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CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER OUTLINE
New Manager Self-Test: How Do You Make Decisions?
I. Types of Decisions and Problems
A. Programmed and Nonprogrammed Decisions
B. Facing Certainty and Uncertainty
New Manager Self-Test: Intolerance of Ambiguity
II. Decision-Making Models
A. The Ideal, Rational Model
B. How Managers Actually Make Decisions
C. The Political Model
III. Decision-Making Steps
A. Recognition of Decision Requirement
B. Diagnosis and Analysis of Causes
C. Development of Alternatives
D. Selection of the Desired Alternative
E. Implementation of the Chosen Alternative
F. Evaluation and Feedback
IV. Personal Decision Framework
V. Why Do Managers Make Bad Decisions?
VI. Innovative Decision Making
A. Start with Brainstorming
B. Use Hard Evidence
C. Engage in Rigorous Debate
D. Avoid Groupthink
E. Know When to Bail
F. Do a Postmortem
Every organization grows, prospers, or fails as a result of decisions made by its managers.
Managers are often referred to as decision makers. Good decision making is a vital part of good
management. Decisions determine how the organization solves its problems, allocates resources,
and accomplishes its objectives. Decision making is not easy. It must be done amid
ever-changing factors, unclear information, and conflicting points of view. Plans and strategies
are arrived at through decision making. The better the decision making, the better the strategic
planning.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
2. Discuss the difference between programmed and nonprogrammed decisions and the decision
characteristics of certainty and uncertainty.
Programmed decisions involve situations that have occurred often enough to enable decision
rules to be developed and applied in the future. Once managers formulate decision rules,
subordinates and others can make the decision, freeing managers for other tasks.
Nonprogrammed decisions are made in response to situations that are unique, are poorly defined
and largely unstructured, and have important consequences for the organization. Many
nonprogrammed decisions involve strategic planning because uncertainty is great and decisions
are complex.
Every decision situation can be organized on a scale according to the availability of information
and the possibility of failure. Certainty means that all the information the decision maker needs
is fully available. However, few decisions are certain in the real world. Most contain some
uncertainty. Uncertainty means that managers know which goals they wish to achieve, but
information about alternatives and future events is incomplete.
3. Describe the ideal, rational model of decision making and the political model of decision
making.
The classical model of decision making is considered to be normative, which means it defines
how a decision maker should make decisions. It is based on rational economic assumptions and
manager beliefs about what ideal decision making should be. It does not describe how managers
actually make decisions so much as it provides guidelines on how to reach an ideal outcome for
the organization. The classical model is most valuable when applied to programmed decisions
and to decisions characterized by certainty or risk because information is available and
probabilities can be calculated. The classical model is often associated with high performance
for organizations in stable environments.
The political model of decision making is useful for making nonprogrammed decisions when
conditions are uncertain, information is limited, and managers may disagree about what goals to
pursue or what course of action to take. The political model closely resembles the real
environment in which most managers and decision makers operate. Managers often engage in
coalition building for making complex organizational decisions. Coalition building is the
process of forming alliances among managers. The inability of managers to build coalitions
often makes it difficult or impossible for managers to get their decisions implemented. This
model is associated with high performance in unstable environments in which decisions must be
made rapidly and under more difficult conditions.
4. Explain the process by which managers actually make decisions in the real world.
The administrative model describes how managers actually make decisions such as those
characterized by nonprogrammed decisions, uncertainty, and ambiguity. The administrative
model is considered to be descriptive. It assumes that managers do not have the time or
resources to make the optimal decision and therefore will be satisfied with the first decision that
meets the minimal criteria. Intuition based on past practice and experience is often used in this
model to make decisions. The application of the administrative model has been associated with
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
high performance in unstable environments in which decisions must be made rapidly and under
more difficult conditions.
Whether a decision is programmed or nonprogrammed, and regardless the manager follows the
classical, political, or administrative model of decision making, six steps typically are associated
with effective decision-making processes. These six steps are:
• recognition of decision requirement;
• diagnosis and analysis of causes;
• development of alternatives;
• selection of desired alternative;
• implementation of chosen alternative; and
• evaluation and feedback.
6. Describe four personal decision styles used by managers, and explain the biases that
frequently cause managers to make bad decisions.
