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DBMS (R23) UNIT - 2 - more information notes

Btech (Sri Venkateswara University)

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

UNIT II: Relational Model & Basic SQL

Unit II: Relational Model: Introduction to

relational model, concepts of domain,
attribute, tuple, relation, importance of null
values, constraints (Domain, Key constraints,
integrity constraints) and their importance,
Relational Algebra, Relational Calculus. BASIC
SQL: Simple Database schema, data types,
table definitions (create, alter), different DML
operations (insert, delete, update).

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2.1 Introduction
Relational Model was proposed by E.F Codd to model data in the form of relations or tables. After
designing the conceptual model of database using ER diagram, we need to convert the conceptual
model in the relational model which can be implemented using any RDBMS (Relational Data Base
Management System) like SQL, MY SQL etc.

The relational model is very simple and elegant; a database is a collection of one or more relations,
where each relation is a table with rows and columns.

This simple tabular representation enables even new users to understand the contents of a
database, and it permits the use of simple, high-level languages to query the data.

2.2 Relational Model

Relational Model represents how date is stored in relational databases.
A Relational database stores data in the form of relations (tables).
Consider a relation STUDENT with attributes ROLL_NO, NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE and AGE
as shown in table.
ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE AGE
1 Nishma Hyderabad 9455123451 28
2 Sai Guntur 9652431843 27
3 Swetha Nellore 9156253131 26
4 Raji Ongole 9215635311 25
Attribute: Attributes are the properties that define a
relation. Ex: ROLL_NO, NAME

Tuple: Each row in a relation is known as tuple.

Ex:
1 Nishma Hyderabad 9455123451 28
Degree: The number of attributes in the relation is known as degree.
Ex: The degree of the given STUDENT table is 5.
Column: Column represent the set of values for a particular
attribute. The column ROLL_NO is extracted from the relation
STUDENT.
Ex:

ROLL_NO
1

Null values: The value which is not known or unavailable is called NULL VALUE. It is
represented by blank space.

Cardinality: The number of tuples are present in the relation is called as its cardinality.

Ex: The Cardinality of the STUDENT table is 4.

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2.3 Concept Of Domain

The domain of a database is the set of all allowable values (or) attributes of the database.
Ex: Gender (Male, Female, Others).

Relation
 A relation is defined as a set of tuples and attributes.
 A relation consists of Relation schema and relation instance.
 Relation schema: A relation schema represents the name of the relation with its attributes.
Ex: STUDENT (ROLL_NO, NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE and AGE) is Relation schema for
STUDENT.
 Relation instance: The set of tuples of a relation at a particular instance of a time is called
Relation Instance.
An instance of „Employee „relation

Emp_cod Emp_Nam Dept_Nam

e e e
01234 John HR
12567 Smith Sales
21678 Sai Production
12456 Jay Design

2.4 Importance of Null values:

 SQL supports a special value known as NULL which is used to represent the values of
attributes that may be unknown or not apply to a tuple.
 For example, the apartment_number attribute of an address applies only to the address that
is in apartment buildings and not to other types of residences.
 It is important to understand that a NULL value is different from Zero value.
 A Null value is used to represent a missing value, but that is usually has one of the following
interpretations:
 Value unknown (Value exists but it is unknown)
 Value not available (exists but it is purposely withheld)
 Attribute not applicable (undefined for this tuple)
 It is often not possible to determine which of the meanings is intended.

2.5 Constraints
 On modeling the design of the relational data base, we can put some rules(conditions) like
what values are allowed to be inserted in the relation
 Constraints are the rules enforced on the data columns of a table. These are used to limit the
type of data that can go in to a table
 This Ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data in the database. Constraints could be
either on a column level on a table level.

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2.6 Domain Constraints In DBMS

 In DBMS table is viewed as a combination of rows and columns
 For example, if you are having a column called month and you want only (jan, feb,
march……) as values allowed to be entered for that particular column which is referred to as
domain for that particular column
Definition: Domain constraint ensures two things it makes sure that the data value entered for
that particular column matches with the data type defined by that column
It shows that the constraints (NOT NULL/UNIQUE/PRIMARY KEY/FOREIGN
KEY/CHECK/DEFAULT)

Domain constraint= data type check for the column +constraints.

