Electronics Design Workshop

Chapter 1 Familiarizing with electronic

components

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Electronics Design Workshop

1.1 Introduction

Familiarizing oneself with electronic components is an important step in

understanding and working with electronic circuits. Some common electronic
components include:
• Resistor: A component that resists the flow of electrical current, used to limit
current and adjust voltage levels in a circuit.
• Capacitor: A component that stores electrical energy, used to smooth out
voltage fluctuations and filter signals in a circuit.
• Inductor: A component that stores energy in a magnetic field, used to filter
signals and smooth out voltage fluctuations in a circuit.
• Diode: A component that allows current to flow in only one direction, used to
protect circuits from voltage spikes and rectify AC to DC.
• Transistor: A component that can be used to amplify signals or switch current
on and off in a circuit, used to control the flow of current in a circuit.
• Integrated Circuit (IC): A component that contains multiple transistors, diodes,
and other components on a single chip, used to perform complex functions in
a circuit such as amplification, processing and memory.
• LED: A component that emits light when current flows through it, used as
indicator light and lighting.
• OLED: A component that emits light when current flows through it, used as
indicator light and lighting, and have higher contrast ratio than LED.
• Potentiometer: A component that can be used to adjust the resistance in a
circuit, used to control voltage and current levels in a circuit.
• Switch: A component that can be used to open or close a circuit, used to control
the flow of current in a circuit.
• Relay: An electrically operated switch, used to control the flow of current in a
circuit.
• Oscillator: A component that generates a continuous waveform, used in radios
and other electronic devices.

These are just a few examples of the many electronic components that are used in
electronic circuits. Familiarizing oneself with the properties and functions of these
components is an important step in understanding and working with electronic
circuits.

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Electronics Design Workshop

1.1.1 Resistor

A resistor is a passive electronic component that

resists the flow of electrical current. It is used to limit
current and adjust voltage levels in a circuit. The
resistance value is measured in ohms (Ω).
Resistor can be classified into different types based
on the material used, resistance value, tolerance, and
power rating.
• Carbon film resistor: These are made by coating a ceramic rod with carbon film,
and have a tolerance of around 5%.
• Metal film resistor: These are made by coating a ceramic rod with metal film,
and have a tolerance of around 1%.
• Wirewound resistor: These are made by winding a wire, such as nickel-
chromium, around a ceramic rod, and have a tolerance of around 2%.
• Composition resistor: These are made by mixing carbon and other materials
together, and have a tolerance of around 5%.
• Metal oxide film resistor: These are made by coating a ceramic rod with metal
oxide film, and have a tolerance of around 5%.
• Thin film resistor: These are made by depositing a thin film of material, such as
tantalum nitride, on a substrate, and have a tolerance of around 1%.
• Surface-mount resistor: These are smaller in size and have a tolerance of around
1%.

Carbon Resistor. Wire wound Resistor

The color coding of a resistor is a method used to indicate the resistance value of the
resistor. It consists of four color bands which are usually printed on the body of the
resistor. The first two bands indicate the first and second digits of the resistance value,
the third band indicates the multiplier, and the fourth band indicates the tolerance of
the resistor.
The first two bands are used to indicate the first two digits of the resistance value. The
first band represents the first digit and the second band represents the second digit.
The color codes used for the first two bands are:

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Color Code Color Code

Black 0 Green 5
Brown 1 Blue 6
Red 2 Violet 7
Orange 3 Gray 8
Yellow 4 White 9

The third band is used to indicate the multiplier, which is the number of zeros that
follow the first two digits. The color codes used for the third band are:

Color Code Color Code

Black x1 Green x100,000
Brown x10 Blue x1,000,000
Red x100 Violet x10,000,000
Orange x1,000 Gray x100,000,000
Yellow x10,000 White x1,000,000,000

The fourth band is used to indicate the tolerance of the resistor, which is the allowable
range of resistance values. The color codes used for the fourth band are:
Color Code Color Code
Brown 1% Violet 0.1%
Red 2% Gray 0.05%
Green 0.5% Gold 5%
Blue 0.25% Silver 10%

For example, a resistor with a color code of brown, black, red, and gold would have a
resistance value of 1 x 100 Ω + 0 x 10 Ω + 2 x 1 Ω = 120 Ω with a tolerance of 5%.
1.1.2 Capacitor

A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores electrical energy in an

electric field. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic circuits to store and release
energy, filter signals, and smooth out voltage variations.

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There are several types of capacitors, including ceramic, tantalum, aluminum

electrolytic, and film capacitors. Each type has its own set of characteristics and is used
in different applications.

Some examples of Capacitors

On the basis of polarity, the capacitor are divided into two categories, such as
polarised capacitor and non-polarised capacitor.
Polarized capacitors and non-polarized capacitors are two types of capacitors that
differ in their construction and the way they are used in circuits.
A polarized capacitor is a capacitor that has a positive and a negative electrode and
can only be connected to a circuit in one direction. This means that the positive
electrode must be connected to the positive voltage, and the negative electrode must
be connected to the negative voltage. Examples of polarized capacitors include
tantalum capacitors and aluminum electrolytic capacitors.
A non-polarized capacitor, on the other hand, does not have a positive and a
negative electrode and can be connected to a circuit in any direction. This means that
the positive electrode can be connected to the negative voltage, and the negative
electrode can be connected to the positive voltage. Examples of non-polarized
capacitors include ceramic capacitors, film capacitors and plastic film capacitor.
Polarized capacitors are typically used in circuits where a specific polarity is required,
such as in DC power supply circuits or in circuits that use polarized devices such as
diodes or transistors. Non-polarized capacitors are typically used in circuits where the
polarity is not important, such as in AC power supply circuits or in circuits that use
non-polarized devices such as resistors or inductors.
The capacitors can be divided into two categories, i.e. Fixed Capacitor and Varible
Capacitor.
A fixed capacitor is a capacitor that has a fixed capacitance value and cannot be
adjusted. It is also known as a non-variable capacitor. These types of capacitors are
typically used in circuits where the capacitance value is known and does not need to
be adjusted.

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A variable capacitor, on the other hand, is a capacitor that can have its capacitance
value adjusted. This is achieved by a mechanical or electronic mechanism that allows
for the adjustment of the distance between the plates, or the area of the plates. These
types of capacitors are typically used in circuits where the capacitance value needs to
be adjusted for optimal performance, such as in radio tuning circuits, or in power
supply circuits where the capacitance value needs to be adjusted to match the load.
Variable capacitors can be divided into two types: mechanical variable capacitor and
electronic variable capacitor. Mechanical variable capacitor are typically used in radio
tuning circuit, where a person can physically adjust the capacitor value. Electronic
variable capacitor is typically used in the application where the capacitance value need
to be adjusted by a circuit.

Parallel plat Capacotor Paper Capacitor Variable Capacitor

There are several types of capacitors, each with their own unique characteristics and
applications. Some common types of capacitors include:
• Ceramic capacitors: These capacitors are made from ceramic material and
have small capacitance values. They are widely used in coupling, decoupling,
and filtering applications.
• Tantalum capacitors: These capacitors are made from tantalum and have
relatively large capacitance values. They are used in applications that require
high stability and low leakage, such as in memory backup circuits.
• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors: These capacitors are made from aluminum
and have large capacitance values. They are used in power supply circuits and
other applications that require high capacitance values, such as in power
amplifiers.
• Film capacitors: These capacitors are made from a thin dielectric film and have
high stability and low leakage. They are used in coupling, decoupling, and
filtering applications, such as in audio and video equipment.
• Plastic Film Capacitor : These capacitors are made from plastic material and
have large capacitance values. They are used in applications that require high
stability and low leakage, such as in power supply circuits.

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• Paper capacitors: These capacitors are made from paper impregnated with oil
or wax and have moderate capacitance values. They are used in applications
that require stability and low leakage, such as in vintage audio equipment.
• Supercapacitor: These capacitors are also known as ultra-capacitor, has
extremely high capacitance values, up to several farads. They are used for
energy storage, such as in electric vehicles and backup power systems
Each type of capacitor has its own specific advantages and disadvantages, so the best
choice depends on the application and the desired performance characteristics.
1.1.3 Inductor

An inductor, also known as a reactor or coil, is a passive electronic component that

stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. The amount
of energy stored in the magnetic field is directly proportional to the current flowing
through the inductor and the time for which the current flows.
Inductors are typically made of a coil of wire, such as copper or aluminum, wrapped
around a core made of a magnetic material such as iron or ferrite. The core can be in
the form of a toroid, a cylinder, or a flat sheet.
Inductors are used in a variety of electrical circuits, including power supplies, filters,
and transformers. They are used to oppose changes in current, which is known as
inductive reactance. This property is used in filters to block high-frequency signals
while allowing low-frequency signals to pass through, and in power supplies to smooth
out the ripple of DC voltage. Inductors are also used in transformers to transfer
electrical energy from one circuit to another.
Types of Inductor: There are several types of inductors, each with their own unique
characteristics and applications:
1. Air-core inductors: These inductors are made by winding a wire around a non-
magnetic core, such as a plastic or ceramic form. They have the lowest possible
core loss and the highest possible Q factor, making them suitable for high-
frequency applications.
2. Iron-core inductors: These inductors are made by winding a wire around an
iron core. They have a higher core loss and a lower Q factor than air-core
inductors, but they are able to handle higher current levels. They are used in
power supplies and other low-frequency applications.
3. Ferrite-core inductors: These inductors are made by winding a wire around a
ferrite core. They have a higher Q factor than iron-core inductors, and they are
able to handle higher frequency signals. They are commonly used in radio
frequency applications and in switching power supplies.
4. Toroidal inductors: These inductors are made by winding a wire around a
toroidal shaped core. They have a high Q factor and low leakage inductance.
They are commonly used in power supplies, filters, and transformers.

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5. Multi-layer ceramic inductors: These inductors are made by stacking layers of

ceramic material and winding a wire through the layers. They are small in size
and have a high Q factor and high self-resonant frequency. They are commonly
used in portable electronic devices.
6. Planar inductors: These inductors are made by etching a spiral pattern of metal
on a flat substrate. They are small in size and have a high Q factor and high self-
resonant frequency. They are commonly used in portable electronic devices.
7. Variable inductors: These inductors have a core or a winding that can be
adjusted to change the inductance. They are commonly used in tuning circuits
and in applications where a variable inductance is needed.

The Fig. is taken From https://engineeringlearn.com/what-is-inductor-types-of-

inductor-uses-function-symbol-complete-details/
1.1.4 Diode

A diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one direction. It
is made up of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor, which are joined
together to form a p-n junction.

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When a voltage is applied to the p-n junction in the forward direction, the p-type
semiconductor is positively charged and the n-type semiconductor is negatively
charged, creating a depletion region that is devoid of mobile charge carriers. This
depletion region acts as a barrier, allowing current to flow in only one direction.

The Figure is taken from https://www.hackatronic.com/types-of-diode-and-symbol-of-diode/

When a voltage is applied to the p-n junction in the reverse direction, the depletion
region widens, making it difficult for current to flow. This is known as reverse bias.
Diodes are used in a variety of applications such as rectifiers, voltage regulators, signal
processing, and power control. They can also be used in protection circuits, to prevent
damage to electronic devices from voltage spikes.
There are different types of diodes like:
1. Normal diodes (P-N junction diodes)
2. Schottky diodes
3. Zener diodes
4. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
5. LASCR (Laser Diode)
6. photo diodes
7. varactor diodes
8. tunnel diodes
9. pin diodes
10. Gunn diodes
Each one of them has its own unique characteristics and applications.

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The Figures are copied from https://elextutorials.com/2022/08/29/various-types-of-transistors/

1.1.5 Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device that can be used to amplify or switch

electronic signals. It is made up of a semiconductor material, usually silicon, with
impurities added to create regions of positive (p-type) and negative (n-type) charge.
There are two main types of transistors, bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and field-
effect transistors (FET).
BJT has three layers of semiconductor material, called the emitter, base and collector.
The emitter-base junction is forward-biased and the base-collector junction is reverse-
biased. When a current flows into the base terminal, it controls the flow of current
between the emitter and collector terminals.
FET has three terminals, the source, gate and drain. The source and drain terminals are
made of n-type or p-type semiconductor material and the gate terminal is made of a
thin insulating material. When a voltage is applied to the gate terminal, it controls the
flow of current between the source and drain terminals.
Transistors are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including amplifiers,
oscillators, digital logic gates, and microprocessors. They are also used in switching
power supplies, DC-DC converters, and other power electronic applications.
There are different types of transistors like:
1. NPN transistor
2. PNP transistor
3. JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
4. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

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5. IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor)

6. HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor)
7. Tunnel FET
8. UJT (Uni-Junction Transistor)
9. JUGFET (Junction Gate Field Effect Transistor)
Each one of them has its own unique characteristics and applications.
1.1.6 Integrated Circuit (IC)

An integrated circuit (IC) is a small semiconductor device that contains a large number
of transistors, diodes, resistors, and other electronic components. These components
are interconnected to perform a specific function, such as amplification, signal
processing, or digital logic. ICs are also known as microchips or simply chips.
ICs can be classified into two main categories: digital and analog.
Digital ICs perform logical operations, such as AND, OR, NOT, and NAND, and are used
in digital logic circuits, such as computer processors, memory devices, and digital
signal processors (DSPs). Examples of digital ICs include microprocessors, memory
chips, and digital signal processors.
Analog ICs are used to process analog signals, such as sound, light, or temperature,
and are used in applications such as audio equipment, power supplies, and medical
instrumentation. Examples of analog ICs include operational amplifiers (op-amps),
comparators, and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
ICs are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including computers, cell phones,
televisions, and automobiles. They are also used in industrial control systems, medical
equipment, and aerospace applications.
ICs are made using a process called photolithography, in which a patterned mask is
used to transfer a circuit design onto a semiconductor wafer. The wafer is then etched
to remove unwanted material, and the remaining material is used to create the
components of the IC. The process is highly automated and allows for the production
of ICs with very small dimensions and high levels of integration.
1.1.7 LED

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a type of semiconductor device that emits light when
a current is passed through it. LEDs are made from a semiconductor material, typically
a form of silicon, and are available in a wide range of colors, including red, green, blue,
and white.
LEDs have several advantages over traditional incandescent light bulbs, including:
8. High efficiency: LEDs convert a higher percentage of electrical energy into
light, making them more energy-efficient than incandescent bulbs.
9. Long life: LEDs have a much longer lifespan than incandescent bulbs, typically
lasting for tens of thousands of hours.

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10. Low heat: LEDs produce very little heat compared to incandescent bulbs,
making them safer to use and reducing the risk of fire.
11. Durability: LEDs are solid-state devices that are not easily damaged and can
withstand vibration, shock and other environmental stresses.
12. Variety of colors and brightness: LEDs are available in a wide range of colors
and brightness levels, which allow them to be used in a variety of applications,
such as lighting, displays, and signaling.
13. Low voltage & current: LED's require low voltage and current to operate, so
they can be powered by batteries and solar cells.

Figure is copied for https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode

Due to these advantages, LED technology is widely used for lighting and other
applications such as in automotive, traffic signals, electronic devices, and home
appliances.
LEDs are also used in displays such as in mobile phones, televisions and computer
monitors. They are also used in digital signage and lighting design.
1.1.8 OLED

An Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) is a type of LED that emits light when a
current is passed through it. OLEDs are made from a thin layer of organic material,
typically made from small molecules or polymers, that is sandwiched between two
electrodes.
OLEDs have several advantages over traditional LEDs and other lighting technologies,
including:

• High efficiency: OLEDs convert a higher percentage of electrical energy into

light, making them more energy-efficient than traditional LEDs.

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• High color quality: OLEDs can produce a wide range of colors, including deep
blacks, and have a high color gamut, which makes them ideal for displays and
lighting applications.
• Thin and flexible: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable
for use in a wide range of applications such as in mobile phones, televisions,
computer monitors, and other portable devices.
• Fast response time: OLEDs have a very fast response time, making them
suitable for use in high-speed applications such as in gaming, virtual reality, and
augmented reality.
• Wide viewing angle: OLEDs can be viewed from a wide angle, making them
suitable for use in large displays and televisions.
• Low power consumption: OLEDs consume less power than traditional LEDs and
LCDs, which makes them suitable for use in portable devices and for energy-
efficient lighting applications.