The directive style is used by people who prefer simple, clear-cut solutions to problems.
Managers with an analytical style like to consider complex solutions based on as much data as
they can gather. People who tend toward a conceptual style also like to consider a broad amount
of information. The behavioral style is characterized by having a deep concern for others as
individuals.
Most bad decisions are errors in judgment that originate in the human mind’s limited capacity
and in the natural biases managers display during decision making. Awareness of the following
six biases can help managers make more enlightened choices:
Being influenced by initial impressions. The mind often gives disproportionate weight to the
first information it receives when considering decisions. These initial impressions act as an
anchor to subsequent thoughts and judgments. Past events and trends also act as anchors. Giving
too much weight to the past can lead to poor forecasts and misguided decisions.
Justifying past decisions. People don’t like to make mistakes, so they continue to support a
flawed decision in an effort to justify or correct the past.
Seeing what you want to see. People frequently look for information that supports their existing
instinct or point of view and avoid information that contradicts it, affecting where they look for
information as well as how they interpret the information they find.
Perpetuating the status quo. Managers may base decisions on what has worked in the past and
fail to explore new options, dig for additional information, or investigate new technologies.
Being influenced by emotions. Managers make better decision when—to the extent possible—
they take emotions out of the decision-making process.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
Overconfidence. Most people overestimate their ability to predict uncertain outcomes. Before
making a decision, managers have unrealistic expectations of their ability to understand the risk
and make the right choice.
7. Identify and explain innovative techniques for decision making, including brainstorming,
evidence-based management, and after-action reviews.
One of the best known techniques for rapidly generating creative alternatives is brainstorming.
Brainstorming uses a face-to-face interactive group to spontaneously suggest a broad range of
alternatives for decision making. The keys to effective brainstorming are that people can build
on one another’s ideas, all ideas are acceptable no matter how crazy they seem, and criticism and
evaluation are not allowed. The goal is to generate as many ideas as possible.
Avoiding groupthink helps groups make better decisions. Groupthink refers to the tendency of
people in groups to suppress contrary opinions. When people slip into groupthink, the desire for
harmony outweighs concerns over decision quality. Group members emphasize maintaining
unity rather than realistically challenging problems and alternatives. Some disagreement and
conflict is much healthier than blind agreement.
Managers need to know when to bail; i.e., they must be able to discern when to pull the plug on
something that isn’t working. Escalating commitment means that organizations often continue to
invest time and money in a solution despite strong evidence that it is not appropriate to do so.
Managers might block or distort negative information because they don’t want to be responsible
for a bad decision, or might not accept that their decision is wrong.
To improve decision making people review the results of their decisions, they learn valuable
lessons for how to do things better in the future. A technique adopted from the U.S. Army, the
after-action review is a disciplined procedure whereby managers review the results of decisions
to evaluate what worked, what didn’t, and how to do things better.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
LECTURE OUTLINE
NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: HOW DO YOU MAKE DECISIONS?
Most of us make decisions automatically and without realizing that people have diverse decision-
making behaviors, which they bring to management positions. New managers typically use a
different decision behavior than seasoned executives. They often start out with a more directive,
decisive, command-oriented behavior and gradually move toward more openness, diversity of
viewpoints, and interactions with others as they move up the hierarchy. This exercise helps
students determine whether they typically make decisions more like new managers or more like
senior managers.
A decision is a choice made from available alternatives. Decision making is the process of
identifying problems and opportunities and then resolving them. Decision making involves
effort both before and after the actual choice.
1. Programmed decisions involve situations that have occurred often enough to enable
decision rules to be developed and applied in the future. Once managers formulate
decision rules, subordinates and others can make decisions freeing managers for other
tasks.
a. Certainty means that all the information the decision maker needs is fully
available. Few decisions are certain in the real world. Most contain risk or
uncertainty.
b. Risk means a decision has clear-cut objectives and good information available.
The future outcomes associated with each alternative are subject to failure;
however, enough information is available to allow the probability of a successful
outcome for each alternative to be estimated.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
c. Uncertainty means managers know which goals they wish to achieve, but
information about alternatives and future outcomes is incomplete. Factors that
may affect a decision, such as price, production costs, volume, or future interest
rates, are difficult to analyze and predict. Managers may have to come up with
creative approaches to alternatives and use personal judgment to determine which
alternative is best. Many decisions made under uncertainty do not produce the
desired results, but managers face uncertainty every day.