Example:, we want to create a table “STUDENT” with “stu_id” field having a value
greater than 100, can create a domain and table like this.
 Create domain id_value int constraint id_test check (value>=100);
 CREATE table STUDENT (stu_id id value primary key, stu_name varchar
(30), stu_age int);

2.7 Key constraints in DBMS:

 Constraints are nothing but the rules that are to be followed while entering data into columns of the
database table.
 Constraints ensure that the data entered by the user into columns must be within the criteria specified by
the condition.
 We have 6 types of key constraints in DBMS
1. Not Null
2. Unique
3. Default
4. Check
5. Primary key
6. Foreign key

1. Not Null:
 Null represents a record where data may be missing data or data for that record may be optional.
 Once not null is applied to a particular column, you cannot enter null values to that column.
 A not null constraint cannot be applied at table level.

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Example:

Create table EMPLOYEE (id int Not null, name varchar Not null, Age int
not null, address char (25), salary decimal (18,2), primary key(id));

 In the above example we have applied not null on three columns id, name and age which
means whenever a record is entered using insert statement all three columns should contain a
value other than null.
 We have two other columns address and salary, where not null is not applied which means
that you can leave the row as empty.

2. Unique:

Some times we need to maintain only. Unique data in the column of a database table, this is
possible by using a Unique constraint.

 Unique constraint ensures that all values in a column are Unique.

Example:

Create table PERSONS (id int unique, last_name varchar (25) not null,
First name varchar (25), age int);

 In the above example, as we have used unique constraint on ID column we are not supposed
to enter the data that is already present, simply no two ID values are same.

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3. Default:

Default in SQL is used to add default data to the columns.

 When a column is specified as default with same value then all the rows will use the same
value i.e., each and every time while entering the data we need not enter that value.
 But default column value can be customised i.e., it can be over ridden when inserting a data
for that row based on the requirement.

(Row with default values “abc”)

Example:

Create table EMPLOYEE (id int Not null, last_name varchar (25) Not null,
first_name varchar (25), Age int, city varchar (25) Default Hyderabad);

 As a result, whenever you insert a new row each time you need not enter a value for this
default column that is entering a column value for a default column is optional.

4. Check:
 Check constraint ensures that the data entered by the user for that column is within the range
of values or possible values specified.

Example: Create table STUDENT (id int, name varchar (25), age int,
check(age>=18));

 As we have used a check constraint as (age>=18) which means value entered by user for this
age column while inserting the data must be less than or equal to 18.

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5. Primary Key:
 A primary key is a constraint in a table which uniquely identifies each row record in a
database table by enabling one or more column in the table as primary key.

Creating a primary key:

 A particular column is made as a primary key column by using the primary key keyword
followed by the column name.
Example:
Create table EMP (ID int, name varchar (20), age int, course varchar
(10), Primary key (ID));
 Here we have used the primary key on ID column then ID column must contain unique
values i.e., one ID cannot be used for another student.

6. Foreign Key:
 The foreign key constraint is a column or list of columns which points to the primary key
column of another table.
 The main purpose of the foreign key is only those values are allowed in the present table that
will match to the primary key column of another table.

From the above two tables, COURSE_ID is a primary key of the table STUDENT_MARKS and also
behaves as a foreign key as it is same in STUDENT_DETAILS and STUDENT_MARKS.

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Example:

(Reference Table)

Create table CUSTOMER1 (id int, name varchar (25), course varchar (10),
primary key (ID));

(Child table)

Create table CUSTOMER2 (id int, marks int, references customer1(ID));

2.8 Integrity Constraints in DBMS:

 There are two types of integrity constraints
1. Entity Integrity Constraints
2. Referential Integrity Constraints

Entity Integrity constraints:

 These constraints are used to ensure the uniqueness of each record or row in the data
table.
 Entity Integrity constraints says that no primary key can take NULL VALUE,
since using primary key we identify each tuple uniquely in a relation .

Example:

Explanation:

 In the above relation, EID is made primary key, and the primary key
can‟t take NULL values but in the 3 rd tuple, the primary key is NULL, so
it is violating Entity integrity constraints.

Referential Integrity constraints:

 The referential integrity constraint is specified between two relations or tables and used
to maintain the consistency among the tuples in two relations.
 This constraint is enforced through foreign key, when an attribute in the foreign key of
relation R1 have the same domain as primary key of relation R2, then the foreign key of
R1 is said to reference or refer to the primary key of relation R2.
 The values of the foreign key in a tuple of relation R1 can either take the values of the
primary key for some tuple in Relation R2, or can take NULL values, but can‟t be empty.