OLEDs are widely used in displays such as in smartphones, laptops, and televisions.
They are also used in automotive displays and lighting design. Because of the OLED's
flexibility, they are also used in flexible displays and wearables.
While OLEDs have many advantages, they are relatively new technology, and their
long-term reliability and lifespan are still being studied.
1.1.9 Potentiometer

A potentiometer, also known as a "pot," is a type of variable resistor that is used to

adjust the resistance in a circuit. Potentiometers have three terminals: a common
terminal, a variable terminal (or wiper), and another terminal. The variable terminal can
be moved along a resistive element, typically a carbon track or a conductive plastic
strip, to adjust the resistance between the common terminal and the other terminal.
Potentiometers can be used for a variety of applications, such as:
• Volume control: Potentiometers are commonly used to control the volume in
audio equipment, such as amplifiers and speakers.
• Brightness control: Potentiometers are used to adjust the brightness of lights,
displays, and other electronic devices.
• Position sensing: Potentiometers can be used to measure the position of
mechanical parts, such as in robotics and control systems.
• Temperature control: Potentiometers can be used to control the temperature
in heating and cooling systems.
Potentiometers are available in different types, including:

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• Linear Potentiometers: These have a linear relationship between the position

of the wiper and the resistance.
• Logarithmic Potentiometers: These have a logarithmic relationship between
the position of the wiper and the resistance.
• Multi-turn Potentiometers: These have a circular or rotary movement of the
wiper which enables precision adjustments.
• Digital Potentiometers: These are electronic devices that can be controlled
and programmed by a microcontroller or a computer to adjust the resistance.

The figure is copied from https://components101.com/articles/different-types-of-potentiometers-and-

how-to-use-them

Potentiometer are widely used in various electronic projects, like in audio equipment,
robotics, temperature control systems, and many more. They are also used in
conjunction with other electronic components like op-amps, microcontrollers,
transistors, etc to create more complex and sophisticated systems.
1.1.10 Switches

Switches in electronic circuits are used to control the flow of electrical current. They
can be used to turn a device on or off, or to route electrical signals to different parts
of a circuit. There are many different types of switches, each with their own specific
characteristics and applications. Some common types of switches include:

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• Mechanical switches: These are the most basic type of switch and are typically
operated by hand. Examples include toggle switches, push-button switches, and
rocker switches.
• Solid-state switches: These are electronic switches that use semiconductor
materials to control the flow of current. Examples include transistors and
thyristors.
• Relays: These are electronic switches that use an electromagnet to control the
flow of current. They can be used to switch high-power circuits and are often
used in automotive and industrial applications.
• Optocouplers: These are electronic switches that use light to isolate the input
and output of a circuit. They are used to protect sensitive electronic devices
from voltage spikes and other forms of electrical noise.
• Software-controlled switches: These are switches that are controlled by a
microcontroller or other digital device. They are often used in programmable
electronic devices such as smartphones, computers, and smart home devices.
The specific type of switch used in a circuit will depend on the application and the
requirements of the circuit. Factors that may influence the selection of a switch include
the voltage and current levels, the switching speed, and the environmental conditions.
1.1.11 Relay

A relay is an electronic switch that uses an electromagnet to control the flow of

electrical current. It typically consists of a coil of wire, an armature, and a set of
contacts. When an electric current flows through the coil, it generates a magnetic field
that attracts the armature, causing it to move and close the contacts. This completes
the circuit and allows electrical current to flow through it.
Relays are used in a variety of electronic circuits, particularly in industrial and
automotive applications. They are often used to switch high-power circuits, such as
those used to control lights, motors, and other devices. They can also be used to isolate
different parts of a circuit, protect sensitive electronic devices from voltage spikes and
other forms of electrical noise, and to provide a switching function in programmable
electronic devices.
Relays have several advantages over other types of switches. They can handle higher
voltage and current levels than mechanical switches and transistors, they can switch
circuits quickly and reliably, and they are less likely to wear out or fail over time.
Additionally, relays can be controlled remotely and can be used to create time-delayed
switching functions.
However, relays also have some disadvantages, such as the fact that they require a
continuous power supply to maintain the magnetic field and to activate the switch and
they are relatively larger in size and more expensive than other types of switch.

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The specific type of relay used in a circuit will depend on the application and the
requirements of the circuit, such as the voltage and current levels, the switching speed,
and the environmental conditions.

The Figure is copied from https://www.quisure.com/blog/faq/what-are-the-

common-types-of-relays

There are several types of relays, each with their own specific characteristics and
applications. Some common types include:
• Electromechanical relays: These are the most basic type of relay and consist
of an electromagnet, a set of contacts, and a spring-loaded armature. They can
be used to switch high-power circuits and are often used in automotive and
industrial applications.
• Solid-state relays (SSRs): These relays use semiconductor materials to control
the flow of current, instead of an electromechanical mechanism. They are more
reliable and have longer life compared to electromechanical relays. They can
also switch on and off faster, and handle higher frequencies.
• Reed relays: These relays use a set of thin metal reeds as the switch contacts.
They are small, fast, and have low power consumption. They are often used in
telecommunications, test equipment and other applications where small size
and low power consumption are important.
• Mercury-wetted relays: These relays use a small amount of liquid mercury to
make the electrical contact. They are used in high-voltage and high-current
applications and are known for their high electrical conductivity and long life.
• Relay-driver ICs: These are integrated circuits (ICs) that are specifically
designed to drive and control relays. They can be used to control multiple relays
with a single IC and also provide protection against overcurrent and voltage
spikes.

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• Latching relays: These relays retain the switch position after the coil current is
removed and are useful in applications that require power to be conserved or
switched on and off infrequently.

The specific type of relay used in a circuit will depend on the application and the
requirements of the circuit, such as the voltage and current levels, the switching speed,
and the environmental conditions.
1.1.12 Oscillator

An oscillator is a circuit that generates a repetitive

electrical signal, such as a sine wave, a square wave, or
a triangle wave. The signal can be used as a source of
clock signals for digital circuits, as a carrier wave for
modulating a radio signal, or as a timing reference for
other electronic devices.
Oscillators can be classified into two main categories:
• Linear oscillators: These are oscillators that use linear electronic components
such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors to generate a repetitive signal. They
are typically used to generate low-frequency signals.
• Non-linear oscillators: These are oscillators that use nonlinear electronic
components such as diodes and transistors to generate a repetitive signal. They
are typically used to generate high-frequency signals.
There are many different types of oscillators, each with their own specific
characteristics and applications. Some common types include:
• LC oscillators: These use a combination of an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C)
to generate a sine wave signal.
• RC oscillators: These use a combination of a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) to
generate a square wave signal.
• Crystal oscillators: These use a quartz crystal to control the frequency of
oscillation. They are known for their high stability and precision and are
commonly used in frequency-critical applications such as clocks and watches.
• Colpitts oscillator: These use a combination of capacitors and transistors to
generate a sine wave signal. They are known for their stability and are
commonly used in radio frequency applications.
• Wien-bridge oscillator: These use a combination of resistors and capacitors to
generate a sine wave signal. They are known for their stability and are
commonly used in audio frequency applications.
The specific type of oscillator used in a circuit will depend on the application and the
requirements of the circuit, such as the frequency, stability, and precision of the signal.

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1.2 Understanding electronic system design flow

Electronic system design is the process of creating an electronic system from a set of
requirements. The design flow typically includes several steps, which can vary
depending on the complexity of the system and the specific requirements. A general
understanding of the electronic system design flow is:
Requirements Gathering: The first step in the design flow is to gather the
requirements for the system. This includes determining what the system is supposed
to do, what inputs it will receive, and what outputs it will produce.
Conceptual Design: The conceptual design is the initial design phase of the system.
This step involves creating a high-level design of the system, including determining
the major subsystems and components, and how they will work together.
Detailed Design: After the conceptual design is completed, the detailed design is
done, which includes the design of each individual component and subsystem. This
includes the selection of specific components, the layout of the circuit board, and the
design of the firmware or software that will control the system.
Prototyping: After the detailed design is complete, a prototype of the system is built
and tested. This allows for any design issues to be identified and addressed before the
final production version of the system is built.
Testing and Verification: After the prototype is built, the system is thoroughly tested
and verified to ensure that it meets all of the requirements and specifications. This step
may include functional testing, stress testing, and environmental testing.
Production: Once the design has been verified and all testing is complete, the system
is ready for production. This step involves manufacturing the system in large quantities.
Maintenance and Support: After the system has been deployed, it will require
ongoing maintenance and support. This may include software updates, hardware
repairs, and addressing any issues that arise during its use.
It's important to note that this is a general understanding of the electronic system
design flow and it may vary depending on the specific system and requirements.
1.3 Time planning using Gantt chart

A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that is commonly used for project planning and
scheduling. It provides a visual representation of the tasks that need to be completed,
the dependencies between those tasks, and the timeline for completing them. The
chart is named after Henry Gantt, an American engineer and management consultant
who developed the chart in the early 1900s.

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Grantt Chart figure copied from https://www.productplan.com/glossary/gantt-chart/

A Gantt chart typically includes the following elements:

• Tasks: Each task or activity that needs to be completed is represented by a
horizontal bar on the chart.
• Timeline: The chart is divided into time intervals, such as days, weeks, or
months. The length of each task bar represents the duration of the task.
• Dependencies: Tasks are often dependent on other tasks, and these
dependencies are represented by arrows between the tasks. This shows which
tasks must be completed before others can begin.
• Milestones: Important deadlines or completion points are represented by a
diamond-shaped marker on the chart.
• Progress: The completion status of each task is represented by the percentage
of the bar that is filled in.
To use a Gantt chart for time planning:
• Identify the tasks: Break down the project into smaller tasks and list them on
the chart.
• Estimate the duration of each task: Estimate the time required to complete each
task.
• Identify the dependencies: Identify the tasks that are dependent on other tasks
and show the dependencies on the chart using arrows.
• Set the milestones: Identify the key deadlines or completion points for the
project and mark them on the chart as milestones.
• Create the chart: Use a Gantt chart software or template to create the chart and
enter the tasks, duration, dependencies and milestones.

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• Update the chart: Regularly update the chart as the project progresses, to track
the progress, and to adjust the schedule if necessary.
A Gantt chart is a useful tool for time planning as it provides a clear visual
representation of the project schedule, making it easy to identify potential issues, and
to make any necessary adjustments.

1.4 Schematic design and PCB layout

Schematic design and PCB layout are two important steps in the electronic design
process.
Schematic design is the process of creating a visual representation of the electronic
circuit using a set of standard symbols to represent the various components. The
schematic is a blueprint for the circuit and is used to verify that the circuit will work as
intended. It also serves as a reference for the PCB layout.
PCB layout is the process of arranging the electronic components on a printed circuit
board (PCB) so that they are properly connected and function as intended. This
involves determining the physical layout of the components on the board, routing the
connecting traces between the components, and ensuring that the board meets the
necessary electrical and mechanical requirements.
The schematic design and PCB layout are closely related, and they are often done in
parallel. The schematic is used as a reference for the PCB layout, and any changes
made to the schematic during the layout process will also need to be made to the
schematic.
During schematic design, the following steps are typically followed:
• Identify the components required for the circuit
• Connect the components together using a standardized set of symbols
• Verify that the circuit is functioning as intended
During PCB layout, the following steps are typically followed:
• Place the components on the PCB
• Route the connecting traces between the components
• Verify that the board meets the necessary electrical and mechanical
requirements
• Check for any errors or issues
It's important to note that schematic design and PCB layout are iterative processes,
and it may require several iterations before the final version of the circuit is completed.
A well-designed schematic and PCB layout can ensure that the circuit functions
correctly and efficiently, while a poorly designed one can lead to problems such as
signal interference, power supply issues, and component failure.

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1.5 Electronic circuit fabrication

Electronic circuit fabrication is the process of creating a physical circuit board from a
design, which includes schematic and PCB layout. The process typically involves several
steps, including patterning, etching, drilling, and component assembly.
1. Patterning: The first step in electronic circuit fabrication is to create a pattern
on a substrate (typically a PCB or a flexible substrate) which represents the
circuit layout. This is typically done by applying a thin layer of photoresist to the
substrate and exposing it to light through a mask (photolithography). The
exposed areas of the photoresist are then washed away, leaving a pattern on
the substrate that corresponds to the circuit layout.
2. Etching: The next step is to etch away the unwanted parts of the substrate,
leaving only the patterned areas. This is typically done using chemical etching,
where the substrate is exposed to a chemical solution that etches away the
substrate material.
3. Drilling: The third step is drilling the holes for the component leads. The holes
are drilled using a CNC machine, which is controlled by a computer program
that follows the layout of the circuit.
4. Component assembly: The final step is to assemble the components onto the
board. This includes soldering the components in place, and connecting the
component leads to the circuit traces.
5. Testing: After the circuit is fabricated, it's important to test it to make sure it
functions as expected. This can be done by measuring the voltage and current
levels of the circuit, and comparing them to the expected values.

It's important to note that electronic circuit fabrication process can be done in various
ways, through-hole, and surface-mount technology (SMT) are the most common.
Through-hole technology involves inserting component leads through holes in the
board and soldering them on the other side, whereas SMT involves placing the
components directly on the surface of the board and soldering them in place.
It's also important to note that electronic circuit fabrication process can be done in-
house or outsourced to a specialized electronic manufacturing service (EMS) provider,
depending on the resources and capabilities of the organization.

1.6 Soldering and testing

Soldering is the process of joining two pieces of metal (usually metals with a low
melting point) by heating them to a temperature high enough to melt the solder (a
metal alloy with a low melting point) and then flowing it into the joint to create a
strong mechanical and electrical connection.

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Testing is the process of evaluating a system or its component(s) with the intent to
find whether it satisfies the specified requirements or not. In electronics, testing is used
to confirm that a circuit functions as intended and to identify any issues that may be
present.
1.7 Heat sink and cooling for critical components

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an
electronic device, such as a CPU or GPU, to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid, where
it can be dissipated away from the device. Heat sinks are typically made of metal, such
as aluminum or copper, and have a large surface area to increase the rate of heat
transfer. They are often used in conjunction with fans or other cooling methods to
improve their effectiveness.

Heat Sink Air Cooling Liquid cooling

Cooling is a critical aspect of electronic design, particularly for high-performance or
high-power devices, as overheating can cause permanent damage or failure of the
device. In addition to heat sinks, other cooling methods that are used to dissipate heat
from critical components include fans, liquid cooling systems, and thermoelectric
cooling.
It is important to ensure that the cooling system is able to dissipate heat quickly and
effectively, and that the temperature of the critical components is kept within safe
operating limits. This can be achieved by selecting the appropriate cooling method,
designing the thermal management system correctly, and monitoring the temperature
of the critical components.
1.8 Electronic system wiring

Electronic system wiring refers to the process of connecting electronic components

and devices to create a functional system. This includes connecting power supplies,
circuit boards, sensors, and other components using wires, cables, and connectors. It
also involves the use of schematics and diagrams to ensure proper connections are
made and to troubleshoot any issues that may arise. In addition, electronic system
wiring also involves the use of proper safety measures to protect against electrical
hazards.

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1.9 Building a system enclosure

Building a system enclosure for an electronic

circuit involves enclosing the circuit and its
components in a protective housing. The
enclosure provides physical protection for the
circuit and its components, as well as protection
from environmental factors such as dust, moisture,
and temperature changes.
There are a variety of materials that can be used The figure is copied from https://www.thorlabs.com/
to construct an enclosure, including metal, plastic,
and wood. The choice of material will depend on the specific requirements of the
application, such as the level of protection needed, the operating environment, and
the cost.
The enclosure can be designed to be either sealed or vented. A sealed enclosure
protects the circuit from dust, moisture, and other environmental factors, while a
vented enclosure allows for air flow to cool the circuit.
The enclosure should be designed to allow for easy access to the circuit for
maintenance and repair. This often includes the use of removable panels, doors or
covers, and the use of connectors or plugs to allow for easy removal of the circuit.
In addition, it is important to consider the electrical safety when designing the
enclosure. This includes providing enough clearance around the circuit to prevent
accidental contact, and ensuring that the enclosure is properly grounded to protect
against electrical hazards.

