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 Geographic
Data Mining and
Knowledge Discovery
Second Edition

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Chapman & Hall/CRC
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Series

SERIES EDITOR
Vipin Kumar
University of Minnesota
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A.

AIMS AND SCOPE

This series aims to capture new developments and applications in data mining and knowledge
discovery, while summarizing the computational tools and techniques useful in data analysis. This
series encourages the integration of mathematical, statistical, and computational methods and
techniques through the publication of a broad range of textbooks, reference works, and hand-
books. The inclusion of concrete examples and applications is highly encouraged. The scope of the
series includes, but is not limited to, titles in the areas of data mining and knowledge discovery
methods and applications, modeling, algorithms, theory and foundations, data and knowledge
visualization, data mining systems and tools, and privacy and security issues.

PUBLISHED TITLES

UNDERSTANDING COMPLEX DATASETS: Data Mining with Matrix Decompositions

David Skillicorn
COMPUTATIONAL METHODS OF FEATURE SELECTION
Huan Liu and Hiroshi Motoda
CONSTRAINED CLUSTERING: Advances in Algorithms, Theory, and Applications
Sugato Basu, Ian Davidson, and Kiri L. Wagstaff
KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY FOR COUNTERTERRORISM AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
David Skillicorn
MULTIMEDIA DATA MINING: A Systematic Introduction to Concepts and Theory
Zhongfei Zhang and Ruofei Zhang
NEXT GENERATION OF DATA MINING
Hillol Kargupta, Jiawei Han, Philip S. Yu, Rajeev Motwani, and Vipin Kumar
DATA MINING FOR DESIGN AND MARKETING
Yukio Ohsawa and Katsutoshi Yada
GEOGRAPHIC DATA MINING AND KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY, Second Edition
Harvey J. Miller and Jiawei Han

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Chapman & Hall/CRC
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Series

Geographic
Data Mining and
Knowledge Discovery
Second Edition

Edited by
Harvey J. Miller
Jiawei Han

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
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International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-7397-3 (Hardcover)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Geographic data mining and knowledge discovery / editors, Harvey J. Miller and
Jiawei Han. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-7397-3 (hard back : alk. paper)
1. Geodatabases. 2. Data mining. I. Miller, Harvey J. II. Han, Jiawei. III. Title.

G70.2.G4365 2009
910.285’6312--dc22 2009010969

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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and the CRC Press Web site at
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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................vii
About the Editors ....................................................................................................ix
List of Contributors ................................................................................................xi

Chapter 1 Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery:

An Overview ........................................................................................1
Harvey J. Miller and Jiawei Han

Chapter 2 Spatio-Temporal Data Mining Paradigms and Methodologies .......... 27

John F. Roddick and Brian G. Lees

Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Spatial Data Warehousing for Geographic

Knowledge Discovery ........................................................................ 45
Yvan Bédard and Jiawei Han

Chapter 4 Analysis of Spatial Data with Map Cubes:

Highway Traffic Data ......................................................................... 69
Chang-Tien Lu, Arnold P. Boedihardjo, and Shashi Shekhar

Chapter 5 Data Quality Issues and Geographic Knowledge Discovery .............99

Marc Gervais, Yvan Bédard, Marie-Andree Levesque,
Eveline Bernier, and Rodolphe Devillers

Chapter 6 Spatial Classification and Prediction Models for Geospatial

Data Mining ..................................................................................... 117
Shashi Shekhar, Ranga Raju Vatsavai, and Sanjay Chawla

Chapter 7 An Overview of Clustering Methods in Geographic Data

Analysis ............................................................................................ 149
Jiawei Han, Jae-Gil Lee, and Micheline Kamber

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Chapter 8 Computing Medoids in Large Spatial Datasets................................ 189
Kyriakos Mouratidis, Dimitris Papadias, and Spiros Papadimitriou

Chapter 9 Looking for a Relationship? Try GWR ............................................ 227

A. Stewart Fotheringham, Martin Charlton, and Urška Demšar

Chapter 10 Leveraging the Power of Spatial Data Mining to Enhance the

Applicability of GIS Technology ..................................................... 255
Donato Malerba, Antonietta Lanza, and Annalisa Appice

Chapter 11 Visual Exploration and Explanation in Geography

Analysis with Light .......................................................................... 291
Mark Gahegan

Chapter 12 Multivariate Spatial Clustering and Geovisualization ..................... 325

Diansheng Guo

Chapter 13 Toward Knowledge Discovery about Geographic Dynamics in

Spatiotemporal Databases ................................................................ 347
May Yuan

Chapter 14 The Role of a Multitier Ontological Framework in Reasoning

to Discover Meaningful Patterns of Sustainable Mobility ............... 367
Monica Wachowicz, Jose Macedo, Chiara Renso, and
Arend Ligtenberg

Chapter 15 Periodic Pattern Discovery from Trajectories of Moving Objects ... 389
Huiping Cao, Nikos Mamoulis, and David W. Cheung

Chapter 16 Decentralized Spatial Data Mining for Geosensor Networks..........409

Patrick Laube and Matt Duckham

Chapter 17 Beyond Exploratory Visualization of Space–Time Paths ................ 431

Menno-Jan Kraak and Otto Huisman

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Acknowledgments
The editors would like to thank the National Center for Geographic Information and
Analysis (NCGIA) — Project Varenius for supporting the March 1999 workshop
that resulted in the first edition of this book. A special thanks to Randi Cohen (Taylor
& Francis Group) who proposed a second edition and worked tirelessly on its behalf
with organizational skills that greatly exceed ours.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

About The Editors
Harvey J. Miller is professor of geography at the University of Utah. His research
and teaching interests include geographic information systems (GIS), spatial analysis,
and geocomputational techniques applied to understanding how transportation and
communication technologies shape lives, cities, and societies. He has contributed to
the theory and methodology underlying time geography: a perspective that focuses
on personal allocation of time among activities in space and its implications for indi-
vidual and collective spatial dynamics. He is the author (with Shih-Lung Shaw) of
Geographic Information Systems for Transportation: Principles and Applications
(Oxford University Press) and editor of Societies and Cities in the Age of Instant Access
(Springer). Professor Miller serves on the editorial boards of Geographical Analysis,
International Journal of Geographical Information Science, Journal of Regional
Science, Transportation, URISA Journal, and Journal of Transport and Land Use. He
was the North American editor of International Journal of Geographical Information
Science from 2000 to 2004. Professor Miller has also served as an officer or board
member of the North American Regional Science Council, the University Consortium
for Geographic Information Science, the Association of American Geographers,
and the Transportation Research Board (TRB). He is currently cochair of the TRB
Committee on Geographic Information Science and Applications.

