UNIT ONE: The Meaning and Concept of Writing

Lead – questions
- What is writing?
- Do you think writing is a skill or a natural gift?
- Describe writing as a process including its stages.
- Why do you learn writing?
- What is required from learners to develop their writing skills?

1.1. What is writing?

Writing is the way that we use letters, numbers or words to express our ideas or opinions on a surface like on
paper. More of, it is one of the productive language skills by which we share or give information to others.
1.2. Writing as a Skill
A realistic attitude about writing must build on the idea that writing is a skill, not a “natural gift.” It is a skill
like driving, typing, or cooking; and, like any skill, it can be learned. If you have the determination to learn,
this module will give you the extensive practice needed to develop your writing skills.

1.3. Writing as a Process of Discovery

In addition to believing that writing is not a natural gift, many people falsely believe that writing should flow
in a simple, straight line from the writer's head onto the written page. But writing is seldom an easy, one-step
journey in which a finished paper comes out in a first draft. The truth is that writing is a process of discovery
involving a series of steps, and those steps are very often a zigzag journey. Look at the following illustrations
of the writing process:
 Seldom the case
STRAIGHT JOURNEY→ Finished paper
Starting point

 Usually the case

ZIGZAG JOURNEY → Finished paper
Starting point

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 1.4. The stages of writing
If we agreed on writing as a process, then it is good to know the stages of writing. There are five main stages
of writing that have different activities by themselves.

 Prewriting stage : it is a freely exploring stages consisting of,

 Choosing a topic
 Narrowing the topic selected
 considering our audience and purpose
 Gathering details
 Selecting the gathered details
 Making an outline
 Writing the first draft
 Shaping our writing by writing the first version without worrying about
committing errors
 Providing elaborations like facts, descriptions and details to help our readers
imagine the action or understand the ideas we present.
 Revising : This is a stage where
 Over all structure
 Paragraphs
 Sentences
 Word choice ( Diction ) are reviewed
 Editing and proof reading, here we focus on :
 Checking spelling
 Checking grammar and usage
 Reviewing capitalization and punctuation
 Double- checking for facts

 Publishing and presenting, here we

 confirm our writing to be error-free and
 hold all the facts ( For further understanding read Level, 2001 ).

1.5. Why writing in general?

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Silver Level (2001) puts that countless situations require you to communicate clearly with others. Writing
is one of the most important tools for achieving that communication. Of course continues Level, speaking
is a vital part of communication, too. Unless it is recorded, though, a discussion disappears. Writing leaves
a permanent record of your ideas.

1.6. Benefits of Writing the Traditional Essay

Beside the above, Langan (2008 ) discusses that it is obvious that we write different types of materials
starting from writing words correctly then sentences, paragraphs and essays. This writing process is
performed for different purposes, for example, writing a traditional essay. We learn to write a traditional
essay at least to get three benefits:
 First of all, mastering the traditional essay will help make you a better writer. For other
courses, you'll often compose papers that will be variations on the essay form—for example,
examination essays, reports, and research papers. Becoming comfortable with the basic
structure of the traditional essay, with its emphasis on a clear point and well-organized,
logical support, will help with almost every kind of writing that you have to do.

 Second, the discipline of writing an essay will strengthen your skills as a reader and listener.
As a reader, you'll become more critically aware of other writers’ ideas and the evidence
they provide (or fail to provide) to support those ideas. Essay writing will also help you
become a better speaker. You'll be more prepared to develop the three basic parts of an
effective speech—an appealing introduction, a solidly developed body, and a well-rounded
conclusion—because of your experience of writing a three-parts essays.

 Most important, essay writing will make you a stronger thinker. Writing a solidly reasoned
traditional essay requires mental discipline and close attention to a set of logical rules.
Creating an essay in which there is an overall thesis statement and in which each of
supporting paragraphs begins with a topic sentence is more challenging than writing a free-
form or expressive paper. Such an essay obliges you to carefully sort out, think through, and
organize your ideas. You'll learn to discover and express just what your ideas are and to
develop those ideas in a logical, reasoned way. Traditional essay writing, in short, will train
your mind to think clearly, and that ability will prove to be of value in every phase of your
life.