1.10 Electronic system testing and debugging documentation

Electronic system testing and debugging documentation refers to the documents and
procedures used to test and troubleshoot electronic systems. This documentation is
used to ensure that the system is functioning correctly and to identify and fix any issues
that may arise.
Testing documentation includes test plans, test cases, and test procedures that detail
how the system will be tested, what will be tested, and what the expected results are.
This documentation is used to ensure that the system is thoroughly tested and that
any issues are identified and resolved before the system is deployed.
Debugging documentation includes troubleshooting guides, schematics, and
diagrams that provide detailed information about the system's design and operation.
This documentation is used to identify and diagnose issues that may arise during
testing or in the field.

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It is also important to have a clear and detailed record of all the bugs identified, how
they were fixed and when they were fixed. This record is crucial when it comes to
maintaining the system, resolving new bugs, and future upgrades.
In summary, electronic system testing and debugging documentation is an important
aspect of electronic system development as it ensures that the system is thoroughly
tested, any issues are identified and resolved, and that there is a clear record of all the
bugs identified, how they were fixed, and when they were fixed. This documentation is
crucial for maintaining the system, resolving new bugs, and future upgrades.

1.11 Documentation using Google docs

Google Docs is a popular tool for creating and editing documents online. It allows
multiple users to collaborate on a document in real-time, making it an ideal tool for
electronic system testing and debugging documentation.
To use Google Docs for electronic system testing and debugging documentation, you
can create a new document and invite other users to collaborate on it. You can also
share a document link with others so they can view or edit the document.
Google Docs offers a variety of formatting options, including headings, bullet points,
tables, and images, which can be used to create clear and organized documentation.
It also has a built-in spell checker, which can help ensure the accuracy of the
documentation.
Google Docs also allows you to add comments and suggestions to the document,
which can be used to collaborate on the testing and debugging process. Users can
leave comments on specific parts of the document, making it easy to track feedback
and suggestions.
In addition, Google Docs also allows users to track changes made to the document,
which can be used to keep track of the testing and debugging process. This feature
allows users to see what changes have been made, when they were made, and who
made them.
Overall, using Google Docs for electronic system testing and debugging
documentation can be very beneficial, as it allows multiple users to collaborate on the
documentation in real-time, and keep track of the testing and debugging process with
comments, suggestions, and changes tracking.

1.12 Documentation using Overleaf

Overleaf is a web-based collaborative

LaTeX editor that allows multiple users to
work on a document at the same time. It is
a useful tool for creating professional-
looking electronic system testing and
debugging documentation.

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To use Overleaf for electronic system testing and debugging documentation, you can
create a new project and invite other users to collaborate on it. The editor interface is
similar to a traditional word processor, but it also includes advanced features such as
equation editing and cross-referencing.
One of the main advantages of using Overleaf for electronic system testing and
debugging documentation is its ability to create high-quality technical documents.
LaTeX is a typesetting system that is commonly used in scientific and technical fields
to produce well-formatted, professional-looking documents.
Overleaf also allows you to track changes made to the document, which can be used
to keep track of the testing and debugging process. This feature allows users to see
what changes have been made, when they were made, and who made them.
In addition, Overleaf also offers a wide range of templates, which can be used to create
documents such as reports, articles, and presentations. This can be useful for creating
a consistent look and feel for the documentation.
Overall, Overleaf is a useful tool for creating professional-looking electronic system
testing and debugging documentation, particularly in the scientific and technical fields.
The ability to track changes, use templates and the professional output makes it a
great tool for this task.

1.13 DSO including various triggering modes

A Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) is an electronic test instrument that allows precise
visualization of electrical signals. It captures and stores a digital representation of the
signal, which can then be displayed on a screen and analyzed. DSOs are widely used
in various fields such as electronics, telecommunications, automotive, and aerospace,
to name a few.
DSOs have several key features that distinguish them from traditional analog
oscilloscopes:
• High resolution and fast sample rate: DSOs can capture and display signals
at a very high resolution and fast sample rate, providing a more detailed view
of the signal.
• Long memory depth: DSOs can store a large number of samples, allowing them
to capture signals over a longer period of time.
• Advanced triggering options: DSOs offer a wide range of triggering options,
including edge, pulse width, video, pattern, and logic triggering, which can help
to identify and isolate specific events or signals in a complex waveform.

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• Advanced measurement and analysis functions: DSOs can perform a wide

range of measurements and calculations, such as frequency, phase, and RMS
voltage, as well as advanced analysis functions like FFT and histogram.
• Software and connectivity: DSOs often come with software that allows the
user to control the scope remotely and save, recall, and analyze the signal data.
It also include connectivity options like USB, Ethernet, and GPIB which enables
easy communication with a computer.
In summary, DSOs are powerful electronic test instruments that can capture, display,
and analyze electrical signals with high precision, making them an essential tool for
engineers, technicians, and scientists in a wide range of fields.

The various triggering modes in a DSO include

Edge triggering: triggers the scope when the signal crosses a specified voltage level
or slope.
Pulse width triggering: triggers the scope when the signal stays within a specified
voltage level for a certain time.
Video triggering: triggers the scope when the signal falls within a specific frequency
range and level.
Pattern triggering: triggers the scope when a specific pattern appears in the signal.
Runt triggering: triggers the scope when a signal crosses a voltage level but does not
return to that level within a certain time.
Logic triggering: triggers the scope when a specific logic level or transition is detected
on a digital signal.
These different triggering modes can help to identify and isolate specific events or
signals in a complex waveform, allowing for more precise analysis and troubleshooting.

1.14 1X and 10X probes

1X and 10X probes are two types of probes that are commonly used with
oscilloscopes, including digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs), to measure electrical
signals.
A 1x probe connects the scope directly to the test point, without any extra attenuation,
making it highly sensitive and capable of detecting even small signals. These probes
are best used in situations where the signal level is low, such as when it's less than 1-
volt peak to peak. However, due to the input capacitance of the scope acting as a low
pass filter, 1x probes have a limited bandwidth, which can actually be advantageous in
low frequency applications, where the probe can filter out high frequency noise from
the low-frequency signal being measured.

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Electronics Design Workshop

The "standard" probes that come with most scopes are called 10x probes, as they
reduce the amplitude of the signal by a factor of ten. This reduction is achieved by
incorporating a 9 megaohm resistor in the probe tip, which acts as a voltage divider.
This added attenuation makes 10x probes ideal for measuring high voltage signals, as
it also increases the scope input impedance by a factor of ten, reducing circuit loading
compared to 1x probes. Another advantage of 10x probes is their wider bandwidth,
thanks to the capacitance in the probe tip that cancels out the scope's inherent input
capacitance, making them suitable for measuring signals with high frequency
components such as square waves and pulsed signals.

(a) The 1X Probe. (b) The secret of 10X Probe

Figure is copied from https://www.rohde-schwarz.com/in/products/test-and-

measurement/essentials-test-equipment/digital-oscilloscopes/understanding-passive-
oscilloscope-
probes_254518.html#:~:text=Ten%20%E2%80%93%20X%20probes%20are%20the,good%
20for%20high%2Dvoltage%20measurements.

1.15 Digital Multi-meter

A Digital Multimeter (DMM) is an electronic measuring instrument

that can measure a variety of electrical quantities, including voltage,
current, resistance, and continuity. It is a versatile tool that is
commonly used in a wide range of fields, including electronics,
electrical engineering, and troubleshooting.
A basic DMM typically includes the following measurement
functions:
• DC voltage: measures the direct current voltage level in a circuit.
• AC voltage: measures the alternating current voltage level in a circuit.
• DC current: measures the direct current flowing through a circuit.

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• Resistance: measures the resistance of a circuit or component.

• Continuity: tests for a complete electrical path between two points in a circuit.

Some DMMs also include additional functions such as:

• AC current measurement
• Temperature measurement
• Capacitance measurement
• Frequency measurement
• Diode and transistor test
• Non-contact voltage detection
DMMs typically have a digital display that shows the measurement results, and they
are often powered by batteries. They are also equipped with a variety of different
inputs and connectors, such as banana jacks, alligator clips, and probes to allow for
easy and safe measurement of different types of signals.
In summary, a digital multimeter is a versatile and essential tool for measuring and
troubleshooting electrical circuits, and it is widely used in a wide range of fields.

1.16 LCR bridge

An LCR bridge (also known as an impedance

bridge or L-C-R bridge) is a type of electrical
measuring instrument that is used to
determine the values of inductance (L),
capacitance (C), and resistance (R) in a circuit.
It is a type of bridge circuit that uses a known
reference impedance and a variable
impedance to measure the unknown
impedance.
The basic principle of an LCR bridge is that it uses the difference between two legs of
a bridge circuit to calculate the unknown impedance. The bridge circuit is typically
made up of four arms, with the unknown impedance in one arm, and a known
reference impedance in the other arm, and a variable impedance in the other two arm.
The bridge is balanced when the voltage across the unknown impedance is the same
as the voltage across the reference impedance. When the bridge is unbalanced, the
current flowing through the variable impedance can be used to calculate the unknown
impedance.
LCR bridges are widely used to measure the values of components in electronic circuits.
They are commonly used in industry, research, and education. They are also used to
measure the impedance of devices such as transformers, inductors, capacitors, and

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resistors, and also for measuring the impedance of electronic devices such as
transistors and ICs.
LCR meters are also available which are specialized instruments that measure the LCR
parameters of a component or circuit. These meters use the bridge circuit principle but
also include additional features such as automatic measurement, frequency selection,
and temperature compensation.
In summary, an LCR bridge is a type of electrical measuring instrument that is used to
determine the values of inductance, capacitance, and resistance in a circuit, by
comparing the unknown impedance with a known reference impedance.

1.17 Signal and function generator

A signal generator is a type of electronic test equipment that generates a specific type
of electrical signal, such as a sine wave, square wave, or triangle wave. It is commonly
used to test electronic devices and systems by providing a known input signal to the
device or system under test, and is also used to generate signals for modulation or
demodulation, and to generate test signals for measuring the performance of
electronic devices such as amplifiers, filters, and oscillators.

A signal generator typically includes the following features:

• Frequency range: the range of frequencies that the signal generator is capable
of generating.
• Amplitude range: the range of amplitude levels that the signal generator can
generate.
• Waveform shape: the type of waveform that the signal generator can generate.
Common waveform shapes include sine, square, and triangle waves.
• Modulation: the ability to modulate the signal generator's output signal with
another signal, such as an audio or a RF signal.
• Output impedance: the output impedance of the signal generator, which is the
impedance of the signal generator's output port.
• Connectors: the type of connectors that the signal generator uses to output the
generated signal.
A signal generator can be a stand-alone instrument or can be integrated with other
test equipment such as oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers and multi-meters. A signal
generator can be controlled by a front panel, computer or a mobile device.
In summary, a signal generator is a type of electronic test equipment that generates
specific types of electrical signals, such as sine waves, square waves, and triangle waves,
it can be used to test electronic devices and systems, to generate signals for

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modulation or demodulation, and to generate test signals for measuring the

performance of electronic devices such as amplifiers, filters, and oscillators.
A function generator is a type of signal generator that
can generate a variety of different types of signals,
including sine waves, square waves, triangle waves, and
arbitrary waveforms. It is commonly used to test
electronic devices and systems, to generate signals for
modulation or demodulation, and to generate test
signals for measuring the performance of electronic
devices such as amplifiers, filters, and oscillators.
A function generator typically includes the following features:
• Frequency range: the range of frequencies that the function generator is
capable of generating.
• Amplitude range: the range of amplitude levels that the function generator
can generate.
• Waveform shape: the type of waveform that the function generator can
generate. Common waveform shapes include sine, square, and triangle waves,
as well as arbitrary waveforms.
• Modulation: the ability to modulate the function generator's output signal with
another signal, such as an audio or a RF signal.
• Output impedance: the output impedance of the function generator, which is
the impedance of the function generator's output port.
• Connectors: the type of connectors that the function generator uses to output
the generated signal.
A function generator can also include built-in sweep and burst functions, which allow
the user to sweep the output frequency over a range or to output a burst of a specified
number of cycles at a specified frequency. Some function generators also include a
built-in arbitrary waveform generator, which allows the user to generate custom
waveforms.
Function generator can also be controlled by a front panel, computer or a mobile
device.
In summary, a function generator is a type of signal generator that generates a variety
of different types of signals, including sine waves, square waves, triangle waves, and
arbitrary waveforms, it can be used to test electronic devices and systems, to generate
signals for modulation or demodulation, and to generate test signals for measuring
the performance of electronic devices such as amplifiers, filters, and oscillators. It also
has more flexibility in terms of frequency range and waveform shape.

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1.18 Logic analyzer or MSO

A logic analyzer is a type of electronic test equipment that is used to capture and
display digital signals. It is commonly used to debug and troubleshoot digital circuits
and systems, as well as to analyze the behavior of digital buses and protocols.
A logic analyzer typically includes the following features:
• Number of channels: the number of digital signals that the logic analyzer can
capture and display simultaneously.
• Sample rate: the rate at which the logic analyzer can capture and display digital
signals.
• Memory depth: the amount of memory available for storing captured digital
signals.
• Triggering: the ability to trigger the logic analyzer to begin capturing and
displaying digital signals based on certain conditions, such as a specific digital
pattern or a specific digital signal transition.
• Decoding: the ability to decode digital buses and protocols, such as I2C, SPI,
and RS-232, and display the decoded data in a human-readable format.
A Logic analyzer can be a stand-alone instrument or can be integrated with other test
equipment such as oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers, multi-meters and
Function/Signal generator.
A mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO) is a type of oscilloscope that includes both analog
and digital channels. It is similar to a logic analyzer, but also includes the ability to
capture and display analog signals. MSO's are commonly used to debug and
troubleshoot mixed signal systems, which include both analog and digital signals.
A MSO typically includes the following features:
• Number of channels: the number of analog and digital signals that the MSO
can capture and display simultaneously.
• Sample rate: the rate at which the MSO can capture and display signals.
• Memory depth: the amount of memory available for storing captured signals.
• Triggering: the ability to trigger the MSO to begin capturing and displaying
signals based on certain conditions, such as a specific digital pattern or a
specific signal transition.
• Decoding: the ability to decode digital buses and protocols, such as I2C, SPI,
and RS-232, and display the decoded data in a human-readable format.
In summary, a Logic Analyzer is a specialized electronic test equipment that captures
and displays digital signals, and is primarily used to debug and troubleshoot digital
circuits and systems. A MSO is similar to a Logic Analyzer but includes both digital and

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Electronics Design Workshop

analog channels, it is used to debug and troubleshoot mixed signal systems, which
include both analog and digital signals.

Exercise:

1. What are the key differences between resistors and capacitors, and how are
they used in electronic circuits?
2. Describe the process of creating a block diagram to represent the functional
requirements of an electronic system.
3. Using a Gantt chart, outline the steps required to complete a project that
involves designing and building an electronic system from scratch.
4. Explain the purpose of a schematic diagram in electronic circuit design, and
how it is translated into a PCB layout.
5. What are some common mistakes that can occur when soldering electronic
components, and how can they be avoided?
6. Describe the factors that influence the choice of a heat sink for a given
electronic component, and how it can be installed for maximum
effectiveness.
7. How do you determine the appropriate wire gauge for a given circuit, and
what are some common techniques for managing wires in an electronic
system?
8. What are the key considerations when designing and building an enclosure
for an electronic system, and how can you ensure that it provides adequate
protection for the components inside?
9. Describe the importance of documentation in the testing and debugging
phase of electronic system design, and give examples of the types of
information that should be included.
10. How can Google Docs or Overleaf be used to collaborate on electronic
system design documentation, and what are the benefits of doing so?
11. What are the different modes of operation available on a digital storage
oscilloscope (DSO), and how are they used to analyze electronic signals?
12. How does a logic analyzer differ from a traditional oscilloscope, and what
types of electronic circuits are best suited for analysis using a logic analyzer
or mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO)?