Jiawei Han is professor in the department of computer science, University of Illinois

at Urbana-Champaign. He has been working on research in data mining, data ware-
housing, database systems, data mining from spatiotemporal data, multimedia data,
stream and radio frequency identification (RFID) data, social network data, and bio-
logical data, and has to his credit over 350 journal and conference publications. He
has chaired or served on over 100 program committees of international conferences
and workshops, including PC cochair of 2005 (IEEE) International Conference on
Data Mining (ICDM), American coordinator of 2006 International Conference on
Very Large Data Bases (VLDB), and senior PC member for the 2008 ACM SIGKDD
International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining. He is also serv-
ing as the founding editor-in-chief of ACM Transactions on Knowledge Discovery from
Data. He is an ACM Fellow and has received the 2004 ACM SIGKDD Innovations
Award and 2005 IEEE Computer Society Technical Achievement Award. His book
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (2nd ed., Morgan Kaufmann, 2006) has
been popularly used as a textbook worldwide.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

List of Contributors
Annalisa Appice Matt Duckham
Università degli Studi di Bari University of Melbourne
Bari, Italy Victoria, Australia

Yvan Bédard A. Stewart Fotheringham

Laval University National University of Ireland
Quebec City, Canada County Kildare, Ireland

Mark Gahegan
Eveline Bernier
University of Auckland
Laval University
Auckland, New Zealand
Quebec City, Canada
Marc Gervais
Arnold P. Boedihardjo Laval University
Virginia Tech Quebec City, Canada
Blacksburg, Virginia
Diansheng Guo
Huiping Cao University of South Carolina
University of Hong Kong Columbia, South Carolina
Hong Kong
Otto Huisman
International Institute for
Martin Charlton
GeoInformation Science
National University of Ireland
and Earth Observation (ITC)
County Kildare, Ireland
Enschede, Netherlands
Sanjay Chawla Micheline Kamber
University of Sydney Burnaby, Canada
Sydney, Australia
Menno-Jan Kraak
David W. Cheung International Institute for
University of Hong Kong GeoInformation Science
Hong Kong and Earth Observation (ITC)
Enschede, Netherlands
Urška Demšar
Antonietta Lanza
National University of Ireland
Università degli Studi di Bari
County Kildare, Ireland
Bari, Italy
Rodolphe Devillers Patrick Laube
Memorial University of Newfoundland University of Melbourne
St. John’s, Canada Victoria, Australia

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Jae-Gil Lee Dimitris Papadias
University of Illinois Hong Kong University of Science
Urbana-Champaign and Technology
Urbana, Illinois Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong

Brian G. Lees Spiros Papadimitriou

University of New South Wales IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
Canberra, Australia Hawthorne, New York

Marie-Andree Levesque Chiara Renso

Laval University KDDLAB-CNR
Quebec City, Canada Pisa, Italy
Arend Ligtenberg
Wageningen University and Research John F. Roddick
Wageningen, Netherlands Flinders University
Adelaide, South Australia
Chang-Tien Lu
Virginia Tech Shashi Shekhar
Blacksburg, Virginia University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Jose Macedo
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Ranga Raju Vatsavai
Zurich, Switzerland Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Donato Malerba
Università degli Studi di Bari Monica Wachowicz
Bari, Italy Technical University of Madrid
Madrid, Spain
Nikos Mamoulis and
University of Hong Kong Wageningen University and Research
Hong Kong Wageningen, Netherlands

Kyriakos Mouratidis May Yuan

Singapore Management University University of Oklahoma
Singapore Norman, Oklahoma

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 1 Geographic Data Mining
and Knowledge Discovery
An Overview
Harvey J. Miller
Jiawei Han

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................2

1.2 Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining ..........................................................3
1.2.1 Knowledge Discovery from Databases.................................................3
1.2.2 Data Warehousing.................................................................................4
1.2.3 The KDD Process and Data Mining ....................................................6
1.2.4 Visualization and Knowledge Discovery .............................................9
1.3 Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery .................................... 10
1.3.1 Why Geographic Knowledge Discovery? .......................................... 10
1.3.1.1 Geographic Information in Knowledge Discovery.............. 10
1.3.1.2 Geographic Knowledge Discovery in Geographic
Information Science ............................................................. 13
1.3.1.3 Geographic Knowledge Discovery in Geographic
Research ............................................................................... 13
1.3.2 Geographic Data Warehousing ........................................................... 14
1.3.3 Geographic Data Mining .................................................................... 15
1.3.3.1 Spatial Classification and Capturing Spatial
Dependency.......................................................................... 15
1.3.3.2 Spatial Segmentation and Clustering ................................... 16
1.3.3.3 Spatial Trends ...................................................................... 17
1.3.3.4 Spatial Generalization.......................................................... 17
1.3.3.5 Spatial Association .............................................................. 17
1.3.4 Geovisualization ................................................................................. 18
1.3.5 Spatiotemporal and Mobile Objects Databases .................................. 19
1.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 21
References ................................................................................................................ 21

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2 Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Similar to many research and application fields, geography has moved from a data-
poor and computation-poor to a data-rich and computation-rich environment. The
scope, coverage, and volume of digital geographic datasets are growing rapidly. Public
and private sector agencies are creating, processing, and disseminating digital data on
land use, socioeconomic conditions, and infrastructure at very detailed levels of geo-
graphic resolution. New high spatial and spectral resolution remote sensing systems
and other monitoring devices are gathering vast amounts of geo-referenced digital
imagery, video, and sound. Geographic data collection devices linked to location-
ware technologies (LATs) such as global positioning system (GPS) receivers allow
field researchers to collect unprecedented amounts of data. LATs linked to or embed-
ded in devices such as cell phones, in-vehicle navigation systems, and wireless Internet
clients provide location-specific content in exchange for tracking individuals in space
and time. Information infrastructure initiatives such as the U.S. National Spatial Data
Infrastructure are facilitating data sharing and interoperability. Digital geographic data
repositories on the World Wide Web are growing rapidly in both number and scope.
The amount of data that geographic information processing systems can handle will
continue to increase exponentially through the mid-21st century.
Traditional spatial analytical methods were developed in an era when data collec-
tion was expensive and computational power was weak. The increasing volume and
diverse nature of digital geographic data easily overwhelm mainstream spatial anal-
ysis techniques that are oriented toward teasing scarce information from small and
homogenous datasets. Traditional statistical methods, particularly spatial statistics,
have high computational burdens. These techniques are confirmatory and require
the researcher to have a priori hypotheses. Therefore, traditional spatial analytical
techniques cannot easily discover new and unexpected patterns, trends, and relation-
ships that can be hidden deep within very large and diverse geographic datasets.
In March 1999, the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis
(NCGIA) — Project Varenius held a workshop on discovering geographic knowl-
edge in data-rich environments in Kirkland, Washington, USA. The workshop
brought together a diverse group of stakeholders with interests in developing and
applying computational techniques for exploring large, heterogeneous digital geo-
graphic datasets. Drawing on papers submitted to that workshop, in 2001 we pub-
lished Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, a volume that brought
together some of the cutting-edge research in the area of geographic data mining and
geographic knowledge discovery in a data-rich environment. There has been much
progress in geographic knowledge discovery (GKD) over the past eight years, includ-
ing the development of new techniques for geographic data warehousing (GDW),
spatial data mining, and geo-visualization. In addition, there has been a remarkable
rise in the collection and storage of data on spatiotemporal processes and mobile
objects, with a consequential rise in knowledge discovery techniques for these data.
The second edition of Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery is a
major revision of the first edition. We selected chapters from the first edition and
asked authors for updated manuscripts that reflect changes and recent developments
in their particular domains. We also solicited new chapters on topics that were not

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 3

covered well in the first edition but have become more prominent recently. This
includes several new chapters on spatiotemporal and mobile objects databases, a
topic only briefly mentioned in the 2001 edition.
This chapter introduces geographic data mining and GKD. In this chapter, we pro-
vide an overview of knowledge discovery from databases (KDD) and data mining.
We identify why geographic data is a nontrivial special case that requires distinctive
consideration and techniques. We also review the current state-of-the-art in GKD,
including the existing literature and the contributions of the chapters in this volume.

1.2 KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY AND DATA MINING

In this section, we provide a general overview of knowledge discovery and data
mining. We begin with an overview of KDD, highlighting its general objectives and
its relationship to the field of statistics and the general scientific process. We then
identify the major stages of KDD processing, including data mining. We classify
major data-mining tasks and discuss some techniques available for each task. We
conclude this section by discussing the relationships between scientific visualization
and KDD.