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Explanation:

 In the above, DNO of the first relation is the foreign key and DNO in the second relation is the
primary key
 DNO=22 in the foreign key of the first relation is not available in the second relation so, since
DNO=22 is not defined in the primary key of the second relation therefore Referential
integrity constraints is violated here.

2.9 Basic SQL (introduction)

 SQL stands for Structure Query Language it is used for storing and managing data in
relational database management system.
 It is standard language for relational database system. It enables a user to create, read, update
and delete relational databases and tables.
 All the RDBMS like MYSQL, Oracle, MA access and SQL Server use SQL as their standard
database language.
 SQL allows users to Query the database in a number of ways using statements like common
English.
Rules: SQL follows following rules

 SQL is not a case sensitive. Generally, keywords are represented in

UPPERCASE.
 Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a database.
 Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can use a single SQL
statement on one or multiple text line.

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2.10 SQL Process:

 When an SQL command is executing for any RDBMS, then the system figure out the best
way to carry out the request and the sql engine determines that how to interrupt the task.
 In the process, various components are included. These components can be optimization
engine, query engine, query dispatcher etc.,
 All the non-sql queries are handled by the classic query engine, but sql query engine won‟t
handle logical files.

2.11 Characteristics of SQL:

 SQL is easy to learn.
 SQL is used to access data from relational database management system.
 SQL is used to describe the data.
 SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
 SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

2.12 Simple database Schema:

 A database schema is a structure that represents the logical storage of the data in the
database.
 It represents the organization of data and provides information about the relationships
between the tables in a given database.
 A database schema is the logical representation of a database, which shows how the data is
stored logically in the entire database.
 It contains list of attributes and instruction that informs the database engine that how the
data is organized and how the elements are related to each other.
 A database schema contains schema objects that may include tables, fields, packages, views,
relationship, primary key, foreign key.
 In actual, the data is physically stored in files that may be in unstructured form, but to
retrieve it and use it, we need to keep them in a structured manner. To do this a database
schema is used. It provides knowledge about how the data is organized in a database and
how it is associated with other data.
 A database schema object includes the following:
 Consistent formatting for all data entries.
 Database objects and unique keys for all data entries.
 Tables with multiple columns, and each column contains its names and datatypes.
 The given diagram is an example of a database schema it contains three tables, their
data types. This also represents the relationships between the tables and primary keys
as well as foreign keys.

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2.13 SQL Commands:

SQL commands are categorized into three types.

1. Data Definition Language (DDL): used to create (define) a table.

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML): used to update, store and retrieve data from tables.

3. Data Control Language (DCL): used to control the access of database created using
DDL and DML.

2.14 SQL DATATYPES :

SQL data type is used to define the values that a column can contain

Every column is required to have a name and data type in the database table.

DATA TYPES OF SQL :

SQL DATA
TYPES

Binary data Numeric data Extract String data Date data type
type type numeric data type
type

1. BINARY DATATYPES:
There are three types of binary data types which are given below

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DATA TYPE DESCRIPTION

Binary It has a maximum length of 800 bytes. It contains a fixed-

length binary data
Var binary It has a maximum length of 800 bytes. It contains a
variable - length binary data
Image It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. It contains
a variable - length binary data

2. NUMERIC DATATYPE:
DATA TYPE FROM TO DESCRIPTION

Float -1.79 E 1.79 E It is used to specify a floating-point value.

+308 +308 Ex: 6.2, 2.9 etc
Real -3.40 E 3.40 E It specifies a single precision floating
+38 +38 point number.

3. EXACT NUMERIC DATA TYPE:

DATA TYPE DESCCRIPTION

Int It is used to specify an integer value

Small int It is used to specify small integer value
Bit It has the number of bits to store
Decimal It specifies a numeric value that can have a decimal number
Numeric It is used to specify a numeric value

4. DATE AND TIME DATATYPES:

DATA TYPE DESCRIPTION
Date It is used to store the year, month, and days value
Time It is used to store the hour, minute, and seconds value
Time stamp It stores the year, month, hour, minute, and the second value

5. STRING DATATYPE:
DATA TYPE DESCRIPTION
Char It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains fixed-length non-
Unicode characters.
Varchar It has a maximum length of 8000 characters. It contains variable-length
non-Unicode characters.
Text It has a maximum length of 2,147,483,647 characters. It contains variable-
length non-Unicode characters.

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2.15 TABLE DEFINITIONS: (CREATE, ALTER)

SQL TABLE: SQL table is a collection of data which is organized in terms of rows and columns.