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Chapter 2 Electronic Circuit prototyping

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Electronics Design Workshop

2.1 Circuit prototyping using breadboard

A breadboard is a type of prototyping

board that allows electronic components
to be connected together in a temporary,
non-permanent way. It is commonly used
for testing and experimenting with circuit
designs before committing to a
permanent soldered circuit. Breadboards have a grid of holes, each of which
corresponds to a connection point for a component lead. The leads are inserted into
the holes and the component is held in place by the friction of the hole. This allows for
easy experimentation and modification of the circuit without the need for soldering.
Breadboards are particularly useful for hobbyist and educational projects, as they allow
for quick and easy experimentation with different circuit designs.

Figure from https://pixabay.com/

2.2 Circuit prototyping using Zero PCB

Zero PCB, also known as "direct PCB," is a method of

creating printed circuit boards (PCBs) without the need
for a physical prototype or breadboard. It is a cost-
effective and efficient way of prototyping a circuit, as it
allows for the creation of a functional circuit board
directly from a computer-aided design (CAD) file.
The process of creating a Zero PCB involves designing
the circuit in a CAD program, such as Eagle or KiCad, and
then exporting the design as a Gerber file. The Gerber file
contains all the necessary information for the PCB manufacturer to create the board,
including the layout of the copper traces, the drilling locations for the component
holes, and the outline of the PCB.
Zero PCB is a popular method for producing small to medium production runs and is
commonly used in industry and by engineers. It allows for faster and more accurate
prototyping, as the design can be tested and refined before the manufacturing
process.

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2.3 Circuit prototyping using ‘Manhattan’ style:

Manhattan-style circuit prototyping is a technique

for building electronic circuits using stripboard or
veroboard, which are types of pre-cut, pre-drilled
PCBs. The method gets its name from the way the
circuit is constructed, with components and wires
arranged in a grid-like pattern, similar to the streets
of Manhattan.
The process of building a Manhattan-style circuit
involves cutting the stripboard or veroboard to the
appropriate size and then using a soldering iron to
make connections between the components and
the PCB. The components and wires are arranged
in a grid-like pattern, with the leads of the components inserted into the holes on the
PCB and soldered in place. The wires are then used to make connections between the
different components on the board.
Manhattan-style circuit prototyping is a simple and effective way to build electronic
circuits, as it allows for easy experimentation and modification of the circuit. It is often
used by hobbyists and students as it is relatively inexpensive and easy to use.
One of the advantages of Manhattan-style circuit prototyping is that it requires
minimal equipment, making it an accessible method for many people to learn and
experiment with electronics. Additionally, it allows for a more robust prototype
compared to breadboard due to the soldered joints.

2.4 Circuit prototyping using custom PCB

Circuit prototyping using custom PCB (printed circuit board) involves designing a
circuit and creating a custom PCB that is tailored to the specific requirements of the
circuit. This method is used when a more permanent and robust solution is needed,
and when the circuit has been tested and refined through previous prototyping
methods such as breadboarding or Manhattan-style circuit prototyping.
The process of creating a custom PCB typically involves the following steps:
1. Designing the circuit using a computer-aided design (CAD) program, such as
Eagle or KiCad.
2. Exporting the design as a Gerber file, which contains all the necessary
information for the PCB manufacturer to create the board.
3. Sending the Gerber file to a PCB manufacturer, who will create the PCB using a
process such as photolithography or etching.
4. Once the PCB is received, the components are soldered in place.

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Custom PCBs are commonly used in industry, and are often used for small to medium
production runs. They provide a more robust and permanent solution compared to
breadboarding or Manhattan-style circuit prototyping, and they also allow for more
precise control over the circuit's layout and design. Additionally, custom PCBs are more
cost-effective in mass-production runs.

2.5 Schematic design and PCB layout using Eagle CAD

Eagle CAD is a popular software used for schematic design and PCB layout. It is a
powerful tool that allows users to design and layout circuits for custom PCBs.
The process of schematic design using Eagle CAD involves creating a diagram of the
circuit using the software's built-in schematic editor. The schematic editor allows users
to place and connect components, such as resistors, capacitors, and ICs, using
predefined symbols. Users can also add custom symbols and parts, as well as annotate
the schematic with labels and notes.
Once the schematic is complete, the PCB layout can be done by using the software's
built-in PCB layout editor. The PCB layout editor allows users to place the components
onto the PCB, route the connections between the components, and make any
necessary adjustments to the layout. The software also includes a set of auto-routing
tools that can be used to quickly route the connections between the components.
Eagle CAD also provides features such as DRC (Design Rule Check) that allows users
to check for errors in the design and the Gerber file export, that allows the design to
be sent to the PCB manufacturer.
Eagle CAD is widely used in the industry and by hobbyists and students, as it is
relatively inexpensive and easy to use, yet it provides powerful capabilities for creating
custom PCBs.

2.6 Gerber creation and 3D visualization for fitting Single, double,

and multi layer PCB

Gerber files are a standard format used in the PCB manufacturing industry to
communicate the design of a circuit board. Gerber files contain all the necessary
information for a PCB manufacturer to create the board, including the layout of the
copper traces, the drilling locations for the component holes, and the outline of the
PCB.
Eagle CAD, as well as other PCB design software, can export the design in Gerber
format, these files can be used to create single, double, or multi-layer PCBs, depending
on the complexity of the circuit.
Single-layer PCBs, also known as "single-sided" PCBs, are the simplest type of PCB
and are used for basic circuits. They have a single layer of conductive material, usually
copper, on one side of the PCB.

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Double-layer PCBs, also known as "double-sided" PCBs, have a layer of conductive

material on both sides of the PCB. This allows for more complex circuits to be built, as
connections can be made between the two sides of the PCB.
Multi-layer PCBs have multiple layers of conductive material, and can have as many
as 12 or more layers, they are used for the most complex circuits, and they allow for a
high density of connections and components.
Gerber files can also be used to create 3D visualization of the PCB, this is a useful tool
for checking the fit of the components and ensuring that the final product will meet
the design requirements. 3D visualization is also useful for checking the routing of the
connections and identifying any potential issues before the PCB is manufactured.
2.7 Single- and double-sided PCB prototype fabrication in the lab
Photo Etching Process:

1. Design the PCB: Create a design of the circuit board using software like EAGLE,
Altium Designer, or KiCAD. Ensure that the design meets your requirements and
is ready for fabrication.

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2. Clean the PCB: Clean the PCB using a degreaser to remove any dirt or oils that
may interfere with the adhesion of the photoresist. Rinse the board with water and
dry it completely.
3. Print the design onto a transparency: Print the PCB design onto a transparency
using a laser printer. Make sure that the design is the correct size and that it is a
mirror image of the final PCB.
4. Apply the photoresist: Apply the photoresist material ("photosensitive epoxy" or
"photosensitive ink") to the PCB using a spray or dip method.
5. Place the transparency on the photoresist: Place the transparency on the
photoresist with the design facing down. Ensure that the transparency is aligned
with the PCB and secure it in place.
6. Expose the board to UV light: Expose the board to UV light for the recommended
amount of time. The areas of the photoresist that are exposed to the UV light harden
and become resistant to etching, while the unexposed areas remain soft and can be
washed away with a developer solution.
7. Develop the board: Develop the board by immersing it in a developer solution.
The developer solution will dissolve the photoresist in the areas that were not
exposed to UV light. The composition of the developer solution can vary, but a
common recipe is to mix sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH)
with water to create a solution with a pH of around 12. The concentration of the
solution will depend on the type of photoresist being used and the specific
requirements of the PCB fabrication process.
8. Rinse the board: Rinse the board thoroughly with water to remove any remaining
developer solution.
9. Dry the board: Dry the board completely before proceeding with the etching
process.
10. Drill the holes: Use a drill to create holes for the components on the board.

1. Silk-screen printing: This method involves printing the circuit pattern onto the
PCB using a stencil and a conductive ink. The PCB is then etched to remove the
unwanted copper. This method can be used for both single- and double-sided
PCBs.
2. Isolation routing: This method uses a CNC machine to cut away the unwanted
copper on the PCB, leaving the desired circuit pattern. This method can be used
for both single- and double-sided PCBs.
3. Laser cutting: This method uses a laser to cut away the unwanted copper on
the PCB, leaving the desired circuit pattern. This method can be used for both
single- and double-sided PCBs.

After fabrication, the PCB prototype can be assembled by soldering the components
onto the board. It is important to perform a thorough inspection of the PCB to ensure
that the circuit is functioning as intended and that there are no errors in the layout
before moving forward with mass production or further testing.

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2.8 Soldering using soldering iron/station

Soldering is the process of joining two metal surfaces together by melting a low-
melting point metal alloy, called solder, between them. Soldering is commonly used in
the electronics industry to assemble and repair PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards).
Soldering can be done using a soldering iron or a soldering station. A soldering iron is
a handheld tool with a heating element and a tip that is heated to a high temperature.
A soldering station is similar to a soldering iron, but it includes a temperature controller
that allows the user to adjust the temperature of the tip.
To begin soldering, the tip of the iron or station is heated to the appropriate
temperature. This temperature will depend on the type of solder and components
being used. The tip is then applied to the area where the solder is needed, and the
solder is applied to the opposite side of the joint. As the solder melts, it will flow into
the joint and form a mechanical and electrical connection between the two metal
surfaces.
It is important to use a soldering iron or station with the correct temperature and tip
size for the task at hand. Additionally, it is important to use the right type of solder
and flux, and to keep the tip clean and well tinned to ensure a good quality joint.
Proper technique is also important to avoid overheating the components, which can
lead to damage or poor electrical performance. After soldering, the joints should be
inspected to ensure that they are properly formed and free of defects.

2.9 Soldering using a temperature controlled reflow oven

A reflow oven is a type of equipment used for soldering PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards)
using surface mount technology (SMT). It uses a controlled temperature profile to heat
up the PCB and the components on it to a specific temperature, melting the solder
paste that is applied on the PCB pads, allowing the components to be soldered in
place.
The process of soldering using a reflow oven is called reflow soldering. It is a more
efficient and automated method of soldering compared to manual soldering using a
soldering iron or station. This process is suitable for medium to high volume
production runs.
The process starts by applying a thin layer of solder paste on the pads of the PCB
where the components will be placed. The components are then placed on the PCB
using a pick and place machine. The PCB is then placed in the reflow oven. The oven
heats the PCB to a specific temperature profile, which is pre-programmed and depends
on the type of components and solder paste being used.
The temperature profile typically includes four stages: preheat, soak, reflow, and
cooling. The preheat stage is used to heat the PCB and components to a lower
temperature to remove any moisture or other contaminants. The soak stage maintains

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the temperature to allow the components to reach thermal equilibrium. The reflow
stage is when the solder paste is heated to a temperature that causes it to melt and
flow, forming a mechanical and electrical connection between the components and
the PCB. The cooling stage is used to cool the PCB and components down to a safe
temperature.
After the soldering process is complete, the PCB is inspected to ensure that the
components are properly soldered and free of defects.
Reflow soldering is a cost-effective and efficient method of soldering SMT
components, but it requires specialized equipment and expertise to ensure that the
process is done correctly and that the soldering quality is consistent.
2.10 Automated circuit assembly and soldering using pick and place
machines

Automated circuit assembly and soldering using pick and place machines is a process
that involves the use of specialized equipment to assemble and solder electronic
components onto a PCB (Printed Circuit Board).
A pick and place machine is a type of equipment that is used to place and position
electronic components onto a PCB. The machine typically uses a vision system to locate
the position of the components on the PCB and a robotic arm to pick up the
components and place them in the correct position.
The pick and place process starts with the PCB being loaded into the machine. The
machine then uses its vision system to locate the position of the components on the
PCB. The robotic arm then picks up the components, one at a time, from a reel or tray
and places them in the correct position on the PCB.
After the components are placed, the PCB is then sent to a reflow oven to be soldered.
This process is called reflow soldering, it uses a controlled temperature profile to heat
up the PCB and the components on it to a specific temperature, melting the solder
paste that is applied on the PCB pads, allowing the components to be soldered in
place.
Automated circuit assembly and soldering using pick and place machines is a cost-
effective and efficient method of assembling and soldering electronic components
onto a PCB. It is suitable for medium to high volume production runs, it improves the
productivity, accuracy and the consistency of the final product.
However, it requires specialized equipment and expertise to ensure that the process is
done correctly and that the soldering quality is consistent. It also requires a proper
maintenance of the machines to ensure that they are operating correctly, and to
minimize downtime.
Exercise:

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Circuit prototyping using breadboard:

1. What is a breadboard and how does it work?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a breadboard for circuit
prototyping?
3. How can you troubleshoot a circuit on a breadboard?
4. Can a breadboard be used for high-frequency or high-current circuits? Why or
why not?
5. What are some best practices for using a breadboard for circuit prototyping?
Circuit prototyping using Zero PCB:
1. What is Zero PCB and how is it used for circuit prototyping?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using Zero PCB for circuit
prototyping?
3. How is Zero PCB different from other circuit prototyping methods such as
breadboarding or custom PCBs?
4. What are some best practices for designing and using Zero PCB for circuit
prototyping?
5. How can you troubleshoot a circuit on Zero PCB?
Circuit prototyping using Manhattan style:
1. What is Manhattan style circuit prototyping and how is it used?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using Manhattan style for circuit
prototyping?
3. How is Manhattan style different from other circuit prototyping methods such
as breadboarding or custom PCBs?
4. What are some best practices for designing and using Manhattan style for
circuit prototyping?
5. How can you troubleshoot a circuit built using Manhattan style?
Circuit prototyping using custom PCB:
1. What is a custom PCB and how is it used for circuit prototyping?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using custom PCBs for circuit
prototyping?
3. What are the steps involved in designing a custom PCB?
4. How can you troubleshoot a circuit built on a custom PCB?
5. What are some best practices for designing and using custom PCBs for circuit
prototyping?

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Schematic design and PCB layout using Eagle CAD:

1. What is Eagle CAD and what is it used for?
2. What are the steps involved in schematic design using Eagle CAD?
3. What are the steps involved in PCB layout using Eagle CAD?
4. What are some best practices for using Eagle CAD for schematic design and
PCB layout?
5. How can you troubleshoot a design created using Eagle CAD?
Gerber creation and 3D visualization for fitting Single, double, and multi-layer PCB:
1. What are Gerber files and what are they used for?
2. What are the steps involved in creating Gerber files for a PCB design?
3. What is 3D visualization and how is it used for fitting single, double, and multi-
layer PCBs?
4. What are some best practices for creating Gerber files and 3D visualization for
PCB design?
5. How can you troubleshoot issues with Gerber files or 3D visualization?
Single- and double-sided PCB prototype fabrication in the lab:
1. What are the steps involved in single-sided PCB fabrication in the lab?
2. What are the steps involved in double-sided PCB fabrication in the lab?
3. What are the materials and equipment required for PCB fabrication in the lab?
4. What are some best practices for PCB fabrication in the lab?
5. How can you troubleshoot issues with PCB fabrication in the lab?
Soldering using soldering iron/station:
1. What is soldering and how is it used in electronics?
2. What are the types of soldering irons/stations and how do they differ?
3. What are the steps involved in soldering components onto a PCB using a
soldering iron/station?
4. What are some best practices for soldering components onto a PCB?
5. How can you troubleshoot issues with soldering using a soldering iron/station?

Automated circuit assembly and soldering using pick and place machines:
1. What is a pick and place machine, and how does it work?
2. What are the advantages of automated circuit assembly and soldering using
pick and place machines over manual methods?

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3. What factors should be considered when selecting a pick and place machine for
a specific production run?

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Chapter 3 Electronic circuit building

blocks including common sensors

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3.1 Introduction

Electronic circuit building blocks include various components such as resistors,

capacitors, transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.

Fig. 3.1. Different types of

Sensors.