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All in all, to write an effective essay we need to develop the important skills and be proficient enough in
writing sentences and paragraphs appropriately. Thus, your instructor would like to advise you that there
are two important requirements that you need to possess: interest and practice.

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 UNIT TWO: Writing Effective Sentence
It is obvious that we usually communicate verbally through two media: speaking and writing to give
information for others. When we communicate through writing formally, mostly the basic unit of idea we use is
a sentence. For constructing a meaningful and complete sentence, understanding the nature of a sentence is
compulsory.
2.1. What is a sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that are arranged appropriately to express an idea (a complete thought)
through a logically related subject and predicate.
Word: A word is a meaningful unit of language sounds. Or it is a meaningful sound or combination of sounds that
is a unit of language or its representation in a text.
There are two types of words: function words (grammatical words) and Content words.

A. Function Words: are words such as the, and, but, in, to, because, while, ought, must, etc. They are words
which have very little meaning such as prepositions, articles, pronouns, and auxiliary verbs. The main use of
function words is to express relationships among other words. Compare the following:
- I am lonely at dark. - The cook prepared a rich feast.
- I am lonely in the dark. - The cook prepared the rich a feast.
B. Content Words: are words having meanings beyond grammar functions. Examples of content words are:
Nouns like house, word, idea etc.
Verbs like go, speak, think etc.
Adjectives like slowly, clearly, clearly etc.

Phrase: is a group of related words that has no subject or predicate and is used as a single part of speech.
Example
- I fell on the side walk. (It is a complete thought.)
- On the sidewalk (It is a phrase - not a complete thought)
Phrases are usually classified as prepositional, infinitive, participial, or gerund phrases.
Example
- He is a man of action. (Prepositional phrase)
- I wanted to buy the house. (Infinitive phrase)
- Covered with ice, the road was dangerous. (Participial phrase)
- Making a profit is their only purpose. (Gerund phrase)

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Clause: is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. The relation of a clause to the rest of a sentence
is shown by the position of the clause or by a conjunction.
There are two kinds of clauses: (1) main, or independent, clauses and (2) subordinate, or dependent, clauses.
1. A main clause has both subject and verb, but it is not introduced by a subordinating word.
A main clause makes an independent statement; it could stand alone.
Example: Eagles are beautiful.
You can see that this clause is equal to sentence.
2. Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction (as, since, because, etc.) or by a
relative pronoun (who, which, that). Subordinate clauses function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. They cannot
stand alone but must be attached to a main clause. They express ideas that are intended to be subordinate to or
dependent on the idea expressed in the main clause. The exact relationship between the two ideas is indicated by
the subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun that joins the subordinate and the main clause.
Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs.
Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs.
Main clause Subordinate clauses

2.2. Sentence Parts

Every sentence, short or long, is made up of one or more units containing two main parts: subject and predicate.
Subject: is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made. It is a noun or pronoun, with any of its modifiers.
Predicate: is the statement made about the subject. It is a verb or verb phrase, with any modifiers or words used
to complete its meaning.
Examples: Our soccer team won the state championship.
Our soccer team / won the state championship.
Subject Predicate

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate

Every sentence, we said, usually has a subject and a predicate.
Example:
- John fights.
- They run
In sentence 1, John, the actor is, a simple subject, and fights, the action, is a simple predicate.
In sentence 2, the simple subject is they, the actor, and the simple predicate is run, the act.
.
Complete Subject and Complete Predicate
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Complete Subject: When a simple subject is expanded by the addition of modifying words, the subject thus
expanded is called a complete subject.
Examples of expanded form of subject:
- Flowers are blooming. (Flowers, one word, is a simple subject)
- The flowers are blooming.
- The small flowers are blooming.
- The small red-petaled flowers are blooming.
Flowers, the simple subject in the first sentence, has been expanded by the modifiers the, small, and red-petaled.
Hence, it is a complete subject.

