during one cycle of passage through the body. On the other
hand, it goes through the heart twice during each cycle in other vertebrates. This is known as double circulation.

Lymph
There is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. This is called lymph or tissue fluid.
Through the pores present in the walls of capillaries some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells
escape into intercellular spaces in the tissues to form the tissue fluid or lymph. It is similar to the plasma
of blood but colourless and contains less protein. Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from the
intercellular spaces, which join to form large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins. Lymph
carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from extra cellular space
back into the blood.

Transportation in Plants
If the distances between soil-contacting organs(i.e. roots) and chlorophyllcontaining organs(i.e. leaves) are
small, energy and raw materials can easily diffuse to all parts of the plant body. But if these distances become
large because of changes in plant body design, diffusion processes will not be sufficient to provide raw material
in leaves and energy in roots

Transport of water
In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to form a
continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all parts of the plant. Plants use two strategy to
move water in the xylem upwards
(i) By creating a difference in the concentration of ions between the root and the soil.
(ii) Evaporation of water molecules from the cells of a leaf creates a suction which pulls(i.e. transpirational
pull) water from the xylem cells of roots.
Note:-
1. The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.
Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from
roots to the leaves. It also helps in temperature regulation.
2. At night The effect of root pressure in transport of water is more important. During the day the
transpiration pull becomes the major driving force in the movement of water in the xylem.

Transport of food and other substances

Transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs in the part of the vascular
tissue known as phloem.The phloem transports amino acids and other substances. These substances are
especially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs. The translocation of
food and other substances takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in
upward and downward directions. The translocation in phloem is achieved by utilising energy. This increases
the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the
phloem to tissues which have less pressure. This allows the phloem to move material. In the spring, sugar
stored in root or stem tissue would be transported to the buds which need energy to grow.
 EXCRETION
The biological process involved in the removal of harmful metabolic wastes from the body is called excretion.
Unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding
water.

Excretion in Human Beings

The excretory system of human beings
includes a pair of kidneys(located in the
abdomen, one on either side of the
backbone), a pair of ureters, a urinary
bladder and a urethra. Urine produced in
the kidneys passes through the ureters into
the urinary bladder where it is stored until it
is released through the urethra. The
purpose of making urine is to filter out
waste products from the blood.
Nitrogenous waste such as urea or uric
acid are removed from blood in the
kidneys.

Nephron
The basic filtration unit(nephron) in the kidneys is a cluster of
very thin-walled blood capillaries. Each capillary cluster in the
kidney is associated with the cup-shaped end of a coiled tube
called Bowman’s capsule that collects the filtrate.Some
substances in such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major
amount of water, are selectively re-absorbed. The amount of
water re-absorbed depends on how much
excess water there is in the body, and on how much of
dissolved waste there is to be excreted.

Structure of Nephron

Excretion in Plants
Oxygen a waste product generated during photosynthesis. They can get rid of excess water by transpiration.
Waste products stored in leaves that fall off. Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in
old xylem. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.