1.2.1 KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY FROM DATABASES

Knowledge discovery from databases (KDD) is a response to the enormous volumes
of data being collected and stored in operational and scientific databases. Continuing
improvements in information technology (IT) and its widespread adoption for process
monitoring and control in many domains is creating a wealth of new data. There is
often much more information in these databases than the “shallow” information being
extracted by traditional analytical and query techniques. KDD leverages investments
in IT by searching for deeply hidden information that can be turned into knowledge
for strategic decision making and answering fundamental research questions.
KDD is better known through the more popular term “data mining.” However,
data mining is only one component (albeit a central component) of the larger KDD
process. Data mining involves distilling data into information or facts about the
domain described by the database. KDD is the higher-level process of obtaining
information through data mining and distilling this information into knowledge
(ideas and beliefs about the domain) through interpretation of information and inte-
gration with existing knowledge.
KDD is based on a belief that information is hidden in very large databases in the
form of interesting patterns. These are nonrandom properties and relationships that
are valid, novel, useful, and ultimately understandable. Valid means that the pattern
is general enough to apply to new data; it is not just an anomaly of the current data.
Novel means that the pattern is nontrivial and unexpected. Useful implies that the
pattern should lead to some effective action, e.g., successful decision making and
scientific investigation. Ultimately understandable means that the pattern should be
simple and interpretable by humans (Fayyad, Piatetsky-Shapiro and Smyth 1996).
KDD is also based on the belief that traditional database queries and statistical
methods cannot reveal interesting patterns in very large databases, largely due to the

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4 Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery

type of data that increasingly comprise enterprise databases and the novelty of the
patterns sought in KDD.
KDD goes beyond the traditional domain of statistics to accommodate data not
normally amenable to statistical analysis. Statistics usually involves a small and clean
(noiseless) numeric database scientifically sampled from a large population with spe-
cific questions in mind. Many statistical models require strict assumptions (such as
independence, stationarity of underlying processes, and normality). In contrast, the
data being collected and stored in many enterprise databases are noisy, nonnumeric,
and possibly incomplete. These data are also collected in an open-ended manner
without specific questions in mind (Hand 1998). KDD encompasses principles and
techniques from statistics, machine learning, pattern recognition, numeric search,
and scientific visualization to accommodate the new data types and data volumes
being generated through information technologies.
KDD is more strongly inductive than traditional statistical analysis. The gen-
eralization process of statistics is embedded within the broader deductive process
of science. Statistical models are confirmatory, requiring the analyst to specify a
model a priori based on some theory, test these hypotheses, and perhaps revise
the theory depending on the results. In contrast, the deeply hidden, interesting
patterns being sought in a KDD process are (by definition) difficult or impos-
sible to specify a priori, at least with any reasonable degree of completeness.
KDD is more concerned about prompting investigators to formulate new predic-
tions and hypotheses from data as opposed to testing deductions from theories
through a sub-process of induction from a scientific database (Elder and Pregibon
1996; Hand 1998). A guideline is that if the information being sought can only be
vaguely described in advance, KDD is more appropriate than statistics (Adriaans
and Zantinge 1996).
KDD more naturally fits in the initial stage of the deductive process when the
researcher forms or modifies theory based on ordered facts and observations from
the real world. In this sense, KDD is to information space as microscopes, remote
sensing, and telescopes are to atomic, geographic, and astronomical spaces, respec-
tively. KDD is a tool for exploring domains that are too difficult to perceive with
unaided human abilities. For searching through a large information wilderness, the
powerful but focused laser beams of statistics cannot compete with the broad but
diffuse floodlights of KDD. However, floodlights can cast shadows and KDD cannot
compete with statistics in confirmatory power once the pattern is discovered.

1.2.2 DATA WAREHOUSING

An infrastructure that often underlies the KDD process is the data warehouse (DW).
A DW is a repository that integrates data from one or more source databases. The
DW phenomenon results from several technological and economic trends, including
the decreasing cost of data storage and data processing, and the increasing value of
information in business, government, and scientific environments. A DW usually
exists to support strategic and scientific decision making based on integrated, shared
information, although DWs are also used to save legacy data for liability and other
purposes (see Jarke et al. 2000).

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 5

The data in a DW are usually read-only historical copies of the operational

databases in an enterprise, sometimes in summary form. Consequently, a DW is
often several orders of magnitude larger than an operational database (Chaudhuri
and Dayal 1997). Rather than just a very large database management system, a DW
embodies database design principles very different from operational databases.
Operational database management systems are designed to support transactional
data processing, that is, data entry, retrieval, and updating. Design principles for
transactional database systems attempt to create a database that is internally consis-
tent and recoverable (i.e., can be “rolled-back” to the last known internally consis-
tent state in the event of an error or disruption). These objectives must be met in an
environment where multiple users are retrieving and updating data. For example, the
normalization process in relational database design decomposes large, “flat” rela-
tions along functional dependencies to create smaller, parsimonious relations that
logically store a particular item a minimal number of times (ideally, only once; see
Silberschatz et al. 1997). Since data are stored a minimal number of times, there is
a minimal possibility of two data items about the same real-world entity disagreeing
(e.g., if only one item is updated due to user error or an ill-timed system crash).
In contrast to transactional database design, good DW design maximizes the effi-
ciency of analytical data processing or data examination for decision making. Since
the DW contains read-only copies and summaries of the historical operational data-
bases, consistency and recoverability in a multiuser transactional environment are not
issues. The database design principles that maximize analytical efficiency are con-
trary to those that maximize transactional stability. Acceptable response times when
repeatedly retrieving large quantities of data items for analysis require the database
to be nonnormalized and connected; examples include the “star” and “snowflake”
logical DW schemas (see Chaudhuri and Dayal 1997). The DW is in a sense a buffer
between transactional and analytical data processing, allowing efficient analytical
data processing without corrupting the source databases (Jarke et al. 2000).
In addition to data mining, a DW often supports online analytical processing
(OLAP) tools. OLAP tools provide multidimensional summary views of the data
in a DW. OLAP tools allow the user to manipulate these views and explore the data
underlying the summarized views. Standard OLAP tools include roll-up (increasing
the level of aggregation), drill-down (decreasing the level of aggregation), slice and
dice (selection and projection), and pivot (re-orientation of the multidimensional data
view) (Chaudhuri and Dayal 1997). OLAP tools are in a sense types of “super-que-
ries”: more powerful than standard query language such as SQL but shallower than
data-mining techniques because they do not reveal hidden patterns. Nevertheless,
OLAP tools can be an important part of the KDD process. For example, OLAP tools
can allow the analyst to achieve a synoptic view of the DW that can help specify and
direct the application of data-mining techniques (Adriaans and Zantinge 1996).
A powerful and commonly applied OLAP tool for multidimensional data sum-
mary is the data cube. Given a particular measure (e.g., “sales”) and some dimen-
sions of interest (e.g., “item,” “store,” “week”), a data cube is an operator that
returns the power set of all possible aggregations of the measure with respect to the
dimensions of interest. These include aggregations over zero dimension (e.g., “total
sales”), one dimension (e.g., “total sales by item,” “total sales by store,” “total sales

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6 Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery

per week”), two dimensions (e.g., “total sales by item and store”) and so on, up to
N dimensions. The data cube is an N-dimensional generalization of the more com-
monly known SQL aggregation functions and “Group-By” operator. However, the
analogous SQL query only generates the zero and one-dimensional aggregations;
the data cube operator generates these and the higher dimensional aggregations all
at once (Gray et al. 1997).
The power set of aggregations over selected dimensions is called a “data cube”
because the logical arrangement of aggregations can be viewed as a hypercube in
an N-dimensional information space (see Gray et al. 1997, Figure 2). The data cube
can be pre-computed and stored in its entirety, computed “on-the-fly” only when
requested, or partially pre-computed and stored (see Harinarayan, Rajaman and
Ullman 1996). The data cube can support standard OLAP operations including roll-
up, drill-down, slice, dice, and pivot on measures computed by different aggregation
operators, such as max, min, average, top-10, variance, and so on.