Discussion Question #3: Explain the difference between risk and ambiguity. How might
decision making differ for a risky versus an ambiguous situation?
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
This exercise helps students to determine how comfortable they are when dealing with
ambiguity.
Decisions are usually made using the classical, the administrative, or the political decision
making model. The choice of model used depends on the manager’s personal preference,
whether the decision is programmed or nonprogrammed, and the degree of uncertainty
associated with the decision.
a. The decision maker operates to accomplish goals that are known and agreed upon.
d. The decision maker is rational and uses logic to assign values, order preferences,
evaluate alternatives, and make the decision to maximize goals.
2. The classical model is normative, defining how a decision maker should make
decisions, and providing guidelines for reaching an ideal outcome for the
organization. The value of the classical model has been to help decision makers be
more rational.
3. The classical model represents an “ideal” model of decision making that is often
unattainable by real people in real organizations. It works best when applied to
programmed decisions and to decisions characterized by uncertainty or risk because
relevant information is available and probabilities can be calculated.
Discussion Question #8: List some possible advantages and disadvantages to using computer
technology for managerial decision making.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
c. Satisficing means that decision makers choose the first solution alternative that
satisfies minimal decision criteria. Rather than pursue all alternatives, managers
will opt for the first solution that appears to solve the problem. The decision
maker cannot justify the time and expense of obtaining complete information.
• Decision goals often are vague, conflicting, and lack consensus among
managers.
• Rational procedures are not always used, and when they are, they are confined
to a simplistic view of the problem that does not capture the complexity of
real events.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
2. Intuition
b. Intuition begins with recognition; when people build a depth of experience and
knowledge in a particular area, the right decision often comes quickly and
effortlessly. Research on the validity of intuition in decision making is
inconclusive, suggesting that managers should take a cautious approach to it,
applying intuition only under the right circumstances and in the right way.
Discussion Question #9: Can intuition and evidence-based decision making coexist as valid
approaches within an organization? How might managers combine their intuition with a
rational, data-driven, evidence-based approach?
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
a. Organizations are made up of groups with diverse interests, goals, and values.
d. Managers engage in the push and pull of debate to decide goals and discuss
alternatives.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
2. Recent research has found rational, classical procedures to be associated with high
performance for organizations in stable environments. Administrative and political
decision-making procedures and intuition have been associated with high
performance in unstable environments when decisions must be made rapidly.
Discussion Question #4: Analyze three decisions you made over the past six months. Which of
these were programmed and which were nonprogrammed? Which model—the classical,
administrative, or political—best describes the approach you took to making each decision?
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
1. Diagnosis is the step in which managers analyze the underlying causal factors
associated with the decision situation. Managers make a big mistake if they jump
right into generating alternatives without first exploring the cause of the problem
more deeply. Studies recommend that managers ask a series of questions to specify
underlying causes, including:
C. Development of Alternatives
1. Once the problem or opportunity has been recognized and analyzed, decision makers
begin to consider taking action. The next step is to develop possible alternative
solutions that will respond to the needs of the situation and correct the underlying
causes.
2. For a programmed decision, feasible alternatives are often available within the
organization’s rules and procedures. Nonprogrammed decisions require developing
new courses of action that will meet the needs of the company.
1. The best alternative is one in which the solution best fits the firm’s overall goals and
values and achieves the desired results using the fewest resources. The manager tries
to select the choice with the least amount of risk and uncertainty. Making choices
also depends on managers’ personality factors and willingness to accept risk and
uncertainty. Risk propensity is the willingness to undertake risk with the
opportunity of gaining an increased payoff.
2. By learning from decision mistakes, managers can turn problems into opportunities.
Discussion Question #1: You are a busy partner in a legal firm, and an experienced
administrative assistant complains of continued headaches, drowsiness, dry throat, and
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
occasional spells of fatigue and flu. She tells you she believes that the air quality in the building
is bad and would like something to be done. How would you respond?