 In DBMS, the table is known as relation and row as a tuple

 Let‟s see an example of the “EMPLOYEE “table

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_ID

1 Kristen Washington 7289201223
2 Anna Franklin 9378282882
3 Jackson California 9264783838
4 Daniel Hawaii 9638482678
 In the above table, “EMPLOYEE” is the table name, “EMP_ID, “EMP_NAME”, “CITY”,”
PHONE-NO” are the column names.
 The combination of data of multiple columns forms a row
EG: 1, “Kristen”, “Washington” and “7289201223 “are the data of one row

2.16 OPERATIONS ON TABLE:

1. Create table
2. Alter table
3. Drop table

1. Create table: SQL create table is used to create a table in the database. To define the
table, you should define the name of the table and also define its column and column‟s data
type.

SYNTAX:

Create table table_name (“column1” “datatype”,

“column2” “datatype”,

“column3” “datatype”,

….

“column N” “datatype”);

EXAMPLE:

SQL > create table employee (emp_id int, emp_name varchar (25), phone_no int,
address char (30));

 If you create the table successfully, you can verify the table by looking at the message by
the sql server. else you can use DESC command as follows

SQL > DESC employee;

FIELD TYPE NULL DEFAULT EXTRA

Emp_id Int (11) No NULL
Emp_name Varchar (25) No NULL
Phone_no No Int (11) NULL
address yes NULL Char(30)

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2. ALTER TABLE:

 The alter table command adds, delete or modifies columns in a table

 The alter table command also adds and deletes various constraints in a table
 The following SQL adds an “EMAIL” column to the “EMPLOYEE “table

SYNTAX:

ALTER table table_name add column1 datatype;

EXAMPLE:

ALTER table employee add email varchar (255);

SQL > DESC employee;

FIELD TYPE NULL DEFAULT EXTRA

Emp_id Int (11) No NULL
Emp_name Varchar (25) No NULL
Phone_no No Int (11) NULL
Address Yes NULL Char (30)
Email Varchar (255) NULL

3. DROP TABLE:

 The drop table command deletes a table in the data base

 The following example SQL deletes the table “EMPLOYEE”

SYNTAX :

DROP table table_name;

EXAMPLE:

DROP table employee;

 Dropping a table results in loss of all information stored in the table.

2.17 Different DML Operations (insert, delete, update):

 DML-Data Manipulation Language.
 Data Manipulation Commands are used to manipulate data to the database.
 Some of the data manipulation commands are
1. Insert
2. Update
3. Delete

1. Insert:
SQL insert statement is a sql query. It is used to insert a single multiple records in a table.

Syntax:

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Insert into table name values (value 1, value 2, value 3);

Let‟s take an example of table which has 3 records within it.

▪ insert into student values(„alekhya‟,501,‟hyderabad‟);

▪ insert into student values(„deepti‟,502,‟guntur‟);

▪ insert into student values(„ramya‟,503,‟nellore‟);

The following table will be as follows:

NAME ID CITY
Alekhya 501 Hyderabad
Deepti 502 Guntur
Ramya 503 Nellore

2. Update:
 The SQL Commands update are used to modify the data that is already in the database.
 SQL Update statement is used to change the data of records held by tables which rows is to
be update, it is decided by condition to specify condition, we use “WHERE” clause.
 The update statement can be written in following form:

Syntax:
Update table_name set column_name=expression where condition;

Example:

Let‟s take an example: here we are going to update an entry in the table.

Update students set name=‟rasi‟ where id=503;

After update the table is as follows:

NAME ID CITY
Alekhya 501 Hyderabad
Deepti 502 Guntur
Rasi 503 Nellore

3. Delete:
 The SQL delete statement is used to delete rows from a table.
 Generally, delete statement removes one or more records from a table.

Syntax:

delete from table_name [where condition];

Example:

Let us take a table named “student” table

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Delete from students where id=501;

Resulting table after the query:

NAME ID CITY
Deepti 502 Guntur
Rasi 503 Nellore

2.18 Basic SQL querying (select and project) using where clause:
 The following are the various SQL clauses:

SQL Clause

Group by clause having clause Order by clause

1. Group by:
 SQL group by statement is used to arrange identical data into groups.
 The group by statement is used with the SQL select statement.
 The group by statement follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and precedes
the ORDER BY clause.