1.2.3 THE KDD PROCESS AND DATA MINING

The KDD process usually consists of several steps, namely, data selection, data pre-
processing, data enrichment, data reduction and projection, data mining, and pattern
interpretation and reporting. These steps may not necessarily be executed in linear
order. Stages may be skipped or revisited. Ideally, KDD should be a human-centered
process based on the available data, the desired knowledge, and the intermediate
results obtained during the process (see Adriaans and Zantinge 1996; Brachman and
Anand 1996; Fayyad, Piatetsky-Shapiro and Smyth 1996; Han and Kamber 2006;
Matheus, Chan and Piatetsky-Shapiro 1993).
Data selection refers to determining a subset of the records or variables in a
database for knowledge discovery. Particular records or attributes are chosen as foci
for concentrating the data-mining activities. Automated data reduction or “focusing”
techniques are also available (see Barbara et al. 1997, Reinartz 1999). Data pre-pro-
cessing involves “cleaning” the selected data to remove noise, eliminating duplicate
records, and determining strategies for handling missing data fields and domain vio-
lations. The pre-processing step may also include data enrichment through combin-
ing the selected data with other, external data (e.g., census data, market data). Data
reduction and projection concerns both dimensionality and numerosity reductions
to further reduce the number of attributes (or tuples) or transformations to determine
equivalent but more efficient representations of the information space. Smaller, less
redundant and more efficient representations enhance the effectiveness of the data-
mining stage that attempts to uncover the information (interesting patterns) in these
representations. The interpretation and reporting stage involves evaluating, under-
standing, and communicating the information discovered in the data-mining stage.
Data mining refers to the application of low-level functions for revealing hidden
information in a database (Klösgen and Żytkow 1996). The type of knowledge to be
mined determines the data-mining function to be applied (Han and Kamber 2006).
Table 1.1 provides a possible classification of data-mining tasks and techniques. See
Matheus, Chan and Piatetsky-Shapiro (1993) and Fayyad, Piatetsky-Shapiro and

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 7

TABLE 1.1
Data-Mining Tasks and Techniques
Knowledge Type Description Techniques
Segmentation or clustering Determining a finite set of implicit Cluster analysis
groups that describe the data.
Classification Predict the class label that a set of Bayesian classification
data belongs to based on some Decision tree induction
training datasets Artificial neural networks
Support vector machine (SVM)
Association Finding relationships among Association rules
itemsets or association/correlation Bayesian networks
rules, or predict the value of some
attribute based on the value of
other attributes
Deviations Finding data items that exhibit Clustering and other data-mining
unusual deviations from methods
expectations Outlier detection
Evolution analysis
Trends and regression Lines and curves summarizing the Regression
analysis database, often over time Sequential pattern extraction
Generalizations Compact descriptions of the data Summary rules
Attribute-oriented induction

Smyth (1996), as well as several of the chapters in this current volume for other
overviews and classifications of data-mining techniques.
Segmentation or clustering involves partitioning a selected set of data into mean-
ingful groupings or classes. It usually applies cluster analysis algorithms to examine
the relationships between data items and determining a finite set of implicit classes
so that the intraclass similarity is maximized and interclass similarity is minimized.
The commonly used data-mining technique of cluster analysis determines a set of
classes and assignments to these classes based on the relative proximity of data items
in the information space. Cluster analysis methods for data mining must accommo-
date the large data volumes and high dimensionalities of interest in data mining; this
usually requires statistical approximation or heuristics (see Farnstrom, Lewis and
Elkan 2000). Bayesian classification methods, such as AutoClass, determine classes
and a set of weights or class membership probabilities for data items (see Cheesman
and Stutz 1996).
Classification refers to finding rules or methods to assign data items into pre-
existing classes. Many classification methods have been developed over many years
of research in statistics, pattern recognition, machine learning, and data mining,
including decision tree induction, naïve Bayesian classification, neural networks,
support vector machines, and so on. Decision or classification trees are hierarchi-
cal rule sets that generate an assignment for each data item with respect to a set of
known classes. Entropy-based methods such as ID3 and C4.5 (Quinlan 1986, 1992)

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8 Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery

derive these classification rules from training examples. Statistical methods include
the chi-square automatic interaction detector (CHAID) (Kass 1980) and the classi-
fication and regression tree (CART) method (Breiman et al. 1984). Artificial neural
networks (ANNs) can be used as nonlinear clustering and classification techniques.
Unsupervised ANNs such as Kohonen Maps are a type of neural clustering where
weighted connectivity after training reflects proximity in information space of the
input data (see Flexer 1999). Supervised ANNs such as the well-known feed forward/
back propagation architecture require supervised training to determine the appropri-
ate weights (response function) to assign data items into known classes.
Associations are rules that predict the object relationships as well as the value
of some attribute based on the value of other attributes (Ester, Kriegel and Sander
1997). Bayesian networks are graphical models that maintain probabilistic depen-
dency relationships among a set of variables. These networks encode a set of con-
ditional probabilities as directed acyclic networks with nodes representing variables
and arcs extending from cause to effect. We can infer these conditional probabilities
from a database using several statistical or computational methods depending on the
nature of the data (see Buntine 1996; Heckerman 1997). Association rules are a par-
ticular type of dependency relationship. An association rule is an expression X œ Y
(c%, r%) where X and Y are disjoint sets of items from a database, c% is the confi-
dence and r% is the support. Confidence is the proportion of database transactions
containing X that also contain Y; in other words, the conditional probability P(Y | X ) .
Support is proportion of database transactions that contain X and Y, i.e., the union of
X and Y, P( X † Y ) (see Hipp, Güntzer and Nakhaeizadeh 2000). Mining associa-
tion rules is a difficult problem since the number of potential rules is exponential
with respect to the number of data items. Algorithms for mining association rules
typically use breadth-first or depth-first search with branching rules based on mini-
mum confidence or support thresholds (see Agrawal et al. 1996; Hipp, Güntzer and
Nakhaeizadeh 2000).
Deviations are data items that exhibit unexpected deviations or differences from
some norm. These cases are either errors that should be corrected/ignored or rep-
resent unusual cases that are worthy of additional investigation. Outliers are often
a byproduct of other data-mining methods, particularly cluster analysis. However,
rather than treating these cases as “noise,” special-purpose outlier detection meth-
ods search for these unusual cases as signals conveying valuable information (see
Breuing et al. 1999).
Trends are lines and curves fitted to the data, including linear and logistic regres-
sion analysis, that are very fast and easy to estimate. These methods are often com-
bined with filtering techniques such as stepwise regression. Although the data often
violate the stringent regression assumptions, violations are less critical if the esti-
mated model is used for prediction rather than explanation (i.e., estimated parame-
ters are not used to explain the phenomenon). Sequential pattern extraction explores
time series data looking for temporal correlations or pre-specified patterns (such as
curve shapes) in a single temporal data series (see Agrawal and Srikant 1995; Berndt
and Clifford 1996).
Generalization and characterization are compact descriptions of the database.
As the name implies, summary rules are a relatively small set of logical statements

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 9

that condense the information in the database. The previously discussed classifica-
tion and association rules are specific types of summary rules. Another type is a
characteristic rule; this is an assertion that data items belonging to a specified con-
cept have stated properties, where “concept” is some state or idea generalized from
particular instances (Klösgen and Żytkow 1996). An example is “all professors in
the applied sciences have high salaries.” In this example, “professors” and “applied
sciences” are high-level concepts (as opposed to low-level measured attributes such
as “assistant professor” and “computer science”) and “high salaries” is the asserted
property (see Han, Cai and Cercone 1993).
A powerful method for finding many types of summary rules is attribute-ori-
ented induction (also known as generalization-based mining). This strategy per-
forms hierarchical aggregation of data attributes, compressing data into increasingly
generalized relations. Data-mining techniques can be applied at each level to extract
features or patterns at that level of generalization (Han and Fu 1996). Background
knowledge in the form of a concept hierarchy provides the logical map for aggregat-
ing data attributes. A concept hierarchy is a sequence of mappings from low-level
to high-level concepts. It is often expressed as a tree whose leaves correspond to
measured attributes in the database with the root representing the null descriptor
(“any”). Concept hierarchies can be derived from experts or from data cardinality
analysis (Han and Fu 1996).
A potential problem that can arise in a data-mining application is the large num-
ber of patterns generated. Typically, only a small proportion of these patterns will
encapsulate interesting knowledge. The vast majority may be trivial or irrelevant. A
data-mining engine should present only those patterns that are interesting to particu-
lar users. Interestingness measures are quantitative techniques that separate inter-
esting patterns from trivial ones by assessing the simplicity, certainty, utility, and
novelty of the generated patterns (Silberschatz and Tuzhilin 1996; Tan, Kumar and
Srivastava 2002). There are many interestingness measures in the literature; see Han
and Kamber (2006) for an overview.