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Not all managers make decisions in the same way. These differences can be explained by the
concept of personal decision styles. Personal decision style refers to differences between people
with respect to how they perceive problems and make decisions. Research has identified four
major decision styles.
• The directive style is used by people who prefer simple, clear-cut solutions to problems.
• With an analytical style, managers like to consider complex solutions based on as much data
as they can gather.
• People who tend toward a conceptual style also like to consider a broad amount of
information.
• The behavioral style is characterized by having a deep concern for others as individuals.
Most managers have a dominant decision style. The most effective managers are able to shift
among styles as needed to meet the situation.
Discussion Question #10: What do you think is your dominant decision style? Is your style
compatible with group techniques such as brainstorming and engaging in rigorous debate?
Discuss.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Even the best manager will make mistakes, but managers can increase their percentage of good
decisions by understanding some of the factors that cause people to make bad ones. Most bad
decisions are errors in judgment that originate in the human mind’s limited capacity and in the
natural biases managers display during decision making. Awareness of the following six biases
can help managers make more enlightened choices:
• Being influenced by initial impressions. The mind often gives disproportionate weight to the
first information it receives when considering decisions. These initial impressions act as an
anchor to subsequent thoughts and judgments. Past events and trends also act as anchors.
Giving too much weight to the past can lead to poor forecasts and misguided decisions.
• Justifying past decisions. People don’t like to make mistakes, so they continue to support a
flawed decision in an effort to justify or correct the past.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
• Seeing what you want to see. People frequently look for information that supports their
existing instinct or point of view and avoid information that contradicts it, affecting where
they look for information as well as how they interpret the information they find.
• Perpetuating the status quo. Managers may base decisions on what has worked in the past
and fail to explore new options, dig for additional information, or investigate new
technologies.
• Being influenced by emotions. Managers make better decision when—to the extent
possible—they take emotions out of the decision-making process.
• Overconfidence. Most people overestimate their ability to predict uncertain outcomes. Before
making a decision, managers have unrealistic expectations of their ability to understand the
risk and make the right choice.
1. One of the best known techniques for rapidly generating creative alternatives is
brainstorming. Brainstorming uses a face-to-face group to spontaneously suggest a
broad range of alternatives for decision making. The keys to effective brainstorming
are that people can build on one another’s ideas, all ideas are acceptable no matter
how crazy they seem, and criticism and evaluation are not allowed. The goal is to
generate as many ideas as possible.
1. Using evidence can help take emotion out of decision-making process, preventing
managers relying on faulty assumptions or point of view.
alternatives, and improve broader decision quality. There are several ways to stimulate
rigorous debate.
a. One way is by ensuring diversity in terms of age and gender, functional area of
expertise, hierarchical level, and experience with the business.
b. Some groups assign a devil’s advocate, who has the role of challenging the
assumptions and assertions made by the group.
D. Avoid Groupthink
Avoiding groupthink helps groups make better decisions. Groupthink refers to the
tendency of people in groups to suppress contrary opinions. When people slip into
groupthink, the desire for harmony outweighs concerns over decision quality. Group
members emphasize maintaining unity rather than realistically challenging problems and
alternatives. Some disagreement and conflict is much healthier than blind agreement.
In a fast-paced environment, good manager encourages risk taking and learning from
mistakes, it also teaches a person to know when to pull the plug on something that isn’t
working. Escalating commitment means that organizations often continue to invest
time and money in a solution despite strong evidence that it is not appropriate to do so.
Managers might block or distort negative information because they don’t want to be
responsible for a bad decision, or might not accept that their decision is wrong.
F. Do a Postmortem
To improve decision making, managers need to reflect and learn from every decision they
make.
1. A technique many companies have adopted from the U.S. Army to encourage
examination of the evidence and continuous learning is the after-action review, a
disciplined procedure whereby managers invest time to review the results of decision
on a regular basis and learn from them. After implementing the decision, managers
meet to evaluate what worked, what didn’t, and how to do things better. Many
problems are solved by trial and error.
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
2. A similar technique was applied by managers at Lenovo called fu pan, which means
“replaying the chess board,’ reviewing every move to improve the next one.