Syntax:
Select column from table_name where column group by column, order by
column;

Sample table: product

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST
Item 1 Com 1 2 10 20
Item 2 Com 2 3 25 75
Item 3 Com 1 2 30 60
Item 4 Com 3 5 10 50
Item 5 Com 2 2 20 40

Example:
 Select company count (*) from product group by company;

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Output:
Com 1 2
Com 2 3
Com 3 5

2. Having clause:
 Having clause is used to specify a search condition for a group or an aggregate.

Having clause is used in a group by clause, if you are not using group by clause then you can
use having function like a where clause.

Syntax:
Select column1, column2 from table_name

Where conditions

Group by column1, column2

Having conditions

Order by column1, column2;

Example:
 select company count (*) from product

Group by company

Having count (*) > 2;

Output:
Com 3 5
Com 2 2

3. Order by clause:
The order by clause sorts the result _set in ascending or descending order.

Syntax:

Select column1, column2, from table_name

Where condition

Order by column1, column2…asc;

Sample table:

Take a student table

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Example:

Select * from student order by name;

Output:

NAME ID CITY
Alekhya 501 Hyderabad
Deepti 502 Guntur
Rasi 503 Nellore

2.19 SQL Where clause:

 A where clause in SQL is a data manipulation language statement.
 Where clauses are not mandatory clauses of SQL DML statements but it can be used to
limit the number of rows affected by a SQL DML statement or returned by query.
 Actually, it follows the records.it returns only those queries which the specific conditions.

Syntax:
Select column1, column2, …………column from table_name where[condition];

 Where clause uses same conditional selection.

= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to

2.20 Arithmetic and logical operations:

SQL operators:
 SQL statements generally contain some reserved words or characters that are used to
perform operations such as arithmetic and logical operations etc. Their reserved words are
known as operators.

SQL arithmetic operator:

 We can use various arithmetic operators on the data stored in tables.
 Arithmetic operators are:

+ Addition
- Subtraction
/ Division
* Multiplication

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% modulus

1. Addition (+):
It is used to perform addition operation on data items.

Sample table:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME SALARY

1 Alex 25000
2 John 55000
3 Daniel 52000
4 Sam 12312

 select emp id, emp_name, salary, salary+100 as “salary +100” from

addition;

Output:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME SALARY SALARY+100
1 Alex 25000 25100
2 John 55000 55100
3 Daniel 52000 52100
4 Sam 12312 12412
 Here we have done addition of 100 to each emp‟s salary.

2. Subtraction (-):
 It is used to perform subtraction on the data items.

Example:
Select emp_id, emp_name, salary, salary-100 as “salary-100” from
subtraction;
EMP_ID EMP_NAME SALARY SALARY-100
1 Alex 25000 24900
2 John 55000 54900
3 Daniel 52000 51900
4 Sam 90000 89900
Here we have done subtraction of 100 for each emp‟s salary.

3. Division (/):
 The division function is used to integer division (x is divided by y).an integer value is
returned.

Example:
 Select emp_id, emp_name, salary, salary/100 as “salary/100” from
division;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME SALARY Salary/100

1 Alex 25000 250
2 John 55000 550
3 Daniel 52000 520
4 Sam 90000 900

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4. Multiplication (*):
 It is used to perform multiplication of data items.
 Select emp_id, emp_name, salary, salary*100 as “salary*100” from
multiplication;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME SALARY SALARY*100

1 Alex 25000 2,500,000
2 John 55000 5,500,000
3 Daniel 52000 5,200,000
4 Sam 90000 9,000,000
 Here we have done multiplication of 100 to each emp‟s salary.

5. Modulus (%):
 It is used to get remainder when one data is divided by another.
 Select emp_id, emp_name, salary, salary%25000 as “salary%25000” from
modulus;

Output:
EMP_ID EMP_NAME SALARY SALARY%25000
1 Alex 25000 0
2 John 55000 5000
3 Daniel 52000 2000
4 Sam 90000 15000
 Here we have done modulus operation to each emp‟s salary.

2.21 Logical operations:

 Logical operations allow you to test for the truth of a condition.
 The following table illustrates the SQL logical operator.
OPERATOR MEANING
ALL Returns true if all comparisons are true
AND Returns true if both expressions are true
ANY Returns true if any one of the comparisons is
true
BETWEEN Return true if the operand is within a range
IN Return true if the operand is equal to one of
the values in a list
EXISTS Return true if the sub query contains any rows
1. AND:
The AND operator allows you to construct multiple condition in the WHERE clause of an SQL
statement such as select.