The Figure is copied from

https://circuitdigest.com/tutorial
/different-types-of-sensors-and-
their-working

Common sensors used in electronic circuits include:

• Temperature sensors: These measure the temperature of a system and can be
used in a variety of applications such as HVAC systems and refrigeration.
• Light sensors: These measure the intensity of light and can be used in
applications such as automatic lighting control and camera exposure control.
• Proximity sensors: These detect the presence of objects and can be used in
applications such as automatic door openers and mobile phone touchless
gesture control.
• Motion sensors: These detect movement and can be used in applications such
as security systems and fitness trackers.
• Sound sensors: These measure the intensity of sound and can be used in
applications such as noise level monitoring and speech recognition.
• Pressure sensors: These measure the force exerted by a gas or liquid and can
be used in applications such as tire pressure monitoring systems and blood
pressure monitoring.
• Humidity sensors: These measure the amount of moisture in the air and can
be used in applications such as weather monitoring and indoor air quality
control.

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• Accelerometer sensors: These measure the acceleration or tilt of an object and

can be used in applications such as mobile phones, gaming devices, and
vibration monitoring systems.

3.2 Arduino programming and use

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform that includes both hardware and

software. It is intended for anyone interested in creating interactive objects or
environments. The Arduino platform includes a wide range of boards, each with its
own set of features and capabilities, as well as a variety of software libraries that make
it easy to interact with sensors, actuators, and other devices.
Arduino boards are widely used in various fields like engineering, robotics, IoT and
many more. It is considered as a beginner-friendly platform for learning electronics
and programming.
Arduino programming is done using the Arduino Software (IDE) which is available for
free to download for Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It is a simple Integrated
Development Environment (IDE) that allows you to write, upload, and run code on an
Arduino board. The Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it easy for
beginners to learn.
The environment includes a text editor for writing code, a message area for feedback
and error messages, and a toolbar with buttons for uploading code and controlling
the board.
Some popular projects that can be built using Arduino include:
• Blinking an LED
• Reading a temperature sensor
• Controlling a servo motor
• Building a remote control car
• Building a line following robot
• Building a weather station

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3.3 Getting acquainted with the Arduino IDE and Basic Sketch
structure

The basic structure of an Arduino program is called a sketch. A sketch is composed of

two main functions: setup() and loop(). The setup() function is executed once when
the board is powered on or reset, and is used to configure the board's input and output
pins, and initialize variables. The loop() function is executed repeatedly and is used to
read input from sensors, control output to actuators, and perform other tasks.
Here is an example of a simple Arduino sketch that blinks an LED:

1 void setup() {
2 pinMode(13, OUTPUT); // configure pin 13 as an output
3 }
4
5 void loop() {
6 digitalWrite(13, HIGH); // turn on the LED
7 delay(1000); // wait for 1 second
8 digitalWrite(13, LOW); // turn off the LED
9 delay(1000); // wait for 1 second
10 }

This sketch configures the board's pin 13 as an output in the setup() function, and then
repeatedly turns the LED on and off with a 1-second delay in the loop() function.
Arduino programming also allows you to use a variety of libraries that provide pre-
written code for common tasks such as reading sensors, controlling motors, and
communicating over networks. These libraries can save a lot of time and make it easy
to add advanced functionality to your projects.
3.4 Digital Input and output

Digital Input and Output (I/O) in Arduino refers to the process of reading or writing a
digital signal, which can only have two states: HIGH or LOW (1 or 0). In Arduino, digital
I/O is accomplished using digital pins on the board.
Digital Output: To write a digital value to a pin, you can use the digitalWrite()
function. This function takes two parameters: the pin number and the value you want
to write (HIGH or LOW). For example, to set pin 13 to HIGH:
1 digitalWrite(13, HIGH);

Digital Input: To read a digital value from a pin, you can use the digitalRead()
function. This function takes one parameter: the pin number. It returns the value of the
pin (HIGH or LOW). For example, to read the value of pin 2:
1 int buttonState = digitalRead(2);

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It is important to note that before using a pin as input, you must set its mode using
the pinMode() function. For example, to set pin 2 as an input:
1 pinMode(2, INPUT);

Additionally, you can also use the pull-up or pull-down resistors to set the default state
of the input pin, when it is not connected to anything. For example, to enable the
internal pull-up resistor on pin 2:
1 pinMode(2, INPUT_PULLUP);

In summary, to use a pin as a digital input or output in Arduino, you should set the pin
mode using pinMode(), read the digital value using digitalRead() or write the digital
value using digitalWrite().
3.5 Measuring time and events

In Arduino, you can measure time and events using a variety of built-in functions and
libraries. Here are a few common examples:
1. delay(): This function causes the program to pause for a specified number of
milliseconds. For example, the following code will turn on an LED for one
second:
1 digitalWrite(13, HIGH);
2 delay(1000);
3 digitalWrite(13, LOW);

2. millis(): This function returns the number of milliseconds that have passed
since the Arduino board began running the current sketch. This can be useful
for measuring how much time has passed since a certain event occurred. For
example, the following code will blink an LED once per second:

1 unsigned long previousMillis = 0;

2 const long interval = 1000;
3
4 void loop() {
5 unsigned long currentMillis = millis();
6 if (currentMillis - previousMillis >= interval) {
7 previousMillis = currentMillis;
8 digitalWrite(13, !digitalRead(13));
9 }
10 }

3. micros(): This function is similar to millis(), but it returns the number of

microseconds that have passed since the Arduino board began running the
current sketch.
4. Timer/Counter: Arduino boards have built-in timer/counters that can be used
to generate timed events or measure the frequency of input signals. For

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example, you can use the Timer library to create a timer that calls a function
after a specified interval.
5. Interrupts: Arduino boards also support external interrupts, which allow you to
detect specific events and respond to them immediately, rather than waiting for
the loop() function to check for them. For example, you can use the
attachInterrupt() function to call a function when a button is pressed.

In summary, measuring time and events using Arduino can be done using built-in
functions like delay(), millis() and micros(). You can also use libraries and timer/counter
or interrupts to achieve this.

3.6 Pulse Width Modulation

PWM, or Pulse Width Modulation, is a technique used to control the amount of

power delivered to a device by rapidly turning the power on and off. On the Arduino
platform, this can be achieved by using the analogWrite() function. This function
takes two arguments: the first is the pin number to which the PWM signal will be sent,
and the second is the duty cycle of the PWM signal, represented as a number between
0 and 255. For example, to send a PWM signal with a duty cycle of 128 (50% power)
to pin 9, you would use the following code:
1 analogWrite(9, 128);

In addition to the analogWrite() function, you can use the tone() function to generate
PWM signals to drive speakers or other devices.
Here is an example of Arduino code that uses PWM to control the brightness of an
LED connected to pin 9:

1 void setup() {
2 // Set pin 9 as an output
3 pinMode(9, OUTPUT);
4 }
5
6 void loop() {
7 // Gradually increase the brightness of the LED
8 for (int i = 0; i < 255; i++) {
9 analogWrite(9, i);
10 delay(10);
11 }
12
13 // Gradually decrease the brightness of the LED
14 for (int i = 255; i > 0; i--) {
15 analogWrite(9, i);
16 delay(10);
17 }
18 }

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3.7 Serial communication in arduino

Serial communication is a method of transmitting data one bit at a time, over a

communication channel. In the case of Arduino, the Serial library provides an easy
way to send and receive data over the serial port.
Here is an example of Arduino code that uses the Serial library to send data from the
Arduino board to a computer:

1 void setup() {
2 // Set the baud rate for serial communication
3 Serial.begin(9600);
4 }
5
6 void loop() {
7 // Send a message over the serial port
8 Serial.println("Hello, world!");
9 delay(1000);
10 }

In this code snippet, the setup() function calls the Serial.begin() function, which sets
the baud rate for serial communication. The loop() function uses the Serial.println()
function to send the string "Hello, world!" over the serial port and the delay(1000)
function is used to create a delay of 1 second between each iteration of the loop.
On the other hand, here is an example of Arduino code that uses the Serial library to
receive data from a computer and control an LED:

1 const int ledPin = 13;

2
3 void setup() {
4 // Set the baud rate for serial communication
5 Serial.begin(9600);
6 pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
7 }
8
9 void loop() {
10 if (Serial.available() > 0) {
11 int data = Serial.read();
12 if (data == '1') {
13 digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH);
14 } else if (data == '0') {
15 digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW);
16 }
17 }
18 }

In this code snippet, the setup() function calls the Serial.begin() function and sets the
baud rate for serial communication and also sets the led pin as output. The loop()
function uses the Serial.available() function to check if there is data available in the
serial buffer, and if so, it reads the data using the Serial.read() function and check if

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it's 1 or 0, if it is 1 it turn on the led using the digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH) function, if

it's 0 it turn off the led using the digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW) function.
It's important to note that the baud rate must match the baud rate set in the serial
monitor or other serial communication software that you are using to communicate
with the Arduino.

3.8 Analog input in arduino

Analog input in Arduino refers to the process of reading an analog voltage value and
converting it into a digital value that can be processed by the microcontroller. The
Arduino board has a built-in analog-to-digital converter (ADC) that can be used to
read analog input.
Here is an example of Arduino code that uses the analogRead() function to read the
voltage on an analog pin and convert it to a digital value:

1 const int analogPin = A0;

2
3 void setup() {
4 // Initialize the serial communication
5 Serial.begin(9600);
6}
7
8 void loop() {
9 // Read the analog value on pin A0
10 int sensorValue = analogRead(analogPin);
11
12 // Print the value over the serial port
13 Serial.println(sensorValue);
14
15 delay(1000);
16 }

In this code snippet, the setup() function calls the Serial.begin() function to initialize
the serial communication at 9600 baud rate. The loop() function uses the
analogRead(analogPin) function to read the voltage on pin A0 and store the value in
the sensorValue variable. The Serial.println(sensorValue) function is then used to
send the value over the serial port, where it can be read using a serial monitor or other
serial communication software. The delay(1000) function is used to create a delay of
1 second between each iteration of the loop.
It's important to note that the analogRead() function returns a value between 0 and
1023, where 0 corresponds to 0V and 1023 corresponds to the voltage of the reference
voltage (5V for most boards).
Also, it's important to mention that the number of the analog input pin varies
depending on the type of the board, for example, in Arduino Uno board A0 is the first
analog pin, in Arduino Mega board A0 is the first analog pin and so on.

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3.9 Interrupts programming

Interrupts in Arduino are a feature that allows the microcontroller to stop executing
the main program and execute a special function called an interrupt service routine
(ISR) when a certain event occurs, such as a button press or a sensor reading. Interrupts
are useful for handling events that need immediate attention and prevent the
microcontroller from wasting time polling for the event to occur.
Here is an example of Arduino code that uses an interrupt to handle a button press:

const int buttonPin = 2;

1
const int ledPin = 13;
2
3
void setup() {
4
pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT_PULLUP);
5
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
6
7
// Attach the ISR to the interrupt
8
attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(buttonPin), handleButton,
9
FALLING);
10
}
11
12
void loop() {
13
// Do something else here
14
}
15
16
// ISR function
17
void handleButton() {
18
digitalWrite(ledPin, !digitalRead(ledPin));
19
}

In this code snippet, the setup() function sets the button pin as an input with a pull-
up resistor enabled, and sets the led pin as an output. The
attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(buttonPin), handleButton, FALLING)
function is used to attach the ISR handleButton() to the interrupt of the button pin,
and the FALLING edge of the input is selected as the trigger, this means that the
interrupt will be triggered when the button is pressed and the input goes low. The
loop() function can be used to do something else in the meantime.
The handleButton() function is the ISR and it will be executed when the interrupt is
triggered, in this case it toggles the state of the led pin.
It's also possible to specify different triggers of the interrupt, such as RISING or
CHANGE, and also specify different priorities for the interrupt with the priority
parameter.
It's important to note that the ISR function should be as short as possible and should
not contain any blocking or long-running code, as this can cause the microcontroller
to miss other interrupts or cause the system to become unresponsive.

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Exercise:
1. What are electronic circuit building blocks, and how are they used to design
complex electronic systems? Explain with the help of suitable examples.
2. Discuss the basics of Arduino programming and its use in electronic projects.
Explain the significance of the Arduino IDE and Basic Sketch structure.
3. Explain the concept of digital input and output in Arduino and discuss the
various ways in which they can be used in electronic circuit design. Provide
examples of applications where digital input and output are used extensively
and illustrate your answer with suitable Arduino code snippets.
4. What is Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) in the context of Arduino
programming, and how is it used to control the intensity of LEDs or the speed
of motors? Provide a detailed explanation with the help of suitable Arduino
code snippets.
5. Discuss the significance of serial communication in Arduino programming, and
describe its applications in electronic circuit design. Provide an example of a
project that utilizes serial communication in Arduino, and support your
explanation with relevant Arduino code snippets.
6. Explain the significance of analog input in Arduino programming, and discuss
its applications in electronic circuit design. Provide an example of a project that
uses analog input in Arduino, and support your explanation with relevant
Arduino code snippets.
7. Elaborate on the significance of interrupt programming in Arduino, and
describe its applications in electronic circuit design. Provide an example of a
project that utilizes interrupt programming in Arduino, and support your
explanation with relevant Arduino code snippets.

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Chapter 4 Power sources and power

supply regulator design

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4.1 Introduction

Power sources refer to the means by which electrical energy is generated or stored,
such as batteries, generators, or solar panels. Power supply regulators, on the other
hand, are devices that control the voltage and current supplied by a power source to
ensure that it is stable and consistent. The design of a power supply regulator depends
on the specific requirements of the application, but typically includes a control circuit,
a reference circuit, and an error amplifier. The control circuit sets the desired output
voltage, the reference circuit generates a stable reference voltage, and the error
amplifier compares the output voltage to the reference voltage and adjusts it as
needed. The choice of components, such as transistors and resistors, will also depend
on the specific requirements of the application.

4.2 Linear and switching power supply

Linear power supplies and switching power supplies are two different types of power
supply regulators.
A linear power supply

A typical linear power supply system consists of several components that work
together to provide a regulated DC voltage for powering a load. The first component,
the transformer, steps down the input voltage to a lower voltage level that can be
rectified and regulated. Assuming a 10:1 turns ratio, the output voltage will be 22V AC.
The rectifier, in this case, a full wave rectifier, converts the AC voltage into DC voltage
by rectifying both the positive and negative half-cycles of the AC waveform using two
diodes such as 1N4007. The rectified DC voltage, however, has significant ripple that
needs to be smoothed out. This is where the capacitor comes into play, which
smoothens the rectified DC voltage to provide a ripple voltage that is less than 1% of
the output voltage. In this case, a capacitor with a capacitance of at least 1000uF is
required.
The capacitor is connected across the output of the rectifier to smooth out the ripple.
During the positive half-cycle of the rectified voltage, the capacitor charges up to the

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peak voltage. During the negative half-cycle, the capacitor discharges through the load
resistance. This results in a smoothed DC voltage across the load resistance.

The capacitor undergoes charging and discharging, resulting in the presence of an AC

component, which is commonly referred to as ripple voltage (Vripple). The magnitude
of the ripple voltage worsens as the current drawn from the capacitor increases, and
it's essential to specify this. To achieve a 10% ripple voltage (say 12 V power supply),
i.e., 1.2 V peak-to-peak (Vpp), the capacitance can be calculated using the formula
provided below:
C = I_load / (4 x f x V_ripple)
where f is the frequency of the mains, either 50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on the region.
I_load is the max current which can be drawn from the load.

Finally, the load resistance, which in this case is a 1kohm device, is the circuit or device
that is being powered by the power supply. By working together, these components
form a complete power supply system that can provide a DC voltage to power the
load.
Typical components and values of the linear power supply are:
• Transformer: 220V AC to 22V AC, 10:1 turns ratio
• Diodes: 2 x 1N4007
• Capacitor: 1000uF or greater
• Load resistance: 1kohm

Switching power supply

A switching power supply is a type of power supply that uses a high-frequency
switching circuit to convert the input voltage into a regulated output voltage. The main
components of a typical switching power supply include:

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1. Input voltage source: The input voltage source can be AC or DC, depending on
the type of power supply. The input voltage is first rectified and filtered to
obtain a DC voltage.
2. High Frequency Converter: The power switching device is used to switch the
input voltage on and off at high frequencies (typically between 20 kHz to 1
MHz). The most common type of power-switching device is a MOSFET (metal-
oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor).