Students should apply the decision-making steps to solve this problem. The first step is
recognition of decision requirement. The manager must determine if there truly is a problem
with the air quality that needs to be solved. Discussions with others and, if warranted, testing
the air quality should help make this determination. If a problem does indeed exist, the next
step is the diagnosis and analysis of the causes of the poor air quality. The testing may reveal
this. If needed, further tests by experts in the field should be made to determine the cause.
Once the cause has been determined, the development of alternatives to eliminate the cause
should be developed. The selection of desired alternatives is the next step during which the
risk must be considered and the pros and cons of each alternative must be weighed. After an
alternative has been chosen, the chosen alternative should be implemented. After an
appropriate time evaluation of the alternative should be made and feedback provided.
2. Managers at Gap Inc., a once- popular retail chain, are reported to have made a series of
decisions that hurt the company: they expanded so rapidly that the chain lost touch with
customers; they tried to copy the successful approach of rivals rather than charting their own
course; they cut quality to reduce costs; they shifted from one fashion approach to another as
each failed to appeal to customers, and so on. What techniques would you recommend Gap
managers use to improve the quality of their decisions?
Some of the techniques that the managers of Gap can use to improve the quality of their
decisions may include:
a. Start with brainstorming
b. Use hard evidence
c. Engage in rigorous debate
d. Avoid groupthink
e. Know when to bail
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Managerial Decision Making •
f. Do a postmortem
3. Explain the difference between risk and ambiguity. How might decision making differ for a
risky versus an ambiguous situation?
Risk means that the decision maker has most of the necessary information. The objectives of
the decision are clear-cut, and alternatives can be identified. However, the future outcome of
each alternative is not known for certain, although the probability of outcomes can be
calculated, which is the source of risk. Ambiguity means the almost complete absence of
information pertaining to a decision. Managers do not agree on the objectives to be achieved
by the decision, alternatives are difficult to find, and outcomes cannot be predicted.
Decision-making approaches differ considerably for each situation. For decisions under risk,
a rational, calculative approach is preferred. The managers’ responsibility is to obtain the
available information and run necessary computations in order to predict outcomes and select
the best alternative. Decisions under ambiguity are more difficult. In these cases managers
do not have sufficient information to perform computations. They must rely on personal
judgment and experience to define alternatives and to anticipate possible outcomes of each
alternative. Under ambiguity, managers have to take a chance and push ahead with
decisions, even though they have poor information and will be wrong a substantial
percentage of the time.
4. Analyze three decisions you made over the past six months. Which of these were
programmed and which were nonprogrammed? Which model—the classical, administrative,
or political—best describes the approach you took to making each decision?
A programmed decision would refer to a situation that has occurred often enough so that a
student can use past experience and similar decision rules over and over again. Programmed
decisions are considered routine. A nonprogrammed decision would refer to a novel,
unique, and largely unstructured decision situation that requires a student to search for
possible alternatives and information and to make a decision that has not been made
previously.
The specific decisions students choose, and the decision-making processes they used, will
determine their answers to the last part of this question, but they should be able to explain
why they believe a particular model best describes their approach.
5. What opportunities and potential problems are posed by the formation of more than one
coalition within an organization, each one advocating a different direction or alternatives?
What steps can you take as a manager to make sure that dueling coalitions result in
constructive discussion rather than dissension?
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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«Tout l'empire amoureux est rempli d'histoires tragiques,» dit
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resuerie. C'est que, aduouant luy mesme, et preschant, auant la
main, cette sienne subiection, la contention de son asme se
soulageoit sur ce que, apportant ce mal comme attendu, son
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Le premier triomphe, mettant à part toute vanité, n'est
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goût la mauvaise honte qui provient d'un immense désir de plaire et
du manque de courage, forment un sentiment extrêmement pénible
que l'on sent en soi insurmontable, et dont on rougit. Or, si l'âme est
occupée à avoir de la honte et à la surmonter, elle ne peut pas être
employée à avoir du plaisir; car, avant de songer au plaisir, qui est
un luxe, il faut que la sûreté, qui est le nécessaire, ne courre aucun
risque.
Il est des gens qui, comme Rousseau, éprouvent de la mauvaise
honte, même chez les filles; ils n'y vont pas, car on ne les a qu'une
fois, et cette première fois est désagréable.