Complete Predicate: The simple predicate plus its modifiers, plus any other words that completes its meaning, are
called complete predicate.
Examples of expanded form of predicate:
- Solomon is walking.
- Solomon is walking quickly.
- Solomon is walking quickly to school.
- Solomon is walking quickly to school in the morning.

Compound Subject and Compound Predicate

Compound Subject: A subject can be made up of two or more nouns or pronouns. In this case the sentence has a
compound subject.
Example
- Gemechu and Chaltu saved $ 500 a year with grocery coupons.

- A right attitude and a winning personality /should be your best principles to get a job.
- The movement of the tropical fish and the bubbles from the filter/ fascinate the young cat.

Compound Predicate
A sentence can have two or more verbs for the same subject. In this case the sentence is said to have a compound
predicate.
Example
- We chopped the celery, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
- The snow fell throughout the night and blanketed the area.
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- You should leave at six o’clock and arrive by midnight.

Activity 1: Underline the subjects in each of the sentences below.

1. A group of explorers in a remote region of France made a starting discovery in 1994.
2. The first simple microscopes were built in the middle of the fifteenth century.
3. The entire business district was destroyed.
4. Impurities in the glass greatly distorted microscope images.

Activity 2: Identify whether the highlighted predicate is a simple or a complete.

1. Many fires erupted.
2. The entire business district and many homes were destroyed.
3. Impurities in the glass greatly distorted microscope images.
4. A group of explorers in remote region of France made a startling discovery in 1994.

2.3. Combining Sentences

One of the mechanisms to keep the interest of our readers is varying the length of our sentences. To do this, we
should combine two or more short sentences using coordination and subordination.
 Coordination- is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In
coordination,
- when sentences are combined in coordination, they still remain independent clauses.
- The linking devices (coordinators) we use in coordination are:
 coordinating,
 correlative and
 adverb conjunctions.
A. Coordinating conjunctions- are conjunctions that are used with comma to join two or
more complete sentences. The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions are:
for, and, nor, but, or. Yet and so.

Examples: Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.

You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
She studied hard, but she failed the exam.
Here remember that:
- comma is used before the conjunction
- the second sentence should start by a subject.

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Exercise: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1. A. The dog ate the food very fast.
B. The dog was very hungry. ( for )
______________________________________________________________.

2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idol.

B. The judges didn’t allow him to pass to next stage. (but)

_______________________________________________________________ .
3. A. The farmer worked all day and night.

B. The farmer harvested a lot of crops. (so)

__________________________________________________________________.
B. Correlative Conjunctions- are coordinating words that work in pairs to join
words, phrases and sentences. The most common correlatives are:

Correlative Conjunctions Meaning

Either….or One of the two
Neither…nor None of the two
Both….and The one as well as the other –the two as well
Whether….or Dilemma/hesitation/confusion
Not only….but also Both

Examples: Both my sister and my brother work with computers.

She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
Teachers should be not only intelligent but also friendly.
Again here notice that we don’t use any punctuation mark with the conjunctions.
Exercise 6: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using correlative conjunctions.
1. A. To go to Gondar, you can use a bus.
B. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.( either ---- or)
_____________________________________________________________________ .
2. A. Azeb is beautiful.
B. Azeb is honest. ( not only--- but also )

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 ______________________________________________________________________.
3. A. I want to go to class.
B. I want to go to my appointment.(I am in confusion) ( whether----or)
_________________________________________________________________.
C. Adverb Conjunctions-are adverbs used to relate and connect main clauses in a sentence. The
common ones are:

also still consequently however indeed hence then

thus instead furthermore moreover likewise therefore nevertheless
otherwise etc.

Examples: Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t have to stand in line.
Notice that we put the adverb conjunctions between semicolon and comma.
Exercise: Join the following pairs of sentences using the appropriate conjunctive adverbs.
1. A. Tell him to carry out his duties properly.
B. We will fire him. ( otherwise)
_____________________________________________________________.
2. A. He worked hard. B. He became rich. ( therefore, then )
________________________________________________________________.
3. A. Computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo.