3. Output rectifier and filter: The output rectifier and filter are used to convert the
high-frequency AC voltage into a regulated DC voltage. The output filter is
typically a capacitor that smooths out the ripple in the output voltage.
4. Control circuit: The control circuit is used to regulate the output voltage and
maintain a constant output voltage despite changes in the input voltage and
load conditions. The control circuit uses feedback from the output voltage to
adjust the switching frequency and duty cycle of the power switching device.

4.3 Transformerless power supply

A transformerless power supply (TPL) is an electronic power supply that is used to

convert AC voltage to DC voltage without the use of a transformer. The TPL circuit uses
a combination of capacitors and resistors to create a voltage divider circuit that steps
down the AC voltage and filters out any AC noise or ripple.

1. Capacitor C1(225J 400V): This is the most important component in the circuit
as it reduces the high current from the mains to a lower level suitable for the
output load. The capacitor acts as a voltage divider circuit, stepping down the
AC voltage and filtering out any AC noise or ripple. Every microFarad from this
capacitor can provide around 50 mA current to the output load. For example,
a 2uF capacitor will provide 100 mA.

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2. Resistor R1 (1 M 0.25W) : This component provides a discharge path for the

high voltage capacitor C1 when the circuit is unplugged from the mains input.
This prevents the risk of electric shock from the stored potential in C1.

3. Diodes D1-D4 (IN4007): These work as a bridge rectifier, converting the low
current AC from capacitor C1 into a low current DC. The capacitor restricts the
current to 50 mA, but not the voltage. The DC output at the bridge is the peak
value of the 220 V AC, which is approximately 310 V DC.

4. Zener Diode: The 310V DC output may be too high for low voltage devices, so
a zener diode is used to shunt the 310V DC into the desired lower value, such
as 12 V, 5 V, 24 V etc., depending on the load specifications.

5. Resistor R2 (100 ohm 2W): This component acts as a current limiting resistor
to prevent the high current from entering the circuit during the instantaneous
power switch ON periods. Capacitor C1 simply acts like a short circuit for a few
milliseconds during this period, allowing the full AC 220 V high current to
enter the circuit, which may destroy the vulnerable DC load at the output. R2
prevents this by limiting the current. An NTC can also be used instead of R2.

6. Capacitor C2 (470 micro F 25 V): This is the filter capacitor which smoothens
the 100 Hz ripples from the rectified bridge to a cleaner DC. A 470uF 25V
capacitor is shown in the diagram,.

4.4 Zener regulator

A Zener regulator is a type of voltage regulator that uses a Zener diode to maintain a
constant voltage at its output. The Zener diode is a special type of diode that operates
in the reverse breakdown region, where the voltage across the diode is constant

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regardless of the current flowing through it. The voltage across the Zener diode is
known as the Zener voltage, and it is the reference voltage for the regulator.

(a)

(b)
A 1.5 V Zener regulated power supply.

In the circuit described, a constant regulated 1.5V DC supply is obtained from an

unregulated DC supply. The unregulated DC supply is obtained by reducing the 230V
mains supply to 6V AC using a stepdown transformer. The 6V AC is then converted
into 6V DC using a bridge rectifier module or four 1N4007 diodes in a bridge form.
The resulting DC supply is filtered using capacitor C1 to remove any ripple or noise.
The presence of input DC to the Zener regulator circuit is indicated by LED1, which is
connected in series with a 1N4007 diode that acts as a reverse supply protection
device. The Zener diode is connected in parallel to the output of the DC supply, with
capacitor C2 acting as a high-frequency ripple filter.
The Zener diode used in this circuit has a breakdown voltage of 1.5V, which means
that it will start conducting when the input DC voltage reaches 1.5V. When the Zener
diode starts conducting, it provides a stable output voltage of 1.5V, regardless of the
input voltage. This output voltage is regulated by the Zener diode and remains
constant as long as the input voltage remains within a certain range.

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4.5 op-amp based regulator

An op-amp based regulator is a type of voltage regulator that uses an operational

amplifier (OPAMP) to control the output voltage. The op-amp is an electronic circuit
that amplifies the difference between two input voltages and produces an output
voltage that is proportional to the input voltage difference.
It provides a stable dc voltage independent of load current ,temperature and ac line
voltage variations.

The circuit consists of the following four parts:

(a)Reference voltage circuit
(b)Error amplifier
(c)Series pass Transistor
(d)Feedback network

The Fig. is showing an OPAMP Voltage Regulator circuit with a series-pass transistor.
The input voltage source VIN is connected to the input of the circuit, and the output
voltage is regulated by the series-pass transistor Q. The reference voltage is set by the
zener diode D and resistor R1 at node 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 . The output voltage is sensed by the
OPAMP (error detector), which compares it to the reference voltage and adjusts the
base current of Q to maintain a constant output voltage.
When the output voltage is lower than the reference voltage, the OPAMP output
increases, which increases the base current of Q, causing it to conduct more current
and deliver more voltage to the load. This increases the output voltage, which is sensed
by the OPAMP and fed back to reduce the base current of Q. When the output voltage
reaches the reference voltage, the OPAMP output stabilizes and maintains a constant
output voltage.

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Resistors R1 and R3 form a voltage divider that feeds a fraction of the regulator output
voltage Vo to the negative input V- of the OPAMP. The OPAMP compares V- to the
reference voltage 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 and adjusts the drive to Q to maintain V- at the same level as
𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 .
When V- is equal to 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 , the output voltage can be related to the zener voltage
through the R2-R3 divider by:
𝑅3
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 × (1 + )
𝑅2
Assuming a zener voltage of 3V, R3 of 10k and R2 of 5k, the output voltage should be:
10𝑘
𝑉𝑜 = 3𝑉 × (1 + ) = 9𝑉
5𝑘

4.6 723 IC regulator

The 723 Voltage Regulator IC is one of the most popular integrated circuit (IC) voltage
regulators. Its functional diagram consists of a voltage reference source at Pin 6, an
error amplifier with its inverting input at Pin 4 and non-inverting input at Pin 5, a series
pass transistor at Pins 10 and 11, and a current limiting transistor at Pins 2 and 3.

This voltage regulator can function as both a positive and negative voltage regulator,
and its output voltage can range from 2 V to 37 V. It can handle output current levels
of up to 150 mA, and its maximum supply voltage is 40 V. The line and load regulations
are each specified as 0.01%, which means that the output voltage will stay within 0.01%
of its set value even when there are changes in the input voltage or output current.

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Design a positive voltage regulator with an IC 723

To desired output voltage range, variations in the values of resistors R1 and R2 are
made using a potentiometer. A Darlington connection is also used with transistor Q1
to handle large load currents. The broken lines in the image indicate the internal
connections for current limiting. Additionally, the IC allows for foldback current
limiting.
If a regulator output voltage less than the 7V reference level is needed, a voltage
divider can be employed across the reference source, and the potentially divided
reference voltage can be connected to terminal 5.
The voltage at the NI terminal of the error amplifier is determined by the R1-R2 divider
network and is equal to 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅2/(𝑅1 + 𝑅2). This voltage difference between the NI
terminal and the INV terminal (Vo) is amplified by the error amplifier, which in turn
drives the pass transistor Q1 to minimize the difference. Q1 acts as an emitter follower,
and as such Vo is equal to 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅2/(𝑅1 + 𝑅2).
If the output voltage goes low, the INV terminal voltage also decreases, leading to a
more positive output from the error amplifier, which drives Q1 more into conduction.
This allows more current to flow into the load, increasing the voltage across it and
compensating for the initial drop in voltage.
Similarly, an increase in load voltage is also regulated. It's worth noting that Vref is set
to 7.15V, and Vo is always less than 7V, making this a low voltage regulator.

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4.7 3-terminal IC regulators, Fixed voltage series regulators-

78XX,79XX

3-terminal IC regulators, such as the fixed voltage series regulators 78XX and 79XX,
provide a range of benefits, including low cost, high reliability, reduced size, ease of
use, and excellent performance. These units integrate a reference source, comparator,
control unit, and overload protection circuitry into a single IC.
The regulators feature three main pins: an unregulated input voltage pin (pin 1), a
regulated output voltage pin (pin 3), and a ground pin (pin 2). They are available in
two package types: plastic packages (TO-220 type) and metal packages (TO-3 type).

78XX Series:
The 78XX series consists of 3-terminal, positive fixed voltage regulators. These
regulators offer seven different output voltage options, including 5V, 6V, 8V, 12V, 15V,
18V, and 24V. The last two digits in the part number indicate the output voltage, so
for example, the 7815 represents a regulator with an output voltage of 15V.
Example of 7805 regulated power supply:

The figure displays a schematic diagram of a regulated 5V DC power supply that

uses an IC (Integrated Circuit) 7805. The IC 7805 is a voltage regulator that
regulates the voltage output to a fixed 5 volts.
The schematic diagram includes two capacitors - an input capacitor (C1) (10𝜇𝐹)
and an output capacitor (C2) (0.1 𝜇𝐹) . The input capacitor (C1) is placed between
the input voltage source and the input pin (1) of the IC 7805. This capacitor has a
capacitance of 10μF and is used to cancel the inductive effects that may occur due
to long distribution leads.
When the input voltage source is turned on, it may experience voltage spikes and
fluctuations due to the inductance in the distribution leads. The input capacitor (C1)

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helps to smooth out these voltage spikes and ensure that a stable input voltage is
provided to the IC 7805.
The output capacitor (C2) is placed between the output pin of IC 7805 and the
ground. This capacitor has a capacitance of 0.1μF and is used to improve the
transient response of the regulator. Transient response refers to the ability of the
regulator to respond quickly to sudden changes in the load current.
When there is a sudden change in the load current, there may be a brief delay
before the IC 7805 adjusts the output voltage to the new load condition. This delay
can cause voltage fluctuations, which may affect the performance of the circuit. The
output capacitor (C2) helps to reduce these voltage fluctuations and ensures that
the output voltage remains stable even during sudden changes in the load current.
79XX Series:
• 3 terminal,negative fixed voltage regulators.
• Two extra voltage options of -2V and -5.2V
Examples of 3-terminal linear regulator ICs include the 7805, 7812, LM317, LM7805,
LM7812 and LM79XX. Examples of switching regulator ICs include LM2675, LM2678
and LM2679.
Characteristics of 3 terminal IC regulators:
In technical terms, Vo refers to the regulated output voltage that is set at a specific
value by the manufacturer. The unregulated input voltage, Vin, must be equal to or
greater than |Vo|+2, which means that Vin must be at least 2 volts higher than the
regulated output voltage. For instance, if Vo is set at 5 volts, then Vin must be at least
7 volts.
The IC (Integrated Circuit) has a built-in temperature sensor that activates thermal
shutdown when the IC becomes too hot, typically at a temperature between 125°C and
150°C. During thermal shutdown, the output current of the IC decreases until the IC is
sufficiently cooled.
The load current, Io(max), can range from 0 to the maximum rated output current. The
IC usually comes with a heat sink to ensure that the rated maximum output current is
met; otherwise, the IC may not deliver the rated maximum output current.

4.8 LDO and micropower regulators

LDO and micropower regulators are types of voltage regulators that are designed to
provide a stable output voltage while consuming very low power.
LDO stands for "low-dropout" regulator. They are linear regulators that have a very
low dropout voltage, which means that the input voltage can be very close to the
output voltage. This makes them ideal for use in applications where the input voltage
is close to the desired output voltage and where low power consumption is important.

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LDO regulators are available in fixed and adjustable versions, and they are widely used
in portable electronic devices, battery-powered devices, and other low-power
applications.

The LT3010 is a voltage regulator that can be used in a variety of applications. Figure
shows a typical application where the only external components required are input
and output bypass capacitors.
The LT3010 has internal frequency compensation that helps stabilize the output for a
wide range of capacitors.
One of the great features of the LT3010 is that it does not require external protection
diodes. If the input voltage reverses due to a backwards battery or fault on the line, no
current flows into the device and no negative voltage is seen at the load.
The LT3010 is also suitable for dual supply applications where the regulator load is
returned to a negative supply. The output can be pulled below ground by several volts
while still allowing the device to start and operate.
Finally, the LT3010 provides current limiting and thermal limiting features. These
features help protect the device from damage due to excessive current or temperature.

4.9 Buck, Boost and Buck-boost switching regulators

Buck, Boost, and Buck-boost are types of switching voltage regulators that are
designed to convert a voltage from one level to another level.
Let's start with Buck regulators. Buck regulators are a type of switching voltage
regulator that reduce the input voltage to a lower output voltage. They work by
switching the input voltage on and off at a high frequency and using the resulting
pulses to charge an inductor. The output voltage is determined by the duty cycle of
the switch and the inductor value. Buck regulators are typically used to convert a higher
voltage to a lower voltage.
Next, we have Boost regulators. Boost regulators are a type of switching voltage
regulator that increase the input voltage to a higher output voltage. They work by
switching the input voltage on and off at a high frequency and using the resulting

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pulses to charge a capacitor. The output voltage is determined by the duty cycle of the
switch and the capacitor value. Boost regulators are typically used to convert a lower
voltage to a higher voltage.
Lastly, we have Buck-boost regulators, which can both step-up and step-down the
input voltage to a different output voltage. They work by switching the input voltage
on and off at a high frequency and using the resulting pulses to charge an inductor or
capacitor. The output voltage is determined by the duty cycle of the switch and the
inductor or capacitor value. Buck-boost regulators can be used to convert a higher
voltage to a lower voltage or a lower voltage to a higher voltage. They are often used
in portable electronic devices and other applications where the input voltage may vary.

4.10 Short circuit and over-voltage protection

Short circuit and over-voltage protection are important safety features that are
designed to protect electronic devices and systems from damage caused by abnormal
electrical conditions.

A crowbar circuit is a low-cost and efficient way to protect against over-voltage shown
in Figure. It's usually placed between the regulated output and the circuit being
protected. The series regulating transistor (TR1) controls the output, while the crowbar
steps in to prevent damage when the voltage exceeds a preset level. This simple circuit
only requires a few basic components:
1. A silicon controlled rectifier (SCR),
2. Zener diode,
3. A resistor, and
4. A Capacitor.

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During normal operation, the Zener diode (ZD1) is inactive, but once the voltage
exceeds the Zener breakdown voltage, it begins conducting and triggers the SCR
(SCR1). The SCR then creates a short circuit, sending all the current to the ground and
opening the fuse. To ensure the circuit functions correctly, the Zener diode must be
chosen slightly above the output voltage, and the SCR firing voltage must be well
above the power supply's output voltage to avoid false triggers. Although this circuit
is effective, it does have some limitations, such as the non-adjustable Zener diode and
a tolerance of only 5%.

4.11 Wireless power supply

Wireless power supply is a technology that enables the transfer of electrical energy
from a power source to a device without the use of physical connections such as wires
or cables. This is achieved by using electromagnetic waves to transfer energy from the
power source to the device.
One of the most common forms of wireless power supply is inductive charging. This
uses electromagnetic induction to transfer energy from the power source to the device.
Inductive charging works by creating an electromagnetic field between a transmitter
coil in the power source and a receiver coil in the device. When the device is placed
within this electromagnetic field, electrical energy is induced into the receiver coil,
which is then used to charge the device's battery. This is the technology used in many
wireless charging pads for smartphones and other devices.
Another form of wireless power supply is resonant inductive coupling. This uses a
resonant circuit to transfer energy between the power source and the device. The
power source and the device each have a resonant coil, and the energy is transferred
between the two coils when they are tuned to the same resonant frequency. This
method can transfer power over a larger distance than inductive charging.
A third type of wireless power supply is based on radio frequency (RF) energy transfer.
RF energy transfer uses radio frequency waves to transfer energy from the power
source to the device. The power source generates a high frequency electromagnetic
field, and the device is designed to pick up this energy and convert it into electrical
energy to charge the device's battery.
Wireless power supply technology is still in its infancy, but it has the potential to
revolutionize the way we power our devices. This technology is expected to be widely
adopted in the future, especially in applications such as electric vehicles and the
Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
Wireless power supply is a technology that enables the transfer of electrical energy
from a power source to a device without the use of physical connections such as wires
or cables. The most common forms of wireless power supply are inductive charging,
resonant inductive coupling and RF energy transfer. Wireless power supply technology

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is expected to be widely adopted in the future, and has the potential to revolutionize
the way we power our devices.