Pour voir que, vanité à part, le premier triomphe est très souvent
un effort pénible, il faut distinguer entre le plaisir de l'aventure et le
bonheur du moment qui la suit; on est toujours content:
1o De se trouver enfin dans cette situation qu'on a tant désirée;
d'être en possession d'un bonheur parfait pour l'avenir, et d'avoir
passé le temps de ces rigueurs si cruelles qui vous faisaient douter
de l'amour de ce que vous aimiez;
2o De s'en être bien tiré, et d'avoir échappé à un danger; cette
circonstance fait que ce n'est pas de la joie pure dans l'amour-
passion; on ne sait ce qu'on fait, et l'on est sûr de ce qu'on aime;
mais dans l'amour-goût, qui ne perd jamais la tête, ce moment est
comme le retour d'un voyage; on s'examine, et, si l'amour tient
beaucoup de la vanité, on veut masquer l'examen;
3o La partie vulgaire de l'âme jouit d'avoir emporté une victoire.
Pour peu que vous ayez de passion pour une femme, ou que
votre imagination ne soit pas épuisée, si elle a la maladresse de vous
dire un soir, d'un air tendre et interdit: «Venez demain à midi, je ne
recevrai personne.» Par agitation nerveuse, vous ne dormirez pas de
la nuit; l'on se figure de mille manières le bonheur qui nous attend;
la matinée est un supplice; enfin, l'heure sonne, et il semble que
chaque coup de l'horloge vous retentit dans le diaphragme. Vous
vous acheminez vers la rue avec une palpitation; vous n'avez pas la
force de faire un pas. Vous apercevez derrière sa jalousie la femme
que vous aimez; vous montez en vous faisant courage… et vous
faites le fiasco d'imagination.
M. Rapture, homme excessivement nerveux, artiste et tête
étroite, me contait à Messine que, non seulement toutes les
premières fois, mais même à tous les rendez-vous, il a toujours eu
du malheur. Cependant je croirais qu'il a été homme tout autant
qu'un autre; du moins je lui ai connu deux maîtresses charmantes.
Quant au sanguin parfait (le vrai Français, qui prend tout du beau
côté, le colonel Mathis), un rendez-vous pour demain à midi, au lieu
de le tourmenter par excès de sentiment, peint tout en couleur de
rose jusqu'au moment fortuné. S'il n'eût pas eu de rendez-vous, le
sanguin se serait un peu ennuyé.
Voyez l'analyse de l'amour par Helvétius; je parierais qu'il sentait
ainsi, et il écrivait pour la majorité des hommes. Ces gens-là ne sont
guère susceptibles de l'amour-passion; il troublerait leur belle
tranquillité; je crois qu'ils prendraient ses transports pour du
malheur; du moins ils seraient humiliés de sa timidité.
Le sanguin ne peut connaître tout au plus qu'une espèce de
fiasco moral: c'est lorsqu'il reçoit un rendez-vous de Messaline, et
que, au moment d'entrer dans son lit, il vient à penser devant quel
terrible juge il va se montrer.
Le timide tempérament mélancolique parvient quelquefois à se
rapprocher du sanguin, comme dit Montaigne, par l'ivresse du vin de
Champagne, pourvu toutefois qu'il ne se la donne pas exprès. Sa
consolation doit être que ces gens si brillants qu'il envie, et dont
jamais il ne saurait approcher, n'ont ni ses plaisirs divins ni ses
accidents, et que les beaux-arts, qui se nourrissent des timidités de
l'amour, sont pour eux lettres closes. L'homme qui ne désire qu'un
bonheur commun, comme Duclos, le trouve souvent, n'est jamais
malheureux, et, par conséquent, n'est pas sensible aux arts.
Le tempérament athlétique ne trouve ce genre de malheur que
par épuisement ou faiblesse corporelle, au contraire des
tempéraments nerveux et mélancoliques, qui semblent créés tout
exprès.
Souvent, en se fatiguant auprès d'une autre femme, ces pauvres
mélancoliques parviennent à éteindre un peu leur imagination, et
par là à jouer un moins triste rôle auprès de la femme objet de leur
passion.