B. There will be thousands of new jobs available next year. (Consequently)

______________________________________________.
 Subordination-is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same sentence
by using subordinators. In subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be combined is
reduced to a subordinate clause.
Subordinating Conjunction-is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate clauses with independent clauses.
When subordinating conjunctions are added at the beginning of independent clause, the independent clause
becomes dependent. The subordinate conjunctions we use in subordination are:

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 Meaning Subordinating Conjunctions
Cause Because since, as
Time Since, as, after, as soon as, before, when, while, once, whenever, as long
as
Condition If, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, as though
Contrast Although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while
Result that, so that, in order that
Place Where, where ever
Comparison As, than, as……as

Examples:
1. I arrived late to work.
The train was late.
 I arrived late to work because the train was late.
2. They finished studying.
Juan and Maria went to the movies.
 After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.
3. I were a bird.
I would fly.
 If I were a bird, I would fly.
2.4. Sentence Classification
Generally, sentences could be put into two major categories. If sentences are seen in terms of their
purposes or functions, they are classified into five types as declarative, interrogative, imperative,
exclamatory and optative sentence. If they are considered in terms of their structure, they are
classified into four types as simple, compound, complex and compound- complex sentences.

A) Functional classification of sentence: Sentences are means by which we communicate with others to
express our thought and feeling. As ideas, thoughts or feelings are different in kind and type, the purpose of
communicating them also varies. If the purpose of communicating with people varies, the type of sentence
we use for communication will also vary. So, based up on the function / purposes, sentences are classified
into five types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory and optative sentences.

 Declarative/Statement Sentence

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A declarative sentence is a statement which is used to give information using statements. It is a kind of
sentence which usually demands a true or false response. It is also a sentence that is used more frequently
than any other sentence types. This sentence normally ends with a period or a full stop. It can be
manifested in different forms. It can be either affirmative of negative.
Examples: 1. Time is running short. (Affirmative)
2. She does not respect her elder brother. (Negative)
3. Stories entertain. (Affirmative)
4. The instructors do not allow cheating in exam. (Negative)
 Interrogative/Question Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks questions, or seeks information. It ends with question mark (interrogation)
Example: 1.What is your favorite football team?
2. Can you get away today?
3. Have you ever seen any park in Ethiopia?
4. Is Abebe your friend?
 Imperative Sentence
This is a type of sentence that expresses a command, a request, an order, an advice, etc. The order of the
subject and the predicate is like that of a declarative sentence, except that its subject is rarely expressed.
The end mark for an imperative sentence is a period, but sometimes an exclamation mark is used for
emphasis.
Example: 1.Shut the door. (Command)
2. Be good to your colleagues. (Advice)
3. Have a cup of coffee, please. (Invitation)
4. Please, have a seat. (Invitation)
5. Show me your ID, please. (Request)
 Exclamatory/Exaggeration Sentence
This is a sentence that expresses strong emotion, excitement or sudden feeling. The feeling could be of
different types. It could be a feeling of happiness, sorrow, wonder, surprise etc. In exclamatory sentence,
there are words and phrases that are commonly used with the main sentence. These include words like
‘what;’ ‘how ‘,’perhaps;’ ‘oh’, ‘oh God’, etc. The punctuation mark in this type of sentence is an
exclamatory mark. It is placed at the end of either the exclamatory word or sentence.
Examples: 1.Wow! We have won the match.
2. How late the doctor is!
3. What a brave boy he is!
4. How beautiful flowers are they!
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 Activity 3: Identify whether the following sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, and
exclamatory. Then
put appropriate end marks.
1. Who is your best friend
2. What a wonderful adventure it is
3. Don’t ever get out of your car to take the pictures of the elephants.
4. The human backbone has thirty bones
5. Which one is the best exercise

 Optative sentences
Optative sentences are sentences that we use to express our wish or hope as may be blessing or curse.
Examples:
 Blessing sentences are sentences that provide somebody with good things
Let God bless you!
Have a good day!
 Cursing sentences are offensive sentences that people say when they are angry.
Let God vanish you!
Be disappeared!