 The following example finds all employees where salaries are greater than the 5000 and
less than 7000.
 Select first_name, last_name, salary from employees where
salary>5000 AND salary<7000 order by salary;

Output:
FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME SALARY
John Wesley 6000
Eden Daniel 6000
Luis Popp 6900
Shanta Suji 6500

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2. ALL:
The ALL operator compares a value to all values in another value set.

 The following example finds all employees whose salaries are greater than all salaries
of employees.
EX:
select first_name, last_name, salary from employees where salary>=ALL
(select salary from employees where department_id =8) order by salary
DESC;
Output:
FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME SALARY
Steven King 24000
John Russel 17000
Neena Kochhar 14000

3. ANY:
The ANY operator compares a value to any value in a set ascending to condition.
The following example statement finds all employees whose salaries are greater than the average
salary of every department.
EX:
select first_name, last_name, salary from employees where salary >ANY
(select avg (salary) from employees‟ group by department_id) order by
first_name, last_name;

Output:
FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME SALARY
Alexander Hunold 9000.00
Charles Johnson 6200.00
David Austin 4800.00
Eden Flip 9000.00

4. Between:
 The between operator searches for values that are within a set of values.
 For example, the following statement finds all employees where salaries are between
9000 and 12000.

EX:

select first_name, last_name, salary from employees where salary

between 9000 AND 12000 order by salary;

Output:
FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME SALARY
Alexander Hunold 9000.00
Den Richards 10000.00
Nancy Prince 12000.00

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5. IN:
 The IN operator compares a value to list of specified values. The IN operator return true if
compared value matches at least one value in the list.
 The following statement finds all employees who work in department _id 8 or 9.

EX:

select first_name, last_name, department_id from employees where

department_id IN (8,9) order by department_id;

Output:
FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME DEPARTMENT_ID
John Russel 8
Jack Livingstone 8
Steven King 9
Neena Kochhar 9

6. Exists:
 The EXISTS operator tests if a sub query contains any rows.
 For example, the following statement finds all employees who have dependents.
 select first_name, last_name from employees where EXISTS (select 1
from dependent d where d.employee_id=e.employee_id);

FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME
Steven King
Neena Kochhar
Alexander Hunold

2 . 2 2 SQL FUNCTIONS (Date & Time, Numeric, Aggregate, String

conversions):

DATE & TIME FUNCTIONS:

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Some important date and time functions are below:

Sysdate: It generates the system

date. Ex: Select sysdate from

dual;

Output: 05-DEC-2021.

ADD_MONTHS: This function returns a date after adding data with specified no of months.

EX: Select ADD_MONTHS („2017-02-29‟,1) from dual;

Output: 31-MAR-17.

Select add_months(sysdate,3) from dual;

Output: 05-MAR-22.

CURRENT_DATE: This function displays the current date.

Ex: Select CURRENT_DATE from dual;

Output: 05-DEC-2021.

NEXT_DAY: This function represents both day and date and returns the day of the next given day.

EX: Select NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,‟MONDAY‟) from dual;

Output: 07-DEC-21.

LAST_DAY: This function returns a day corresponding last day of months.

EX: Select LAST_DAY (sysdate) from dual;

Output: 31-DEC-21.

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MONTHS_BETWEEN: It is used to find no of months between two given dates.

EX: Select MONTHS_BETWEEN(‟16-APRIL-2021‟,‟16-AUGUST-2021) from dual;

Output: -4.

ROUND: It gives the nearest value or round off value for the argument pass. (or) It returns a date
rounded to a specific unit of measure.

EX: Select ROUND(‟26-NOV-21‟,‟YYYY‟) from dual;

Output: 01-JAN-22.

TRUNC: This function returns the date with the time(co-efficient) portion of the date truncated to
the unit specified.

EX: Select TRUNC (sysdate, ‟MM‟) from dual;

Output: 01-DEC-21.

TO_DATE: This function converts date which is in the character string to a date value.

EX: Select TO_DATE (‟01 jan 2017‟,‟DD MM YYYY‟) from dual;

Output: 01-JAN-17.

TO_CHAR: This function converts DATE or an INTERVAL value to a character string in a

specified format.

EX: Select TO_CHAR (sysdate,‟DD MM YYYY‟) from dual;

Output: 05 12 2021.

LEAST: This function displays the oldest date present in the argument list.

EX: Select LEAST(‟01-march-2021‟,‟16-feb-2021‟,‟28-dec-2021‟) from dual;

Output: 01-MAR-21.