1.2.4 VISUALIZATION AND KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY

KDD is a complex process. The mining metaphor is appropriate — information is
buried deeply in a database and extracting it requires skilled application of an inten-
sive and complex suite of extraction and processing tools. Selection, pre-processing,
mining, and reporting techniques must be applied in an intelligent and thoughtful
manner based on intermediate results and background knowledge. Despite attempts
at quantifying concepts such as interestingness, the KDD process is difficult to auto-
mate. KDD requires a high-level, most likely human, intelligence at its center (see
Brachman and Anand 1996).
Visualization is a powerful strategy for integrating high-level human intelligence
and knowledge into the KDD process. The human visual system is extremely effec-
tive at recognizing patterns, trends, and anomalies. The visual acuity and pattern
spotting capabilities of humans can be exploited in many stages of the KDD pro-
cess, including OLAP, query formulation, technique selection, and interpretation of
results. These capabilities have yet to be surpassed by machine-based approaches.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10 Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery

Keim and Kriegel (1994) and Lee and Ong (1996) describe software systems
that incorporate visualization techniques for supporting database querying and data
mining. Keim and Kriegel (1994) use visualization to support simple and complex
query specification, OLAP, and querying from multiple independent databases. Lee
and Ong’s (1996) WinViz software uses multidimensional visualization techniques
to support OLAP, query formulation, and the interpretation of results from unsuper-
vised (clustering) and supervised (decision tree) segmentation techniques. Fayyad,
Grinstein and Wierse (2001) provide a good overview of visualization methods for
data mining.

1.3 GEOGRAPHIC DATA MINING AND KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY

This section of the chapter describes a very important special case of KDD, namely,
GKD. We will first discuss why GKD is an important special case that requires
careful consideration and specialized tools. We will then discuss GDW and online
geographic data repositories, the latter an increasingly important source of digital
geo-referenced data and imagery. We then discuss geographic data-mining tech-
niques and the relationships between GKD and geographic visualization (GVis), an
increasingly active research domain integrating scientific visualization and cartog-
raphy. We follow this with discussions of current GKD techniques and applications
and research frontiers, highlighting the contributions of this current volume.

1.3.1 WHY GEOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY?

1.3.1.1 Geographic Information in Knowledge Discovery
The digital geographic data explosion is not much different from similar revolutions
in marketing, biology, and astronomy. Is there anything special about geographic
data that requires unique tools and provides unique research challenges? In this sec-
tion, we identify and discuss some of the unique properties of geographic data and
challenges in GKD.
Geographic measurement frameworks. While many information domains of
interest in KDD are high dimensional, these dimensions are relatively independent.
Geographic information is not only high dimensional but also has the property that
up to four dimensions of the information space are interrelated and provide the mea-
surement framework for all other dimensions. Formal and computational represen-
tations of geographic information require the adoption of an implied topological
and geometric measurement framework. This framework affects measurement of
the geographic attributes and consequently the patterns that can be extracted (see
Beguin and Thisse 1979; Miller and Wentz 2003).
The most common framework is the topology and geometry consistent with
Euclidean distance. Euclidean space fits in well with our experienced reality and
results in maps and cartographic displays that are useful for navigation. However,
geographic phenomena often display properties that are consistent with other topolo-
gies and geometries. For example, travel time relationships in an urban area usually
violate the symmetry and triangular inequality conditions for Euclidean and other