4.12 USB Power Delivery (USB PD)

USB Power Delivery (USB-PD) is a power management specification that allows USB
devices to be charged more quickly and efficiently. It is an extension of the USB
charging standard and allows for higher power charging up to 100 watts at 20 volts.
This allows USB-PD compliant devices to charge faster and more efficiently than
devices that only support standard USB charging.
One of the key features of USB-PD is its ability to negotiate power delivery between
the device and the power source. This allows the device to request a specific amount
of power and the power source to deliver that power. This negotiation process can
occur over the USB data lines and can be used to determine the maximum power that
the device can handle, and to ensure that the device is not damaged by receiving too
much power.
Another feature of USB-PD is its ability to operate in multiple power profiles. This
allows devices to switch between different power levels depending on their power
requirements. For example, a device may use a lower power profile when it is in
standby mode, and a higher power profile when it is in use. This helps to conserve
energy and prolong battery life.
USB-PD is widely supported in modern smartphones, laptops, and other devices and
it's becoming the norm for charging larger devices like laptops and tablets. USB-PD
chargers are widely available and are compatible with a wide range of devices.
USB Power Delivery (USB-PD) is a power management specification that allows USB
devices to be charged more quickly and efficiently than standard USB charging. It
allows for higher power charging up to 100 watts at 20 volts and allows for negotiation
of power delivery between the device and the power source. USB-PD also allows
devices to switch between different power levels depending on their power
requirements, thus conserving energy and prolonging battery life. It's widely
supported and becoming the norm for charging larger devices.

4.13 Battery types and characteristics

There are several different types of batteries, each with their own unique characteristics
and applications. Some of the most common types of batteries include:
1. Lithium-ion batteries: These are rechargeable batteries that are widely used in
portable devices such as smartphones and laptops. They have a high energy
density and a long lifespan, but can be expensive.
2. Nickel-cadmium batteries: These are also rechargeable batteries that are
widely used in portable devices. They are relatively inexpensive and have a good
cycle life, but they can be affected by a phenomenon known as "memory effect,"

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where the battery's capacity is reduced if it is not fully discharged before

recharging.
3. Lead-acid batteries: These are widely used in automobiles and other vehicles.
They are relatively inexpensive and have a long lifespan, but they are heavy and
can be affected by sulfation, a process that reduces the battery's capacity over
time.
4. Alkaline batteries: These are non-rechargeable batteries that are widely used
in household devices. They are relatively inexpensive and have a long shelf life,
but they cannot be recharged and must be replaced when they are depleted.
5. Lithium primary batteries: These are non-rechargeable batteries that are
widely used in portable devices. They have a high energy density, a long shelf
life and are lightweight, but they are more expensive than alkaline batteries.
6. Zinc-carbon batteries: These are also non-rechargeable batteries that are
widely used in household devices. They are relatively inexpensive, but have a
shorter shelf life and lower energy density than alkaline batteries.
7. Zinc-carbon batteries: These are also non-rechargeable batteries that are
widely used in household devices. They are relatively inexpensive, but have a
shorter shelf life and lower energy density than alkaline batteries.
8. Nickel-metal Hydride batteries : These are rechargeable batteries that are
used in portable devices and electric vehicles. They have a high energy density,
a long lifespan and relatively inexpensive but they can suffer from memory
effect if not fully discharged before recharging.
Each type of battery has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, and it's
important to choose the right type of battery for the specific application.

4.14 Battery charging for lead-acid and lithium type batteries.

Lead-acid batteries, the most common type of batteries used in automobiles and
other vehicles, require a specific charging process to ensure optimal performance and
prolong their lifespan. The process of charging a lead-acid battery involves several
stages:
1. Bulk charging: This is the initial stage of charging where the battery is charged
at a high rate until it reaches around 80% of its capacity. This stage typically
takes the longest and can take several hours.
2. Absorption charging: This is the second stage of charging, where the battery
is charged at a lower rate to bring the charge level to around 90-95%. During
this stage, the voltage is held at a constant level and the current gradually
decreases.

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3. Float charging: This is the final stage of charging where the battery is held at
a constant voltage, typically around 13.8 volts, to maintain its charge level. This
stage is used to keep the battery fully charged when it is not in use.
4. Equalizing charge: Periodically, a lead-acid battery should be given an
equalizing charge. This is a special type of charge that is applied to all the cells
in the battery to balance the charge in each cell. This helps to prevent the
formation of sulfation and prolongs the battery's lifespan.
It's important to note that overcharging lead-acid batteries can cause damage to the
battery, so it's important to use a charger specifically designed for lead-acid batteries
and to follow the manufacturer's instructions.
It's also important to note that lead-acid batteries should not be stored in a discharged
state as this can damage the battery and reduce its lifespan. If a lead-acid battery will
be stored for an extended period of time, it should be charged to around 50% before
being stored in a cool and dry place.
charging a lead-acid battery involves several stages: bulk charging, absorption
charging, float charging and equalizing charge. It's important to use a charger
specifically designed for lead-acid batteries and to follow the manufacturer's
instructions to ensure optimal performance and prolong the battery's lifespan. It's also
important to store lead-acid batteries properly to prevent damage and reduce their
lifespan.

Lithium-ion batteries, the most common type of rechargeable battery, should be

charged using a constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) charging method. This
involves charging the battery with a constant current until it reaches a certain voltage
(typically around 4.2V per cell), at which point the charger switches to a constant
voltage and gradually reduces the current until the battery is fully charged. It is also
recommended to avoid charging lithium-ion batteries to full capacity and instead
charge them to around 80-90% to prolong their lifespan. Overheating, overcharging,
and deep discharging should be avoided to prevent damage to the battery.

Exercise:

1. What is the difference between an AC and a DC power source? Explain the

function of a rectifier circuit in converting AC to DC power.
2. Compare and contrast linear and switching power supplies. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each type of power supply, and what factors
determine which type is most appropriate for a particular application?

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3. What is a transformer-less power supply, and what are some of its advantages
and disadvantages? How does a capacitive dropper circuit work, and what are
some of the key design considerations for this type of power supply?
4. Explain the principle of operation of a Zener regulator and an op-amp based
regulator. What are the key advantages and disadvantages of each type of
regulator, and under what conditions would you choose one over the other?
5. Describe the function of the 723 IC regulator and the different types of 3-
terminal IC regulators. What are some of the key features and specifications to
consider when selecting an IC regulator for a particular application?
6. What are LDO and micropower regulators, and what are some of their key
applications? How do they differ from other types of regulators, and what are
some of the key design considerations when using these types of regulators?
7. Compare and contrast Buck, Boost, and Buck-boost switching regulators. What
are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of regulator, and under
what conditions would you choose one over the other?
8. What is short circuit protection, and why is it important in power supply design?
What is over-voltage protection, and how is it implemented in power supply
circuits?
9. Explain the principles of wireless power supply and USB-PD. What are some of
the key design considerations for implementing these types of power supplies,
and what are some of the challenges that need to be addressed when using
wireless power or USB-PD?
10. Compare and contrast the characteristics of lead-acid and lithium type
batteries. What are the key factors to consider when selecting a battery for a
particular application? How do you design a battery charging circuit for each
type of battery, and what are some of the key considerations when charging
batteries?

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Chapter 5 Mechanical Fabrication and

Design Processes

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5.1 Mechanical fabrication processes

There are several mechanical fabrication processes used to create parts and structures.
Some common processes include:
1. Machining: This process uses cutting tools to remove material from a piece of
stock to create a desired shape. Examples include drilling, turning, and milling.
2. Forging: This process uses compressive forces to shape metal, typically while it
is hot. The metal is pounded or pressed into the desired shape.
3. Casting: This process involves pouring liquid metal or plastic into a mold and
allowing it to solidify. The mold is typically made of metal, ceramic, or sand.
4. Stamping: This process uses a stamping press to cut, bend, and shape sheet
metal.
5. Welding: This process joins two pieces of metal by heating the surfaces to their
melting point and pressing them together.
6. Extrusion: This process pushes a material, usually a plastic or metal, through a
die to create a shape.
7. Injection molding: This process injects a thermoplastic or thermosetting plastic
into a mold and then cools it to take the shape of the mold.
8. Additive manufacturing: This process uses a 3D printer to build a structure by
laying down successive layers of material.
Different fabrication processes are suitable for different materials and application, the
choice will depend on the design, material, volume, and the desired surface finish.

5.2 3-axis CNC

A 3-axis CNC (computer numerical control) machine is a type of machine tool that
uses computer-controlled motors to move the tool in 3 different directions: the X-axis,
Y-axis, and Z-axis. These axes correspond to the machine's movement along the
length, width, and height of the material being machined, respectively.
3-axis CNC machines are typically used for milling, drilling, and cutting operations on
a variety of materials including metals, plastics, and composites. They are widely used
in manufacturing industries such as aerospace, automotive, and medical devices.
A 3-axis CNC machine typically consists of a control unit, a machine tool, and a
computer program called G-code. The control unit sends electrical signals to the
machine tool's motors, which move the tool along the X, Y, and Z axes. The G-code
program is used to control the machine's movements and tell it what operations to
perform on the material.

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The 3-axis CNC machines are generally less versatile than the 5-axis CNC machines
which have more degree of freedom in their movement, but they are also less
expensive and have simpler software.

5.3 3D printing

3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a process of creating three-

dimensional objects by building up layers of material. It is an alternative to traditional
manufacturing methods, such as casting, molding, and machining, which involve
removing material to create a final product.
There are several different types of 3D printing technologies available, each with their
own advantages and disadvantages. Some common types include:
1. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): This type of 3D printing uses a filament of
thermoplastic material, which is melted and extruded through a nozzle to create
the object layer by layer.
2. Stereolithography (SLA): This type of 3D printing uses a laser to cure a liquid
resin into a solid object, layer by layer.
3. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): Similar to SLA, this technology uses a laser to
sinter a powdered material into a solid object, layer by layer.
4. Digital Light Processing (DLP): This technology uses a projector to cure a liquid
resin into a solid object, layer by layer.
5. Material jetting: This technology uses a print head that drops droplets of liquid
material, which are cured by UV light and build the object, layer by layer.
3D printing technology has a wide range of applications including prototyping,
tooling, end-use parts, medical, aerospace, automotive, and many more, the choice of
technology will depend on the material, precision, surface finish, and the size of the
object.

5.4 mini lathe

A mini lathe is a small, bench-top sized machine tool that is used for turning, drilling,
and cutting operations on a variety of materials, including metals, plastics, and wood.
Mini lathes typically have a smaller bed size and less powerful motors than larger,
industrial-grade lathes, making them more suitable for hobbyists, DIY enthusiasts, and
small-scale production.
A mini lathe typically consists of a bed, a headstock, a tailstock, and a tool post. The
bed is the base of the machine and provides a stable platform for the other
components. The headstock holds the motor and the chuck, which is used to hold the
material being worked on. The tailstock is used to support the other end of the material
and can be adjusted along the bed to accommodate different lengths. The tool post
holds the cutting tool, which is used to remove material from the workpiece.

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Mini lathes can be used for a variety of operations, including turning, drilling, boring,
knurling, and threading. They are typically operated using a manual control, though
some models may have a simple CNC (computer numerical control) system. Many mini
lathes can also be fitted with digital readout (DRO) systems to provide precise
measurements of the workpiece's position.
Mini lathes are a great tool for hobbyists, DIY enthusiasts, and small-scale production,
but they are not as powerful or precise as larger, industrial-grade lathes. They also
have a smaller capacity and can be limited in the size of the workpiece they can handle.

5.5 Drilling

Drilling is a process of cutting a hole into a solid material using a drill bit, which is a
cutting tool with sharp edges. The drill bit is typically held in a drill press or a hand-
held drill and is rotated at high speeds while being pressed against the material. The
cutting edges of the drill bit remove material as it rotates, creating a hole.
Drilling is a common operation in a wide range of industries, including manufacturing,
construction, and metalworking. There are many different types of drilling operations,
each with their own specific purpose and application. Some common types of drilling
include:
1. Hand drilling: This is the most basic form of drilling, typically done with a hand-
held drill and a simple drill bit.
2. Tapping: This is a specialized form of drilling used to create threads in a hole.
3. Countersinking: This is a process of drilling a hole with a tapered end to allow
for the flush installation of a screw or bolt head.
4. Reaming: This is a process of enlarging or smoothing an existing hole to a
precise size.
5. Boring: This is a process of drilling a hole with a larger diameter than the drill
bit.
6. Trepanning: This is a process of drilling a hole with a larger diameter than the
drill bit and leaving a solid core in the middle.
The choice of drilling method will depend on the material, the size, the precision, the
depth, the surface finish and the shape of the hole that is intended to be made.
In addition to drilling by hand or drilling press, CNC drilling machines are also widely
used to perform drilling operations with high precision and efficiency.

5.6 Laser cutting

Laser cutting is a process of cutting materials using a highly focused laser beam. The
laser beam is directed onto the material, which is then vaporized or melted, leaving a
precise cut edge. Laser cutting is a highly accurate and efficient method of cutting a
wide range of materials, including metals, plastics, wood, and composites.

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There are two main types of laser cutting: CO2 laser cutting and fiber laser cutting.
CO2 laser cutting uses a gas laser that emits a beam of infrared light, while fiber laser
cutting uses a solid-state laser that emits a beam of infrared light from a fiber optic
cable. Both types of laser cutting use a focused beam of light to vaporize or melt the
material, but fiber laser cutting is more efficient and precise.
Laser cutting is widely used in a variety of industries, including manufacturing,
aerospace, automotive, medical, and electronics. It is particularly useful for cutting
complex shapes, intricate designs, and small parts, as well as for cutting thick materials.
It can also be used for cutting, marking, and engraving a variety of materials.
Laser cutting machines are available in a wide range of sizes and capabilities, from
small benchtop units to large-scale industrial machines. The choice of laser cutting
machine will depend on the material, thickness, and size of the parts to be cut, as well
as the desired precision and production rate.