GREATEST: This function displays the latest date present in the argument list.

EX: Select GREATEST (‟01-march-2021‟,‟16-feb-2021‟,‟28-dec-2021‟) from dual;

Output: 28-DEC-21.

2.23 Aggregate Functions:

Aggregate Functions take a collection of values as input and returns a single value.

1. Count ()

2. Sum ()

3. Avg ()

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4. Max ()

5. Min ()

1. Count (): This function returns number of rows returned by a query.

Syntax: Select count(column_name)

From table_name

Where condition);

Example: Select count (distinct manager_id) from employees;

2. Sum (): It will add/ sum all the column values in the query.

Syntax: Select sum (column_name)

From table_name

Where condition);

Example: Select sum(salaries) from employees;

3. Avg (): Avg function used to calculate average values of the set of rows.

Syntax: Select avg (column_name)

From table_name

Where condition);

Example: Select avg(salary) from employees;

4. Max (): This function is used to find maximum value from the set of values.

Syntax: Select max (column_name)

From table_name

Where condition);

Example: Select max (salary) from employees;

5. Min (): This function is used to find minimum value from the set of values.

Syntax: Select min (column_name)

From table_name

Where condition);

Example: Select min (salary) from employees;

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2.24 SQL NUMERIC FUNCTIONS:

Numeric functions are used to perform operations on numbers and return numbers.

Following are some of the Numeric functions

1. ABS (): It returns the absolute value of a number.

EX: select ABS (-243.5) from dual;

OUTPUT: 243.5

2. ACOS (): It returns the cosine of a number.

EX: select ACOS (0.25) from
dual;
OUTPUT: 1.318116071652818

3. ASIN (): It returns the arc sine of a number.

EX: select ASIN (0.25) from dual;
OUTPUT: 0.253680255142

4. CEIL (): It returns the smallest integer value that is a greater than or equal to a
number. EX: select CEIL (25.77) from dual;
OUTPUT: 26

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5. FLOOR (): It returns the largest integer value that is a less than or equal to a number.
EX: select FLOOR (25.75) from dual;

OUTPUT: 25
6. TRUNCATE (): This does not work for SQL server. It returns the truncated to 2 places right of
the decimal point.
EX: select TRUNCATE (7.53635, 2) from dual;

OUTPUT: 7.53
7. MOD (): It returns the remainder when two numbers are divided.
EX: select MOD (55,2) from dual;
OUTPUT: 1.
8. ROUND (): This function rounds the given value to given number of digits of precision.
EX: select ROUND (14.5262,2) from dual;
OUTPUT: 14.53.
9. POWER (): This function gives the value of m raised to the power of
n. EX: select POWER (4,9) from dual;
OUTPUT: 262144.
10. SQRT (): This function gives the square root of the given value n.
EX: Select SQRT (576) from dual;
OUTPUT: 24.
11. LEAST (): This function returns least integer from given set of integers.

EX: select LEAST (1,9,2,4,6,8,22) from dual;

OUTPUT: 1.

12. GREATEST (): This function returns greatest integer from given set of integers.

EX: select GREATEST (1,9,2,4,6,8,22) from dual;

OUTPUT: 22

2.25 STRING CONVERSION FUNCTIONS OF SQL:

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String Functions are used to perform an operation on input string and return
the output string. Following are the string functions

1. CONCAT (): This function is used to add two words (or) strings.

EX: select „database‟ ||‟ „|| „management system‟ From dual;

OUTPUT: „database management system‟

2. INSTR (): This function is used to find the occurrence of an

alphabet. EX: instr („database system‟,‟ a‟) from

dual; OUTPUT: 2 (the first occurrence of „a‟)

3. LOWER (): This function is used to convert the given string into

lowercase. EX: select lower („DATABASE‟) from dual;

OUTPUT: database

4. UPPER (): This function is used to convert the lowercase string into

uppercase. EX: select upper („database „) from dual;

OUTPUT: DATABASE

5. LPAD (): This function is used to make the given string of the given size by adding the given

symbol. EX: > lpad („system „, 8, „0‟) from dual;

OUTPUT: 00system

6. RPAD (): This function is used to make the given string as long as the given size by adding the
given symbol on the right.

EX: rpad („system „,8, „0„) from dual;

OUTPUT: system00

7. LTRIM (): This function is used to cut the given substring from the original string.

EX: ltrim („database „, „data „) from dual;

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OUTPUT: base

8. RTRIM (): This function is used to cut the given substring from the original string.

EX: rtrim („database „, „base „) from dual;

OUTPUT: data.