B) Structural Classification of sentences

In terms of their structure, sentences could be classified into four types. Structure of a sentence refers to the
constituent parts from which it is formed. Thus, based on these constituents, we can categorize sentences
into simple, compound, complex and compound–complex sentences.

 Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is a sentence with one main clause or a sentence with one subject and one predicate (a
verb). Note that from the earlier discussions made on sentence parts, both the subject and the predicate
could be simple or compound.
Examples:
1. The students played tennis.(simple subject and predicate)
2. The students and their teachers played tennis. (compound subject and simple predicate)
3. The students played tennis and took shower. (simple subject and compound predicate)

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 4. The student and their teachers played tennis and took shower. (Compound subject and
compound predicate)
 Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two independent/ main clauses. Each main clause of a compound
sentence has its own subject and predicate. The clauses are usually joined by:
1. a coordinating conjunction: and, or, but, for, so, yet, nor preceded by a comma, or
2. semicolon (;), or
3. semicolon (;), conjunctive adverbs or independent markers (however, moreover, therefore, thus,
consequently, also) followed by comma.
Examples:
1. My wallet had lost, and I had no way to pay my fare.
2. The park was crowded, for Monday was a holiday
3. The sky is cloudy; it is to rain.
4. I am an Ethiopian; however, he is a European.

 Complex Sentence
This is a type of sentence made up of one independent clause and one or more than one
dependent/subordinate clauses. Common examples of dependent markers are: because, before, since, as,
while, although, if, until, when, after, as if etc.
Example
1. Because I had lost my wallet, I had no way to pay my fee.
2. I had no way to pay my fee because I had lost my wallet.

In the first sentence, the clause “Because I had lost my wallet” is a subordinate (dependent) clause. It is
dependent because it cannot give a complete meaning on its own. It needs to be attached to the main clause
to give a complete meaning. The other clause I had no way to pay my fee is an independent (main)
clause. In brief, when a dependent clause and an independent clause are combined into one sentence to
express an idea, the sentence is called a complex sentence. The order of the main clause and the
subordinate clause may be exchanged. Either the main clause or the subordinate clause can come first.
When the subordinate clause comes first, the comma splits the two clauses as in the above example. If the
main clause precedes the subordinate clause, no need of using a comma in between.
 Compound –Complex Sentences

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 A compound –complex sentence is a sentence with two main/independent clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses. In other words, as the name indicates, compound –complex sentence has a compound
sentence and a complex sentence. The following example illustrates the idea.
Examples:
1. Because I had been careless, my wallet had lost, and I had no way to pay my fare.
2. The class is inconvenient; however, we should cover the course since it is compulsory,

Activity 4: Identify whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or compound-
complex sentences.
1. Have you ever been to the exhibition; or are you going just now?
2. What is the main objective of this course?
3. When you go to Harar, You have to visit the historical place there.
4. Windows rattled and doors shook.
5. Because out fuel pump failed, we were stranded on the way, and we couldn’t attend the
meeting.
6. The United States is depleting its non-renewable energy source: coal, oil, and gas.
7. As the storm blew, windows rattled and doors shook.
8. Sun, wind, and water are renewable energy sources, and they do not cause pollution.
9. Although the rain fell for three days, the city’s reservoirs were not filled.

2.5. Common Sentence Errors

The most common sentence errors are sentence fragments, run-on sentences, comma splices, misplaced,
dangling modifiers and agreement errors. Thus, this section discusses those sentence errors and ways of
correcting them.

 Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete idea. It looks like a sentence, but is
not. It may begin with a capital letter and end with a period, but its construction fails to satisfy the reader’s
expectation of a meaningful statement. It may lack a subject, or a verb, or the dependent clause unattached to
the independent clause.
Examples: a) Genealogy, the study of family history. (Lacks verb)
b) Although several large rivers have been cleaned up. (Lacks independent clause)
c) When you come to school. (Lacks independent clause)
d) Shouted with delight. (Lacks subject)
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 e) I always stay at library up to 6: pm. Attempting to score 4.0. (Dependent clause unattached to the
independent one)
Sentence fragments can be corrected in the following ways:
 Adding a subject and /or a predicate to make the sentence complete.
 Attaching the fragment to an adjacent sentence and making it an integral part of the sentence.
 Omitting some elements and making a separate sentence.

a) Fragment: In many families, both parents work. Need two incomes.(Lacks a complete predicate)
Sentence: In many families, both parents work because the family needs two incomes.
In many families both parents work. The family needs two incomes.
b) Fragment: Sometimes two or three generations of one family living together.(lacks a complete verb)
Sentence: Sometimes two or three generations of one live together.

c) Fragment: The simplest family group is the nuclear family. Which consists of parents and children.
( subordinate clause unattached to the main clause)
Sentence: The simplest family group is nuclear family, which consist of parents and children.

d) Fragment: She wins an award every winter. For looking after many helpless street children.(subordinate
clause unattached to the main clause)
Sentence: She wins an award every winter for looking after many helpless street children.
e) Fragments: Although she works hard .(has subordinate clause only)
Sentence : Although she works hard, she fails.
She works hard.

Activity.5: Read the following text and then state whether each of the numbered word group is a
complete sentence or a sentence fragment.
(1) .When he entered elementary school as a child in California knew only about fifty words of English.
(2) Because he was afraid he would be mocked, Richard was reluctant to speak in class.(3) The priest who
taught him asked his parents, who had been born in Mexico, to speak to the child in English rather than in
Spanish. (4) Richards developed a deep love of reading. (5) Which became the basis of his later academic
success.

 Run- on Sentences (fused sentences):

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It is a construction where two or more independent sentences are written and punctuated as if they were one
sentence. Usually it is the absence of punctuation marks or conjunctions or both.
Example: 1. He drove the car fast it was a beautiful day. (Run-on) This can be corrected as:
He drove the car fast; it was a beautiful day. Or
He drove the car fast, and it was a beautiful day.
Methods of correcting run-on sentences:
1. Place period between the two clauses, making two complete sentences
Example: It was raining heavily. I did not take an umbrella.
2. Place semi-colon between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily; I did not take an umbrella.
3. Use comma and adverbial conjunctions with semi-colon.
Example: It was raining heavily; however, I did not take an umbrella.
4. Use comma and the coordinating conjunctions between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily, but I did not take an umbrella.
5. Add the subordinate conjunctions and make one clause dependent and then join to the independent
clause.
Example: Although it was raining heavily, I did not take an umbrella.
The most common run-on sentence errors are of three kinds:
 When no punctuation separates two independent clauses.
Example: My father is the chairman of the committee on foreign relations he also heads the warrant
commission.(run-on)
 When there is no comma before a coordinating conjunction joining two main clauses. (run-on)
Example: I listened to the football game all afternoon but my wife went tothe movies.
 When there is comma splice. It occurs when two main clauses are punctuated by a comma rather
than a semi colon or a period since comma cannot separate sentences. Comma splice or comma
fault occurs when a comma is used between two independent clauses without a coordinating
conjunction.
Example1.The examination is approaching, you should study day and night. (incorrect)
The examination is approaching; you should study day and night. (correct)
The examination is approaching; therefore, you should study day and night. (correct)
The examination is approaching, and you should study day and night. (correct)
2.It was raining heavily I would not take an umbrella. (incorrect)
It was raining heavily; however, I would not take an umbrella. (correct)
 Misplaced Modifier
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 Misplaced modifier occurs when it is unclear what a modifying phrase or clause modifies. So, it is
important to make sure that the modifier clearly refers to the element you want it to modify. Logically,
modifiers should be placed with words, phrases or clauses they modify unless they make the sentence
ambiguous. To correct a sentence with misplaced modifier, put the modifier as close as possible to the word
it modifies.