5.7 Laser engraving

Laser engraving is a process of using a laser beam to etch or mark a surface with a
design or pattern. The laser beam is directed onto the surface of the material, which
causes the material to vaporize or melt, creating a precise and permanent mark.
Like laser cutting, there are two main types of laser engraving: CO2 laser engraving
and fiber laser engraving. CO2 laser engraving uses a gas laser that emits a beam of
infrared light, while fiber laser engraving uses a solid-state laser that emits a beam of
infrared light from a fiber optic cable. Both types of laser engraving use a focused
beam of light to vaporize or melt the material, but fiber laser engraving is more
efficient and precise.
Laser engraving is used in a wide range of industries and applications, including
marking and identification, product branding, personalization, and decoration. It can
be used on a variety of materials, including metals, plastics, wood, glass, and ceramics.
Laser engraving machines are available in a wide range of sizes and capabilities, from
small benchtop units to large-scale industrial machines. The choice of laser engraving
machine will depend on the material, size, and design of the parts to be engraved, as
well as the desired precision and production rate. The laser engraving process can be
used to create a wide range of designs, including text, logos, images, and patterns.
5.8 3D printing technology

3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a technology that creates a

physical object from a digital model by building it layer by layer. This process is the
opposite of traditional manufacturing methods, such as machining or injection
molding, which involve cutting away or injecting material to create a final shape.
There are several different types of 3D printing technologies, including:

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1. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): This technology melts a plastic filament

and extrudes it through a nozzle to build the object layer by layer.
2. Stereolithography (SLA): This technology uses a laser to cure a liquid resin into
a solid object layer by layer.
3. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): This technology uses a laser to fuse together
small particles of plastic, metal, or ceramic powder to build the object layer by
layer.
4. Digital Light Processing (DLP): This technology uses a digital light projector
to cure a liquid resin into a solid object layer by layer.
5. Directed Energy Deposition (DED): This technology uses a focused laser or
electron beam to deposit material, usually in the form of metal wire or powder,
onto the build platform to create an object.
Each of these technologies has its own unique advantages and disadvantages
depending on the materials, size, accuracy and surface finish of the object that you
want to print.
3D printing is widely used in a variety of industries, such as aerospace, automotive,
medical, and manufacturing, for prototyping, product development, and small-scale
production. It can also be used in manufacturing, automotive and aerospace industries
to create complex geometries, spare parts, and tooling that are difficult or impossible
to create using traditional manufacturing methods.
In recent years, 3D printing technology has made significant advances and has become
more accessible and affordable. As a result, it has also been used in small scale and
home-based manufacturing, education, art and even food industry.
5.8.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a type of 3D printing technology that uses a

thermoplastic material in the form of a filament that is melted and extruded through
a small nozzle to build the object layer by layer. The nozzle is moved in a specific
pattern to create the shape of the object and the material is extruded and solidifies as
it cools, creating a solid part.
FDM is one of the most widely used 3D printing technologies due to its relatively low
cost and ease of use. It is suitable for a wide range of materials, including ABS, PLA,
Nylon, TPU, and PETG. These materials can be used to create a wide range of objects,
from toys and figurines to functional parts such as gears and brackets.
FDM 3D printers have a build volume that can vary in size, which means the maximum
size of the object that can be printed. Some FDM 3D printers are designed for small
parts, while others are designed for large parts.
FDM 3D printing technology is widely used in a variety of industries and applications,
including prototyping, product development, and small-scale production. The

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technology is also commonly used by hobbyists and educators, as it is an affordable

and accessible way to create 3D printed objects.
FDM technology has its own advantages and limitations. It is suitable for creating parts
that are strong and durable, but it is not suitable for creating high-resolution or precise
parts, and its surface finish is usually not smooth. Also, the materials used in FDM have
a limited temperature range and may not be suitable for certain applications.
5.8.2 Stereolithography (SLA)

Stereolithography (SLA) is a type of 3D printing technology that uses a laser to cure a

liquid resin into a solid object layer by layer. The process starts with a tank of liquid
resin, a platform that is lowered into the tank, and a laser that is directed at the resin
to cure it in specific areas. The platform is then lowered by a small amount, and the
laser is directed at a new layer of resin, curing it and bonding it to the previous layer.
This process is repeated until the entire object is built.
SLA is considered a high-resolution 3D printing technology and is capable of
producing highly detailed and accurate parts, with smooth surface finish. SLA is widely
used in industries such as dental, medical, jewelry, and high-end consumer products.
It is also used to create models and prototypes for industrial and engineering design,
such as aerospace and automotive.
SLA is a versatile technology, as it can print with a wide range of materials, including
rigid, flexible, and transparent resins. The materials used in SLA have a wide range of
properties, such as different colors, transparency, toughness, and chemical resistance.
SLA technology has its own advantages and limitations. The surface finish and accuracy
of the parts is high, but the build volume is usually small, and the cost of the equipment
and materials is relatively high. Also, SLA parts are not always as strong and durable as
those produced with other 3D printing technologies.
5.8.3 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is a type of 3D printing technology that uses a laser to
fuse together small particles of a powdered material, layer by layer, to form a solid
object. The process begins by spreading a thin layer of powdered material over a build
platform, which is then selectively fused together by a laser in the shape of the object.
The platform is then lowered, and another layer of powdered material is added and
fused, building up the object layer by layer.
SLS is a popular 3D printing technology for producing functional parts and end-use
products, as it can print with a wide range of materials including plastics, metals,
ceramics and even glass. These materials can be used to create a wide range of objects,
from toys and figurines to gears, brackets, and even aerospace parts.
SLS technology is known for producing parts with high strength and durability, and it
is also capable of producing complex geometries that would be difficult or impossible
to produce using traditional manufacturing methods. Additionally, SLS is a powder-

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based technology, which means that the printed parts don't require any support
structures, unlike other 3D printing technologies such as FDM and SLA.
SLS technology has its own advantages and limitations. The build volume of SLS
printers is usually larger than SLA printers, and the parts can be made with high
strength and durability, but the surface finish of SLS parts is usually not as smooth as
SLA or FDM. Also, the cost of SLS equipment and materials is relatively high, and the
technology is not suitable for printing parts with high resolution or precision.
5.8.4 Digital Light Processing (DLP)

Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a type of 3D printing technology that uses a digital
light projector to cure a liquid resin into a solid object layer by layer. It works by
projecting a cross-section of the object to be printed onto the surface of a vat of liquid
resin. The resin is then cured by the light from the projector, and the platform is
lowered by a small amount, and the next layer is projected and cured. This process is
repeated until the entire object is built.
DLP is similar to Stereolithography (SLA) in terms of the process and the materials
used, but it has some advantages over SLA. DLP is generally faster than SLA because
it cures an entire layer at once, whereas SLA cures one point at a time.
DLP technology is capable of producing highly detailed and accurate parts, with
smooth surface finish, and it can be used to print with a wide range of materials,
including rigid, flexible, and transparent resins. The materials used in DLP have a wide
range of properties, such as different colors, transparency, toughness, and chemical
resistance. DLP is considered as a high-resolution 3D printing technology and is widely
used in industries such as dental, medical, jewelry, and high-end consumer products.
The DLP technology has its own advantages and limitations. The surface finish and
accuracy of the parts is high, but the build volume is usually small, and the cost of the
equipment and materials is relatively high. Also, DLP parts are not always as strong
and durable as those produced with other 3D printing technologies.
5.8.5 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)

Directed Energy Deposition (DED) is a type of 3D printing technology that uses a

focused beam of energy, such as a laser or an electron beam, to melt or fuse a metal
or plastic material as it is deposited. The material is typically fed into the beam in the
form of a wire or powder, and as it melts, it is deposited onto a substrate or a previously
deposited layer to build the object layer by layer.
DED is a versatile technology that can be used to print a wide range of materials,
including metals, alloys, ceramics, and plastics, and it can be used to create a wide
variety of objects, from small components to large-scale structures.
DED is particularly well-suited to the repair and manufacture of large-scale or complex
parts, such as aerospace components, turbine blades, and large-scale sculptures, which
would be difficult or impossible to produce using traditional manufacturing methods.

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DED technology has its own advantages and limitations. The process is suitable for
creating large and complex parts, and it is capable of producing parts with high
strength and durability, but the surface finish of the parts is usually not as smooth as
other 3D printing technologies, and the cost of the equipment and materials is
relatively high.

5.9 3- axis CNC operation

A 3-axis CNC (computer numerical control) machine is a type of machine tool that is
controlled by a computer to perform precise cutting, drilling, grinding, or milling
operations on a wide range of materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. The "3-
axis" refers to the three directions in which the machine's cutting tool can move: the
x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis.
The CNC machine is operated using a specialized software that is used to create a
digital model of the object to be machined, and then the software converts the digital
model into a set of instructions that the machine can understand. The instructions, also
known as G-code, tell the machine where to move the cutting tool, how fast to move
it, and how deep to cut.
The CNC machine typically includes a number of different components, including a
cutting tool, a workpiece, a control unit, and a power supply. The cutting tool is
typically mounted on a spindle that can rotate at high speeds, and it is controlled by
the control unit, which is responsible for interpreting the G-code instructions and
controlling the movement of the cutting tool.
The CNC machine is operated by an operator who is responsible for loading the
workpiece, setting the machine's parameters, and monitoring the cutting process. The
operator may also be responsible for maintaining the machine, troubleshooting any
problems that may arise, and making any necessary adjustments to the machine's
settings.

5.10 2D file designing for drilling, cutting, milling

Designing a 2D file for drilling, cutting, and milling refers to the process of creating a
digital drawing or blueprint of the object that will be machined, which can then be
used to control a CNC (computer numerical control) machine or other automated
machining equipment. The file typically includes information about the location, size,
and shape of the holes to be drilled, the outlines of the parts to be cut, and the
contours of the surface to be milled, as well as any other relevant information, such as
the type of cutting tool to be used and the machining parameters (such as speed, feed
rate, and depth of cut).
There are a few different software options available for designing 2D files for drilling,
cutting, and milling, including AutoCAD, CorelDRAW, and Adobe Illustrator. These
programs typically include a variety of tools for creating and editing vector graphics,

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which can be used to create precise and accurate drawings of the object to be
machined.
Once the 2D file is complete, it can be converted into a format that can be understood
by the machining equipment, such as G-code. This G-code file can then be loaded into
the CNC machine or other automated machining equipment, which will use it to
control the movement of the cutting tool and guide it to the precise location of each
hole to be drilled, the outlines of the parts to be cut, and the contours of the surface
to be milled.
2D file designing for drilling, cutting, and milling is an important step in the machining
process, as it ensures that the holes are drilled, the parts are cut, and the surface is
milled in the correct location and to the correct size and shape. It also allows for precise
and accurate machining of parts that would be difficult or impossible to machine by
hand.

5.11 Laser Cutting and engraving using Flatcam

FlatCAM is a software tool used to create CNC (computer numerical control) machine-
readable files from 2D vector designs, such as those created in AutoCAD, Illustrator, or
CorelDRAW, for use in laser cutting and engraving.
FlatCAM allows the user to import a 2D vector file and convert it into G-code, a
programming language that can be understood by the CNC machine. The software
also allows the user to make adjustments to the design, such as changing the order of
the cutting or engraving operations, adjusting the cut or engrave depth, and setting
the speed and power of the laser.
Once the design is ready, the G-code file can be loaded into the laser cutter or
engraver, which will then use it to guide the laser beam as it cuts or engraves the
material.
FlatCAM is widely used in a variety of industries, including woodworking, jewelry
making, signmaking, and more. It is known for its ease of use, flexibility and the ability
to import a wide variety of file formats.
5.12 Inkspace

Inkscape is an open-source vector graphics editor similar to Adobe Illustrator,

CorelDRAW, and Freehand. It is used to create and edit vector graphics, such as
illustrations, diagrams, logos, and technical drawings.
Inkscape has a wide range of features, including support for multiple file formats, such
as SVG, AI, EPS, and PDF, and a variety of drawing tools, such as Bezier curves,
rectangles, ellipses, and polygons. It also includes advanced features such as gradient
fills, markers, and path effects.
In addition to creating and editing vector graphics, Inkscape can also be used for tasks
such as web design, icon creation, and user interface design. It also has built-in support

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for exporting graphics to raster formats, such as PNG, JPG, and BMP, which can be
useful for web design and other online applications.
Inkscape also has support for laser cutting and engraving, by exporting the design in
the Gcode format, which can be directly read by the CNC machines.
Inkscape is a popular choice among graphic designers and illustrators, as well as
hobbyists, students, and small businesses. It is available for Windows, Mac, and Linux
operating systems.

5.13 OpenBSP

OpenBSP (Open Build Service Platform) is an open-source platform for creating

custom electronic devices using a variety of microcontroller boards, such as the
Arduino, Raspberry Pi, and BeagleBone.
It allows users to easily create custom circuit boards (PCBs) by integrating pre-
designed circuits and components, such as sensors, actuators, and communication
modules. The platform also includes a library of pre-designed circuits and components
that can be used to create custom devices.
OpenBSP also provides an integrated development environment (IDE) that allows users
to write and upload code to the microcontroller board, as well as test and debug the
device. It supports several programming languages like C, C++, Python and JavaScript.
One of the key features of OpenBSP is its ability to generate Gerber files (used to
fabricate PCBs) and BOM (Bill of Materials) files, which allows for easy manufacturing
of custom devices.
OpenBSP is designed for use by engineers, hobbyists, students, and small businesses
who want to create custom electronic devices without the need for expensive
equipment or specialized knowledge. It is available for Windows, Mac and Linux
operating systems.

5.14 3D file designing using Sketchup

SketchUp is a 3D modeling software used for creating, visualizing, and presenting

architectural and engineering designs, as well as other types of 3D models. It is widely
used in architecture, interior design, construction, and other industries.
SketchUp offers a variety of tools for creating 3D models, including basic shapes, lines,
and arcs, as well as more advanced tools such as the Push/Pull tool, which allows you
to extrude 2D shapes into 3D forms. It also has a variety of drawing and editing tools
that allow you to refine your model and add details, such as text, dimensions, and
annotations.
SketchUp also has a large library of pre-made components, such as furniture, vehicles,
and landscaping elements, which can be easily inserted into your model. You can also
import and export 3D models in a variety of file formats, such as STL, OBJ, and
COLLADA.

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SketchUp also includes a built-in rendering engine that allows you to create photo-
realistic images of your model. This can be useful for presentations and visualizations,
as well as for creating architectural renderings and animations.
In addition to its use in architecture and design, SketchUp is also used in other
industries such as film and game development, as well as in education and research.
SketchUp is a popular choice among architects, interior designers, and other
professionals, as well as hobbyists and students. It is available for Windows, Mac, and
Linux operating systems.

5.15 FreeCAD

FreeCAD is a free and open-source 3D computer-aided design (CAD) software that is

primarily used for mechanical engineering and product design. It is also used in other
fields such as architecture, woodworking, and jewelry design. It is available for
Windows, Mac, and Linux operating systems.
FreeCAD has a wide range of tools for creating 3D models, including basic shapes,
lines, and arcs, as well as more advanced tools such as the Sketcher, which allows you
to create 2D sketches that can be extruded into 3D forms. It also has a variety of
drawing and editing tools that allow you to refine your model and add details, such as
text, dimensions, and annotations.
FreeCAD also includes a built-in parametric modeling feature, which allows you to
create models that can be easily modified by changing certain parameters. This is
useful for creating different variations of a design, or for making changes to a model
based on new specifications.
FreeCAD also has a variety of import and export options, which allow you to work with
other CAD software or to share your models with others. It also has built-in support
for working with 3D printers, which allows you to easily create models that can be
printed on a 3D printer.
FreeCAD is a powerful 3D CAD software that is well-suited for mechanical engineering
and product design. Its parametric modeling feature, wide range of import and export
options, and built-in support for 3D printing make it a versatile tool for a wide range
of projects.

5.16 Prusa Slicer

PrusaSlicer is a free, open-source slicing software that is developed and maintained by

Prusa Research, a company that produces 3D printers. It is primarily used for preparing
3D models for 3D printing, by slicing the model into thin layers, and generating the
corresponding G-code instructions for the printer to follow.
PrusaSlicer supports a wide range of 3D printers and has a variety of advanced features
that make it a popular choice among 3D printing enthusiasts. Some of its key features
include:

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• Support for multiple extruders: PrusaSlicer supports multi-material printing,

which allows you to print with multiple colors or materials at the same time.
• Multi-language support: PrusaSlicer supports multiple languages, making it
accessible to a wider audience.
• Advanced support for customizing print settings: PrusaSlicer offers a wide
range of options for customizing print settings, such as layer height, infill, and
supports. This allows you to fine-tune your prints for the best possible results.
• Support for a wide range of 3D file formats: PrusaSlicer supports a wide
range of 3D file formats, such as STL, OBJ, and AMF, making it easy to work with
models created in other software.
• Support for a wide range of machine control protocols: PrusaSlicer supports
a wide range of machine control protocols, such as G-code, S3G, and X3G,
making it compatible with a wide range of 3D printers.
• PrusaSlicer also has built-in support for several features including Variable
Layer Height, Ironing and more.

Exercise:
1. Explain the principle of operation of a 3-axis CNC machine. What are the
different types of tooling used in CNC machining, and how are they selected?
2. Compare and contrast FDM, SLS, and SLA 3D printing technologies. What are
the key factors to consider when selecting a 3D printing technology for a
particular application?
3. What are the major components of a CNC machine, and how do they work
together to perform CNC machining operations? How are CNC machine
parameters selected and optimized for different materials and cutting
conditions?
4. Explain the different types of CAM toolpaths used in CNC machining. What are
the advantages and disadvantages of using different CAM software programs,
such as Flatcam, Inkscape, and OpenBSP?
5. Describe the process of converting a 3D model into a G-code file for CNC
machining. How are different types of machining operations specified in the G-
code file? What are some common challenges that can arise when converting a
3D model into a machinable G-code file?

Satya P. Singh