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
in Captain Nelson’s mind to fill up his casks there for the long run
around the Horn.
The days passed, and nothing happened. Whatever eagerness I had
felt oozed away; but Captain Coffin’s did not, I judged. He was silent,
restless, tense with it, especially as we began to raise the Paumotus,
one after another. These are atolls, with the usual coral reefs, sea-
beach, and lagoon, none of them more than a few feet above sea level.
The topmasts of the Battles would be easily seen above them, unless
some unusually tall coconut trees were in the way. We did not go far
into the archipelago, for it is dangerous navigation there for a vessel as
large as the Clearchus, and one no more easily manageable. The
passages are filled with hidden dangers, and the currents swift and
treacherous.
We had been searching, in a superficial way, for a week or more,
when, one morning, dawn showed us a small atoll, a few miles long.
We heard the dull boom of the surf, and with the growing light we saw
a long white beach, crowned with green vegetation. A few stunted
coco-palms showed their green tufts, and beyond the palms the
familiar topsail yards of the Battles. There was no sign of habitation,
and we found out later that this atoll was uninhabited, and visited only
occasionally by canoe parties from some other atoll, in search of eggs,
or fish, or adventure. At the time it seemed strange to me that
somebody from the crew of the Battles had not seen us. The Clearchus
must have been as familiar to them as the Battles was to us. Then I
concluded that they had not seen us because they were close under the
palms, and had had no lookout to seaward, and perhaps had been
asleep. I was right in one thing: they had been asleep. They were not
asleep now, for, as we worked around to find the opening into the
lagoon, we heard faint noises, as if they were shouting to one another.
When we reached a point from which we could see into the lagoon,
we saw that the schooner was plainly aground; there were a number of
large canoes drawn up on the shore; and there on the beach was the
crew of the Battles, surrounded by natives, and fighting for their lives. I
heard no guns, and supposed that they must have been lured ashore by
the prospect of trade, and then attacked.
Captain Nelson did nothing immediately, but turned to Captain
Coffin. I chanced to be near them at the time.
“What do you think, Fred?” he asked. “Shall we try to help your
crew there? They ’re no better than pirates, and I ’ve no doubt the
Kanakas have the right of it.” Some particularly villainous example of
thievery on the part of the Battles was probably at the bottom of the
quarrel. “But I suppose we ’ve got to.”
Captain Coffin nodded. “I want to settle their hash myself.”
I was on tiptoe with that laughing exhilaration that always came
upon me before a fight of any kind, and I found that I had been afraid
that Captain Nelson would stay out of it.
I dived below, where I gathered all the arms from the cabin; and,
the steward helping me, I got them on deck. I found three boats down.
They were Mr. Macy’s, Captain Coffin’s, and mine, in which the captain
was going in place of Mr. Brown. There was some danger to the ship in
leaving her so lightly manned, for the islanders might take it into their
heads to attack her; but he took the chance. I had an oak wagon-spoke
in addition to a spade. I had found it among the firewood taken on at
New Bedford. A wagon-spoke is an excellent weapon, and that was not
the only time I used one.
 It took us some time to find the opening in the reef. There were
several false leads, and we found the break narrow when we hit upon it.
I wondered that the Battles had been able to get through.
The fighting was going on at the head of the lagoon, a little over
half a mile from the point where we entered, too far off to see what had
been happening. All we could see from that distance was a confused
mass of men, and all we heard was a confused shouting. After we had
straightened out on the course to the beach, I saw nothing but the
backs and the oars of the men before me, Captain Nelson at the
steering oar, and the other boats out of the tail of my eye. We were a
little in advance.
The shouting grew in volume as we approached the shore, but I
heard no white man’s shout. They had no breath to waste. We were
perhaps an eighth of a mile from shore when Captain Nelson spoke
quietly, saying that some twenty of the islanders were swimming out to
meet us.
“Be ready with your knives and spades, boys,” he said. “Don’t let
them get hold of your oars.”
The men were not supposed to have knives—at least, not with
sharp points, but two or three of the Portuguese produced them, and
took them between their teeth; and there were two knives in each boat,
and the hatchet.
However, we pulled away from them and grounded on the beach.
The shock of it very nearly sent me on my back in the bottom of the
boat. I saw Captain Nelson covering our landing with his Spencer, and
I saw him raise it to his shoulder and fire once. Then we tumbled out, I
with my spade and my wagon-spoke. A spear whistled over my
shoulder, making a flesh wound, and I gave a roar, and rushed upon the
irregular line of islanders. As I ran, I remember vaguely that I laughed
and shouted.
I have no clear recollection of what happened, but I do know that I
had no fear of anything, I had an utter insensibility to pain, and a fierce
joy in mere fighting. My wagon-spoke was a more handy weapon than
the spade, which I used to ward off blows aimed at me, while I wielded
the wagon-spoke as a club. It was a very good club, well-balanced and
heavy, with sharp corners on the hub end. I was pretty strong then, and
could swing it to some purpose. The natives—I do not like to call them
savages—had been armed with spears of hard wood, as dangerous as
steel-pointed spears, and with a war-club of peculiar shape, made of
ironwood. Most of them had cast their spears by this time, and fought
with their clubs, much as I did.
I do not know just how many islanders there were, but there must
have been well over a hundred altogether. There were eighteen of us,
and about twenty in the crew of the Battles; but many of the Battles’
men had been killed or disabled before we got there. There could not
have been more than a half a dozen left on their feet. I saw Mr. Wallet
transfixed by a spear within six feet of me, the spear in the hands of a
gigantic islander. I cannot remember that I felt a pang of pity when I
saw Mr. Wallet go down. I do not think that I had any feeling whatever,
or that I should have had whoever it had been.
The man next to Mr. Wallet was evidently of a different calibre. He
was bleeding from many wounds, and fighting like a fiend. The man
with the spear wrenched it free from Wallet’s body, and lunged at this
man. He leaped forward, tore the spear from the other’s grasp, and like
lightning he plunged it into his body. It went clear through and came
out at the back. It could not be got out again, as there were deep cuts
upon it, making a series of saw-teeth on the edge of the long blade, and
these teeth stuck on the ribs. He left it sticking there, looked quickly
around, and caught sight of Captain Coffin. Apparently he had not
seen him before.
I found out a little later that the man was Drew, but I guessed as
much then. He stood still for a moment, and I saw the changing
expressions chase each other across his face. There was despair—for an
instant—and then a hardening, and the fierce light came back to his
eyes, and a scornful smile curled his lips, but hope was gone. Here was
Coffin. That meant that he would be carried back and hanged if he
survived this fight. He had to die, anyway, and he preferred to die
fighting; but there were two or three of us that he meant to take with
him. His first move was against Captain Coffin, who was engaged in a
hand-to-hand fight with two natives. These natives, I think, were not
much given to hand-to-hand work. They preferred to stand off at a safe
distance from their enemies and call names. In this case they had
depended upon their numbers, and had been drawn into the close
work and could not get out; but they were brave, although they
preferred the method of ambush and massacre.
Up to this time I had been in a condition of exaltation with the pure
love of fighting. Man is a fighting animal. If he were not he would never
have got so far. Whether right or wrong, it seems to me hopeless to try
to crush out that instinct—but that is by the way. The events just
described had made their impression on my eye, but at the time they
made none on my brain. Now I roused from my daze, my brain
resumed its activity with a rush, and I yelled a warning.
Captain Coffin either did not hear me or did not dare to turn his
head. Drew had grabbed up a war-club lying beside a dead savage, and
was trying to get at him, but his way was not clear. I leaped for him and
yelled again. Other islanders were coming to the help of those engaged
with Captain Coffin, and he was becoming the centre of the fighting.
He was much the biggest white man there. Macy was nearly as tall, but
did not give the impression of bigness and power that Captain Coffin
did. I caught a glimpse of Mr. Macy coming up on the other side of
Captain Coffin, and remember wondering what had become of the
Prince. It was the kind of a fight that I had imagined he would love. At
the risk of my life I glanced about, and saw him just behind me, as if he
was following to see that no harm came to me. There was the gleam of
battle in his eye, his face was set, his lips drawn back in a tiger-snarl,
showing his white teeth. They shone in his ebony face like a light at sea
on a dark night.
Captain Coffin might have heard my warning yells, but he gave no
sign. It would have been death for him to look back. Drew was slowly
making his way toward him, striking at the natives who got in his way.
A big native disputed the way, and I got almost within reach. The
islander gave before Drew’s ferocious assault. Drew let him go, and
pressed on toward Captain Coffin. I leaped again, and got within reach
as he was in the act of bringing his club down on Captain Coffin’s head.
I struck with all my might, and the blow went true. Drew’s wrist was
broken, his head was laid open in a long line, and he tottered. At that