Example: The council advises physicians at regular intervals to administer the drug.
Is the meaning clear to you? What does the modifying phrase “at regular intervals” modify? The
council’s advise or administering the drug? To avoid this ambiguity, it can be revised as:
1) The council advises physicians to administer the drug at regular intervals.(administering the
drug at regular intervals)
2) At regular intervals, the council advises physicians to administer the drug.(the council advising
physicians at regular intervals)

Activity 6: Correct the following misplaced modifier and make unambiguous sentences.

1. The bread sat on the table that Seble had backed.

2. The man walked towards the car carrying the stick.
3. I saw a jacket in a shop that costs 1000 birr.
4. Leaves floated gently down on to the lawn with dazzling autumn colors.
5. Cleaned and polished, Azeb proudly viewed her car.
Activity 7: What do the following clauses mean? Write the meaning they imply.
1. The teacher just nodded to Chaltu as he came in.
2. The teacher nodded just to Chalt1just as he came in.
4. Tsehai only looked at the blackboard.
5. Tsehai looked only at the blackboardI.

 Dangling Modifier
A dangling modifier modifies a word which has been left out of the sentence or that is not clearly stated in
the sentence. It does not modify any word in the sentence in which it appears.
Examples:
1.Following the guidelines carefully, the soup was made.
What does the sentence mean? Who followed the guidelines carefully? The participial phrase following the
guidelines is not modifying any word in the sentence. The word or phrase that needs to be modified is left
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 out of the sentence. By supplying a word that can be modified by the dangling modifier, you can correct the
sentence.
 Following the guidelines carefully, the woman made the soup.
 Notice how the phrase the woman is used to correct the sentence.
2. After trying several times, the lock finally opened. (Dangling)
After trying several times, the officer finally opened the lock. (correct)
Activity 8: Correct the following dangling modifier and write the correct version.
1. Walking on the beach, the water touched my feet.
2. Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
3. Watching horror film, the bread burned.
Possible ways of correcting dangling modifiers:
 Name the doer of the action
Eg: Having arrived late for practice, excuse letter was written. (dangled)
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain wrote excuse letter. (corrected)
 Change the phrase that dangles to a subordinate clause by naming the doer of the action in the
clause.
Eg: Playing tennis, the first class was lost. (dangled)
While I was playing tennis, the first class was lost. (corrected)
 Combine the phrase and the main clause.
Eg: To improve his results, the trial was done. (Dangled)
Tola improved his results by doing the trial again. (corrected)

 Agreement Errors
Activity 9: Before you go to the discussion, can you comment whether the following sentences have
errors or not. Where there is an error, rewrite the sentence, correcting the error.
a. Recent discoveries about the weather reveal that several cycles are involved. ?
b. The media was biased in its reporting of the event.
c. A student is free to express their opinion.
d. Once one has decided to take the course, you must keep certain policies in mind.
e. Eating huge meals, snacking between meals and too little exercise can lead to obesity.

There are some agreement problems which most writers commonly face. Some among these are: subject and
verb agreement, pronoun and antecedent agreement and tense compatibility problems.
 Subject-Verb Agreement
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The subject of a sentence should always agree with the verb in such as way that when the subject is singular,
the verb must also be singular and when the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.

Examples: 1.The group of bizarrely dressed youths are taking over the cafeteria (the subject is singular but
the verb is plural)
2. Either the girls or the boy are capable of solving the problem.
3. My favorite thing to buy are compact discs.
4. A letter with many mistakes do not make a good impression.
5. Everyone want to see that movie.
Always singular
Each everyone nobody anything