Que conclure de tout ceci? Qu'une femme sage ne se donne
jamais la première fois par rendez-vous.—Ce doit être un bonheur
imprévu.
Nous parlions ce soir de fiasco à l'état-major du général Michaud,
cinq très beaux jeunes gens de vingt-cinq à trente ans et moi. Il
s'est trouvé que, à l'exception d'un fat, qui probablement n'a pas dit
vrai, nous avions tous fait fiasco la première fois avec nos maîtresses
les plus célèbres. Il est vrai que peut être aucun de nous n'a connu
ce que Delfante appelle l'amour-passion.
L'idée que ce malheur est extrêmement commun doit diminuer le
danger.
J'ai connu un beau lieutenant de hussards, de vingt-trois ans,
qui, à ce qu'il me semble, par excès d'amour, les trois premières
nuits qu'il put passer avec une maîtresse qu'il adorait depuis six
mois, et qui, pleurant un autre amant tué à la guerre, l'avait traité
fort durement, ne put que l'embrasser et pleurer de joie. Ni lui ni elle
n'étaient attrapés.
L'ordonnateur H. Mondor, connu de toute l'armée, a fait fiasco
trois jours de suite avec la jeune et séduisante comtesse Koller.
Mais le roi du fiasco, c'est le raisonnable et beau colonel Horse,
qui a fait fiasco seulement trois mois de suite avec l'espiègle et
piquante N… V…, et, enfin, a été réduit à la quitter sans l'avoir
jamais eue.
FRAGMENTS DIVERS
J'ai réuni sous ce titre, que j'aurais voulu rendre encore plus
modeste, un choix fait sans trop de sévérité parmi trois ou quatre
cents cartes à jouer sur lesquelles j'ai trouvé des lignes tracées au
crayon; souvent ce qu'il faut bien appeler le manuscrit original, faute
d'un nom plus simple, est bâti de morceaux de papier de toute
grandeur écrits au crayon, et que Lisio attachait avec de la cire pour
ne pas avoir l'embarras de recopier. Il m'a dit une fois que rien de ce
qu'il notait ne lui semblait une heure après valoir la peine d'être
recopié. Je suis entré dans ce détail avec l'espérance qu'il me servira
d'excuse pour les répétitions.
II
III
IV
Une marque de l'amour vient de naître, c'est que tous les plaisirs
et toutes les peines que peuvent donner toutes les autres passions
et tous les autres besoins de l'homme cessent à l'instant de
l'affecter.
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L'amour tel qu'il est dans la haute société, c'est l'amour des
combats, c'est l'amour du jeu.
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Les femmes ici n'ont que l'éducation des choses; une mère ne se
gêne guère pour être au désespoir ou au comble de la joie, par
amour, devant ses filles de douze à quinze ans. Rappelez-vous que
dans ces climats heureux, beaucoup de femmes sont très bien
jusqu'à quarante-cinq ans, et la plupart sont mariées à dix-huit.
La Valchiusa, disant hier de Lampugnani: «Ah! celui-là était fait
pour moi, il savait aimer, etc., etc.,» et suivant longtemps ce discours
avec une amie, devant sa fille, jeune personne très alerte, de
quatorze à quinze ans, qu'elle menait aussi aux promenades
sentimentales avec cet amant.
Quelquefois les jeunes filles accrochent des maximes de conduite
excellentes: par exemple, Mme Guarnacci, adressant à ses deux filles
et à deux hommes qui en toute leur vie ne lui ont fait que cette
visite, des maximes approfondies pendant une demi-heure, et
appuyées d'exemples à leur connaissance (celui de la Cercara en
Hongrie), sur l'époque précise à laquelle il convient de punir, par
l'infidélité, les amants qui se conduisent mal.
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Les âmes tendres ont besoin de la facilité chez une femme pour
encourager la cristallisation.
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Le tempérament bilieux, quand il n'a pas des formes trop
repoussantes, est peut-être celui de tous qui est le plus propre à
frapper et à nourrir l'imagination des femmes. Si le tempérament
bilieux n'est pas placé dans de belles circonstances, comme le
Lauzun de Saint-Simon (Mémoires, tome V, 380), le difficile, c'est de
s'y accoutumer. Mais, une fois ce caractère saisi par une femme, il
doit l'entraîner. Oui, même le sauvage et fanatique Balfour (Old
Mortality). C'est pour elles le contraire du prosaïque.