instant I heard the dull report of a Spencer. Drew’s body whirled about,
and crumpled in a heap. Captain Nelson had done it, and the bullet
had gone through Drew’s body, striking down one of the natives.
Relieved of the anxiety of the moment, I dropped my hands, and
drew a long breath. That was no time for dropping my hands, and I was
brought quickly back to the present by the prick of a spear. I squirmed
away, and looked up to see a club descending. There was no time to use
my club, or to raise my spade, which hung in my left hand. There was a
rush beside me, and the Prince, apparently empty-handed, launched
himself at my assailant. My head was saved, and both went down, just
out of my reach. The Prince had broken his lance, but had saved the
blade, which he plunged into the throat of the islander. At the same
instant an ironwood war-club crashed down on his head.
At that sight my fury returned. I have no knowledge of what
followed in the next half-hour. I knew that not one of the Battles’ crew
was left on his feet, and I knew dimly that Kane was on one side of me,
fighting with a wild joy, and that on the other Mr. Macy was fighting
with equal fury. I have no doubt that he saved my life many times, for I
knew no caution, and my only thought was to avenge the Prince. Mr.
Macy’s fury was of the cold kind—a cool head and a hot heart—which
does so much more damage than a mere blind rage like mine. At last I
realized that the islanders were trying to get at our boats.
There were five or six times as many of them as of us, but Captain
Nelson managed to keep his force between them and our boats. None
of his men was killed except the Prince, but nearly all were wounded
more or less seriously, and all were weary. I know that, at last, with
returning sanity, I found myself hardly able to lift my club, and utterly
unable to strike again with my reddened spade. We were being forced
back to the boats. It looked like a day for the islanders, and if they
would have let us we would have withdrawn. I heard nothing but a
tumult of sound, and I could not see well.
Suddenly there was a great shout from behind the natives, and I
saw a considerable body of men break through the sparse vegetation
which crowned the beach. It happened before my eyes; a crowd of men
—white men, twenty-five or thirty of them—armed with lances,
spades, and knives, issuing from that tangle to seaward, and rushing
down on the rear of the islanders. They, poor chaps, gave one glance,
then broke and ran. Some of them ran to their canoes, others ran
directly into the water, and swam away, full tilt. The canoes followed,
and we let them go.
I knew we ought to put after them and see that they did no harm to
the ship, but I could not have pulled a pound. Neither could most of
the others. I could only stand there, my hands hanging limp at my
sides, and gaze after the canoes. I watched them out of sight through
the passage to the sea. I was dimly conscious of a young chap who
walked around me, looking me over, but I paid him no attention. At
last he stood still before me, grinning. He poked me in the ribs. I
squirmed, for my ribs were sore.
“Hello, Tim,” he said.
I looked at him then; looked at him long and hard, while he stood
and grinned. It was Jimmy Appleby.
 CHAPTER XXXVI
Of that meeting with Jimmy Appleby the less said the better. I believe
that, in my wearied and weakened state, I broke down and cried, but I
have no clear recollection. The first thing that I remember clearly is
being well down the lagoon, a passenger in my own boat. Our new
shipmates were doing the pulling, although those of the regular crew
who were able sat on the thwarts beside the fresh men, and bent their
backs with them. Two of our men, severely wounded, lay on the bottom
of the boat, half under the thwarts, and there, too, was the body of the
Prince, covered with the sail. Captain Nelson stood at the steering oar,
his face grave and set, looking out ahead. I crawled up to my place on
the midship thwart beside a stranger, and got my hands on my oar; and
the stranger turned his head and gave me a smile.
We got safely out of the lagoon to sea, and on board the ship. The
canoes were far down to leeward. They had given the ship a wide berth,
but might come back again, after we had gone, to pick up their dead. I
did not know what customs they practised in that respect. I know I was
surprised to find that it was not yet noon. It seemed to me that almost
a lifetime had passed since we had left the ship that morning. The
wounded were cared for at once. Then the body of the Prince was
passed up, and laid on the hatch cover. I drew near to it, and found
Peter beside me. I had forgotten Jimmy Appleby.
Peter said nothing, but he laid his arm across my shoulders, and we
saw the sailmaker come with a piece of old canvas, and his palm, and
stitch the Prince up carefully, a few links of old chain cable at his feet. I
saw the crew gathering with bared heads, and Captain Nelson standing
with a little book, but I did not hear what he read. The man in that
long white bundle—it shone dazzlingly in the hot sunshine—would
not have been there except for me. I hid my face in my arm against the
rigging, hot tears burned my eyes, and my shoulders shook; there was a
gentle noise of canvas slipping on wood, a splash, and I raised my head
to see Captain Nelson clapping his book shut, and the men as they
turned away.
Peter patted my shoulder. “Don’t ye grieve, lad,” he said. “He ’d have
liked this way of it better. He was a good shipmate, if his skin was
black. Come now, you ’re wanted. A bite of dinner ’ll do you a world of
good.”
At that I am afraid I laughed. It was hysterical, but I was quieted
somewhat, and I went below.
I had not yet had a chance to hear Jimmy’s story. It had to wait still
longer, for the boats were sent ashore again in the afternoon, with all
the new men, and some of ours. They buried the men of the Battles as
well as they could. It was almost impossible to dig in that beach, for it
was all coral below the very surface. Then they carried their boats
across from the ocean side to the lagoon, not more than three or four
hundred feet, but the low summit thickly grown up with coconut-
palms and low bushes and vines. It must have reminded Captain Coffin
of the “haulover” at Nantucket, except for the growth. The “haulover” is
nothing but bare sand, and I believe the sea had not broken through at
that time. These boats which I speak of were those in which our new
friends had come. I should not speak of them as our new friends, for
many of them were old friends.
 Captain Coffin, with a boat’s crew, stayed on the Battles that night,
looking her over. Jimmy did not, and I got his story. He was bursting
with it. His ship was the John and Alice. After I left New Bedford his
desire for the same sort of life, always strong, had become intense. He
gave his parents no peace for nearly two years, finally threatening to
run away if they would not let him go. They gave in at that, and in the
summer of 1874 he shipped before the mast on the John and Alice.
They had been out just about a year, had cruised off the River Plate,
doubled the Horn, and covered the On Shore and Off Shore grounds.
They were making their leisurely way toward Japan when the John and
Alice was sunk by a whale in 145° W., 7° S., carrying their five hundred
barrels of oil down with her. The crew took to the boats. There had
been time to stow plenty of provisions and water in the boats, and they
were making for Tahiti, which they would have reached safely, without
doubt. But they sighted some of these low-lying islands, and went in
among them. They had been sailing through the passages of the
archipelago for two days. At daylight on that morning they saw the
topmasts of the Clearchus showing dimly in the distance, and the
topmasts of the Battles and the coco-palms soon rose. They were
making for the ship, passing just outside the line of surf which fringed
the island, when they heard our tumult, and landed the best way they
could. They managed it, but lost one of their boats in the surf, capsized
and pretty badly stove. The surf had not been heavy, or they would
have lost more, and possibly some men. Captain Nelson had the stove
boat brought aboard for Peter’s surgery.
Of course Jimmy’s narrative was not so briefly told as I have given it.
He was discursive and conversational, and given to embellishment. I
kept him up until late that night, telling me all he knew of my mother,
my father, my brothers, Tom and Josh; and I asked him about all my
friends, ending up with Ann McKim. About Ann he was enthusiastic,
speaking of her in the slang of the day. I forget what expression he
used, but it corresponded to “perfect peach.” I could well believe it.
Captain Coffin had found the Annie Battles pretty firmly aground,
and the coral had punched a hole in her. It was not a hopeless hole,
although enough to justify any master in abandoning his vessel.
Captain Coffin was not that kind. All the stuff was taken out of her, and
spread on the beach. Then she was hastily patched on the inside, and
pumped out. That was very nearly enough to float her, but not quite,
for the rise of the tide at this point is small. Still there was that little
peak of hard, sharp coral, which they were afraid would tear out more
of her planking when eight boats were fast, with forty oars pulling at
her. Our Kanakas had to go down and cut away the coral. Then she was
beached, and hove down by our cutting-tackles from her mastheads to
coconut-trunks. Her cutting-tackles had disappeared—probably
thrown overboard.
We all helped in this work, and I found that I had more bruises and
unimportant wounds than I had believed possible; but the condition
was common to all who had been in the fight, and I was interested in
the work, which was familiar. We simply had to dispose of the corpses
within a couple of days of beginning the work. That was an unpleasant
job. We took them far down to leeward, and buried them hastily in a
cavern we found in the coral, but that did not entirely get rid of the
stench at the beach. It was probably from the bodies of the white men
buried there—in very shallow graves.
It took two weeks to get the Battles beached and repaired. Then we
got her afloat again, the topmasts and yards sent up, sails bent and
every­thing shipshape. With all her cargo—mostly trading stuff—piled