9. INITCAP (): This function returns the string with first letter of each word starts with uppercase.

EX: Select INITCAP („data base management system‟) from dual;

OUTPUT: Data Base Management System.

10. LENGTH (): Tis function returns the length of the given string.

EX: select LENGTH („SQ LANGUAGE‟) from dual;

OUTPUT: 11.

11. SUBSTR (): This function returns a portion of a string beginning at the character

position. EX: select SUBSTR („MY WORLD IS AMAZING‟,12,3) from dual;

OUTPUT: AM.

12. TRANSLATE (): This function returns a string after replacing some set of characters into

another set. EX: select TRANSLATE („Delhi is the capital of India‟,‟i‟,‟a‟) from

dual; OUTPUT: Delha as the capatal andaa.

Review Questions:

1. Why NULL values are needed in databases?

2. Discuss GROUPBY and HAVING clauses with an example. And also give the
constraints related to their usage.
3. Consider the SAILOR DATABASE
Sailors (Sid: string, sname: string, rating: integer, age: real)
Boats (bid: integer, bname: string, colour: string)
Reserves (Sid: integer, bid: integer, day: date)
Based on the above schema, write the corresponding SQL queries for the following?
Find the colours of boats reserved by Lubber.
Find the names of sailors who have reserved at least one boat.
Find the names of sailors who have reserved a red or green boat.
Find the names of the sailors who have reserved both a red boat and a green boat.

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Find names of sailors who have reserved all boats.

4. Write about the usability of „group by‟ and „having‟ clauses In SQL.
5. How would you use the operators IN, EXISTS, UNIQUE, ANY and ALL in writing
nested queries? Why are they useful? Explain with an example.
6. Explain commands with respect to SQL: (i) Rename (ii) Alter (iii) View
7. Explain two aggregate functions of SQL.
8. Explain the following SQL constructs with examples:
(1) order by (2) group by and having (3) as select (4) schema

9. Write SQL Queries for following set of tables:

EMPLOYEE (EmpNo, Name, DoB, Address, Gender, Salary, DNumber)
DEPARTMENT (DNumber, Dname, ManagerEmpNo,
ManagerStartDate). Display the Age of „male‟ employees.
Display all employees in Department named „Marketing‟.
Display the name of highest salary paid „female‟ employee.
Which employee is oldest manger in company?
Display the name of department of the employee „SMITH.
10. Describe creating and modifying relations using SQL. Give examples for each.
11. Explain about integrity constraints over relations.
12. Consider the following insurance database, where the primary keys are underlined.
Construct the following SQL queries for this relational database. person (driver-id#, name,
address)
car (license, model, year)
accident (report-number, date, location)
owns (driver-id#, license)
participated (driver-id, car, report-number, damage-amount)
a. Find the total number of people who owned cars that were involved in accidents in
1989.
b. Find the number of accidents in which the cars belonging to “John Smith” were
involved.
c. Add a new accident to the database; assume any values for required attributes.
d. Delete the Mazda belonging to “John Smith”.
e. Update the damage amount for the car with license number “AABB2000” in
the accident with report number “AR2197” to $3000.
13. List the SQL functions for string conversions.
14. Write SQL statements for following:
Student (Enrno, name, courseId, emailId, cellno)
Course (courseId, course_nm, duration)

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i. Add a column city in student table.

ii. Find out list of students who have enrolled in “computer” course.
iii. List name of all courses with their duration.
iv. List name of all students start with „a‟.
v. List email Id and cell no of all mechanical engineering students.
15. How to define a domain constraint? Give an example.
16. What is an integrity constraint? Explain its enforcement by DBMS with illustrative
17. List the data types supported by SQL.
18. Demonstrate the use of DISTINCT keyword in SQL select statement.
19. Consider the following database schema to write nested queries in SQL
Supplier (id, name, city)
Parts (pno, pname, pdescription)
Supply (id, pno, cost)
i. Find the names of the parts supplied by “RamRaj”
ii. Find the names of the suppliers who supply “Nuts”
iii. Find the cost of bolts being supplied by Nagpur suppliers.

References:

 Raghurama Krishnan, Johannes Gehrke, Database Management Systems, 3rd

Edition, Tata McGraw Hill.
 C.J. Date, Introduction to Database Systems, Pearson Education.
 Elmasri Navrate, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Pearson Education.

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