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Les vers furent inventés pour aider la mémoire. Plus tard on les
conserva pour augmenter le plaisir par la vue de la difficulté vaincue.
Les garder aujourd'hui dans l'art dramatique, reste de barbarie.
Exemple: l'ordonnance de la cavalerie, mise en vers par M. de
Bonnay.
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Il n'y a qu'une grande âme qui ose avoir un style simple; c'est
pour cela que Rousseau a mis tant de rhétorique dans la Nouvelle
Héloïse, ce qui la rend illisible à trente ans.
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«Le plus grand reproche que nous puissions nous faire est
assurément de laisser s'évanouir, comme ces fantômes légers que
produit le sommeil, les idées d'honneur et de justice qui de temps en
temps s'élèvent dans notre cœur.»
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Naturel.
J'ai vu, ou j'ai cru voir ce soir le triomphe du naturel dans une
jeune personne qui, il est vrai, me semble avoir un grand caractère.
Elle adore un de ses cousins, cela me semble évident, et elle doit
s'être avoué à elle-même l'état de son cœur. Ce cousin l'aime; mais,
comme elle est très sérieuse avec lui, il croit ne pas plaire, et se
laisse entraîner aux marques de préférence que lui donne Clara, une
jeune veuve amie de Mélanie. Je crois qu'il va l'épouser; Mélanie le
voit et souffre tout ce qu'un cœur fier et rempli malgré lui d'une
passion violente peut souffrir. Elle n'aurait qu'à changer un peu ses
manières; mais elle regarde comme une bassesse qui aurait des
conséquences durant toute sa vie de s'écarter un instant du naturel.
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Il ne me faut que le fait précédent pour rire un peu des gens qui
trouvent Homère supérieur au Tasse. L'amour-passion existait du
temps d'Homère et pas très loin de la Grèce.
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XXXVIII
Fond des mœurs anglaises. Vers 1730, quand nous avions déjà
Voltaire et Fontenelle, on inventa en Angleterre une machine pour
séparer le grain qu'on vient de battre des petits fragments de paille;
cela s'opérait au moyen d'une roue qui donnait à l'air le mouvement
nécessaire pour enlever les fragments de paille; mais en ce pays
biblique les paysans prétendirent qu'il était impie d'aller contre la
volonté de la divine Providence, et de produire ainsi un vent factice,
au lieu de demander au ciel, par une ardente prière, le vent
nécessaire pour vanner le blé, et d'attendre le moment marqué par
le dieu d'Israël. Comparez cela aux paysans français[225].
[225] Pour l'état actuel des mœurs anglaises, voir la Vie de M.
Beattie, écrite par un ami intime. On sera édifié de l'humilité
profonde de M. Beattie recevant dix guinées d'une vieille marquise
pour calomnier Hume. L'aristocratie tremblante s'appuie sur des
évêques à 200 000 livres de rente, et paye en argent ou en
considération des écrivains, prétendus libéraux, pour dire des
injures à Chénier (Edinburg-Review, 1821).
Le cant le plus dégoûtant pénètre partout. Tout ce qui n'est
pas peinture de sentiments sauvages et énergiques en est
étouffé; impossible d'écrire une page gaie en anglais.
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En France, les hommes qui ont perdu leur femme sont tristes; les
veuves, au contraire, gaies et heureuses. Il y a un proverbe parmi
les femmes sur la félicité de cet état. Il n'y a donc pas d'égalité dans
le contrat d'union.
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LI
C'est une réflexion commune, mais que sous ce prétexte l'on
oublie de croire, que tous les jours les âmes qui sentent deviennent
plus rares, et les esprits cultivés plus communs.
LII
Orgueil féminin.
LIII
Duclos.
LIV
Modène, 1820.
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LVII
Le mari d'une jeune femme qui est adorée par son amant qu'elle
traite mal, et auquel elle permet à peine de lui baiser la main, n'a
tout au plus que le plaisir physique le plus grossier, là où le premier
trouverait les délices et les transports du bonheur le plus vif qui
existe sur cette terre.
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