on deck, we towed her out through the pass in the reef, and she was at
sea again, where she belonged. She tied up alongside the Clearchus,
and there began a wholesale transfer of cargo.
The Battles first stowed eight hundred barrels of our oil, greatly
relieving us. Most of her cargo of trading stuff had been taken on the
Clearchus, indicating that we were likely to stop at the Marquesas, and
possibly at some other islands. I was gratified at that, for I wanted to
see the Marquesas. The division of water and provisions was unequal,
the Battles being given enough to carry her home, while the Clearchus
would be obliged to fill her water-casks, at least. At last she was ready
to go. She cast off, for the sea, which had been unusually quiet all
through the transfer, began to roughen. She did not go far, however,
but lay hove to, not far from us. Captain Coffin was in the cabin with
Captain Nelson, and I was sent for.
I had watched the transfer of cargo and the selection of a crew for
the Battles, with a mind at ease. I had taken it for granted that she
would take the new men, and most of their boats. Jimmy was going, I
knew, and I accepted the fact with small regret, for I found that a
separation of three years had severed many of the ties which had
bound us together. I went into the cabin with no small wonder what
they could want of me; probably nothing more than the same old
bluish-white pitcher, with something hot in it.
That was not what they wanted. I was hardly in the cabin when
Captain Coffin asked me whether I wanted to go with him. He added
that he was going aboard the Battles within a few minutes, and if I
wished, he would take me along. I was too dumbfounded to answer
immediately, and Captain Nelson, taking my answer for granted, sent
me out again at once, saying that I had only time to get my things
together, and to hurry, at that. So I found myself outside the cabin
door, stumbling up the stairs, without having uttered a word. I hurried
and got my belongings into my chest, carried the chest out, and went
to bid a hasty good-bye to Peter, without having come to a decision.
There was a certain reluctance in my actions. I wanted more time; yes,
more time, at least. But still I went. I said half a dozen words to Peter,
and half a dozen words to Mr. Brown, whom I met on my way aft.
If I had known the truth—and been willing to tell it, which is quite
a different matter—and if it had been a question merely of choosing
between Mr. Brown and Jimmy, I should have chosen Mr. Brown. Of
course I was glad to see Jimmy, but he was only a boy, with a boy’s
interest in things, and that did not satisfy me, possibly because I had
been so long without companions of my own age. Mr. Brown seemed
much more of a real companion, with interests which had come to be
my own. I never saw him again.
It is a curious thing how people go out of your life. Here was Mr.
Brown, who, alone of the officers, had admitted me to intimacy. I had
become very fond of him; and he dropped out as suddenly and as
completely as if he had fallen overboard. I do not like it. It is not right,
I cannot reconcile myself to it, and I have never been able to
understand it. For years I kept expecting to see him, but it is not likely
now, for he would be nearly eighty, and probably he is dead long ago.
He left the ship at once upon her arrival in New Bedford, and vanished.
Why? I wish I knew. I found, upon inquiry, that his share of the voyage
—his lay—was sent to an address in New York. I wrote, but nothing
was known of him, and that ended the chapter.
 Peter I did see again. He became a frequent and welcome visitor at
my father’s house, and later at my own. Ann McKim liked him, and
she, my father, my mother, and Peter spent many an evening in going
over the events of the voyage, a chart spread out, and all four heads
bent over it. I sat back in the shadows and watched them. But I am
getting ahead of my story. There is not much more to tell, so have a
little patience, and it will be over.
I was still in a sort of daze when I got aboard of the Battles, and she
began to drop the Clearchus. I watched the old ship, with all sail set,
sink below the horizon. When I could no longer make out even her
topgallant yards, I turned, and went slowly below. I was to bunk in the
cabin, I found, as Assistant Navigator, a totally unnecessary berth.
Captain Coffin had two of the mates of the John and Alice, both good
navigators, and he was a good navigator, of course; but there was room
in the cabin for four, and he, in the kindness of his heart, gave the
fourth berth to me. Before we got home I was made third mate, which
was simply ridiculous. Probably Captain Coffin wished to make it easy
for me to get a third mate’s berth on another voyage, which was kind
and thoughtful. The Annie Battles was much overmanned, with a total
of twenty-eight men, leaving forty-two on the Clearchus. With so many
men there was not much for any one to do, although we managed to
keep the men busy enough.
The run home was without incident worthy of remark. We reached
Cape Horn in January, the middle of the southern summer, and had no
great difficulty and no more bad weather than is always met there. In
the cabin, as I was, although not yet a mate, I could not chum with
Jimmy, who was before the mast, and I found it rather a lonesome
berth. There was nothing for me to do but attend to my duties, which
were light, and watch the schooner sail. She was a very fast and easy
vessel, and very wet in a sea; but she was not in the same class as the
Virginia, Marshall, master. If I had not had that experience I should
have enjoyed the Battles more. But I missed the discipline, the
trimness, the everlasting rightness of the Virginia. Having seen that,
nothing less would ever satisfy me completely.
It was when we crossed the line that I was made third mate. Not
long after, in the latitude of about 15° N., we ran into a gale, which
started the seams of the patch on the bottom. No doubt Cape Horn
weather had something to do with it, but we had had no proper
planking to mend it with, and it was rather weak. That started a leak
which increased from day to day. With our extra men, Captain Coffin
hoped that we could pump her home; but by the time we were off
Hatteras it had increased so much that the men were kept steadily at
the pumps, and we put into Norfolk.
I left the Battles at Norfolk. I was anxious to get home, and could
not even wait for the boat, which would have been cheaper. I went by
train, and got in at the old wooden station on Pearl Street—“deepo’ ” we
called it, early Egyptian architecture—with less than a dollar in my
pocket. It was only a few blocks from my home, however, and what use
had I for money? I ran all the way.
As I turned the last corner, I stopped with a gasp. I had barely
escaped running into a girl—and such a girl! I knew her at once,
although she had blossomed since I went away, and she was wearing no
ostrich plume in her hat. Jimmy had not exaggerated.
She had stopped, too. She had to, for I brought to directly in front
of her.
“Oh,” she said, with a little smile, “I beg your pardon.”
 “Ann!” I said breathlessly. “Ann McKim, don’t you know me?”
I put out my hand, and her hand came slowly forward to meet it,
while she looked up at me doubtfully. I watched the changing
expression of her eyes. Recognition came into them suddenly, and she
clasped my hand warmly.
“Goody gracious!” she cried. “It ’s Tim, I do believe! It ’s not strange
that I did n’t know you! How you ’ve grown and broadened! I might
have taken you for your father. You ’re as big as he is.”
“Am I?” I grinned, holding to her hand as if it were my mooring.
“Am I, Ann?”
“And you ’re the color of new copper,” she added. “Have you been
home yet?”
I shook my head. “I was just going there when I nearly ran you
down.”
“Well, go along, Timmie, for mercy’s sake, and let your mother get a
sight of you.” She freed her hand gently, and gave me a little push. “Do
they expect you?”
“No, I came by train. It ’ll be a surprise.”
“Why did n’t you let them know?”
“Did n’t think of it. We—but I ’ll tell you all about it—”
“To-night. I ’ll come in pretty late—nearly nine o’clock. Good-bye.”
She was gone around the corner before I could say a word. I gaped
at the corner, then ran on again. Our house was only a little way up the
street. Nobody locked their doors in those days, and dashing up the
steps without stopping, I threw open the front door. I stood for a
moment, with my hand on the doorknob, listening for a sound to let
me know where anybody was. How often I had done just that! My
mother might be in the kitchen, or upstairs in her room, sewing. I
heard nothing but a faint humming.
“Mother!” I called.
The humming continued. “Who ’s that?” my mother answered, as if
she was busy. “Tom or Josh? I never can tell you apart by your voices.
What are you home for now? Is anything the matter?”
I snickered nervously. “It ’s me, mother. It ’s Tim.”
The humming stopped suddenly. “What! It ’s who?”
I snickered again. I knew so well just how she looked, stopping her
sewing, her foot on the treadle, and her head up, listening.
“It ’s Tim. I ’m coming up.”
There was a shriek, and the sound of a chair falling. I bounded up
the stairs, and met her. At sight of me she stopped for an instant.
“Mercy!” she cried. “Is that my little Tim?”
Then her arms were around me, and she was laughing and crying
on my shoulder.
THE END
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Original spelling and grammar have been generally retained, with some exceptions noted
below. Original printed page numbers are shown like this {52} in the text edition, and are
hidden in the html, epub, and mobi editions. Illustrations have been moved from within
paragraphs to nearby locations between paragraphs. The transcriber produced the cover
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archive.org—search for
“sheblowssparmatt00hopk”.

Page 103. A full stop was added after beat out and disgusted.
Page 123. A full stop was added after faster than the Clearchus.
Page 214. Changed Reunion to Réunion.
Page 250. Changed and we quartered the gounds to and we quartered the grounds.
Page 310. Changed lasily to lazily.
Page 360. Changed ‘ “deepo ” we called it’ to ‘ “deepo’ ” we called it’.
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