Tense compatibility refers to the harmony that should exist between/among tenses of two or more events
occurring at the same time. Do not shift or change tenses when two or more events occur at the same
time .Tenses can shift to show that one event precedes or follows another.
Examples: 1: The rain has poured down endlessly, and the roads will have flooded. (Incorrect)
The rain has poured down endlessly, and the roads have flooded. (Correct)
2: The students cheered when the principal announces a holiday.
The students cheered when the principal announced a holiday. (Two events took place at the
same time)
Exercises
A) Identify the following sentence fragments and correct them.
1. The best hope for peace lies in education. That teaches us how to live together.
2. The steam engine was a beautiful thing at night; sparks climbing high in to the sky and the fire box
glowing in the darkness.
3. A British diver finally got down to the wreckage. Measuring the size of the rivets to determine its
identify.
4. For my eighteenth birthday my grandfather gave me his own watch. One that I shall always treasure.
5. He was often teased by the other boys at school .Because he spoke with alight lip.
6. From the darkened room came a flickering light. The television set.
7. We expect to make the playoffs this year. The team winning most of its games.
B) Correct the following run-ons(fused sentences) using one of the ways you have learned.
1. His encouragement produced good results. For many people took his advice and became more
useful citizens
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 2. They bought large amount of food but nothing was left
3. Almaz and her friend went on a picnic yesterday they had a wonderful time until it began to rain
4. The Sayannah was launched in 1958, it was the first ship to be propelled by nuclear power.
5. The magnitudes of earthquakes are measured by instruments Seismographs, they record
movements in the earth’s crust
6. All over the city, new buildings springing up, the sky line is rapidly changing.
7. Lighthouses are fascinating, many people travel around the country to visit them.
C) Indicate whether the modifiers in the following sentences are misplaced, dangling or correct.
Rewrite the sentences by correcting all misplaced and dangling modifiers.
1. Rebuilding the motor, the tool box fell on the mechanic’s legs
2. Driving into the gas station, the advertisements for lower gas prices influenced the customers.
3. Pumping the gasoline, the dog in the car licked the attendants
4. Shining through the window, John could see the sun
5. In order to be understood, proper articulation and pronunciation are necessary.
6. By reading this letter, I hope that you will be convinced
7. Morning tea is always served here while still in bed
8. Changing the tires, the customer chatted with the mechanic.
9. Visiting Egypt, the pyramids are impressive
10. He admitted that he was the anonymous donor in the letter.

D) Correct the following Agreement problems

1. His temperament and his wide experience makes him more patient than most people.
2. George is one of those boys who never thinks of anything but sport.
3. Our greatest problem are mosquitoes, which swarm out of the woods in great numbers as soon as
evening comes.
4. More news of the disasters are coming in hourly.
5. Bread and milk were our usual Sunday night supper on the farm.
6. Bad luck can be very effective in making a person change their minds.
7. My room has a bed, a desk, a dresser, and a wardrobe in which you can hang your clothes.
8. My family was poor but always ready to help their neighbors.
9. It is necessary to accept each tale as truth no matter how fantastic they may seem.
10. Ato Belayneh visited the man before he went to the party.
11. There was a rumor going around those worms constituted part of the hamburger meat, and it was nasty.
12. The professor did not push his point further with the student because he was embarrassed.
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13. On the night of July 14, the patriots stormed the doors of the prison, and they were smashed.
14. My mother and my sister went to the dentist to get her teeth fixed.
 Wordiness: refers to excessive use of words in a sentence. Look at the following example.
1. Writing allows us to further our knowledge of the world around us and become aware of our social
surroundings and physical surroundings. This can be rewritten as:
Writing furthers our knowledge and awareness of physical and social surroundings.
2. Students will often write required writings that fulfill a grade requirement towards graduation. (Wordy)
For many students, writing is a graduation requirement.
 Faulty parallelism: occurs when there are non-parallel structures in a sentence.
Example 1. Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and she likes reading. (Non-parallel)
Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and reading. (Parallel)
2.The students attended classes did their homework and they were going back home.(Non-
parallel)
The students attended classes, did their homework and they went back home. (Parallel)
2.6. Punctuation and Capitalization
 Punctuation:

What do you think is punctuation? List down the punctuation marks you know in English along with their
functions.
Punctuation is the use of punctuation marks to indicate the pauses and gestures that we use in speech to
clarify and emphasize meaning. In English, the most frequently used punctuation marks are: period (full
stop), comma, question mark, exclamation point, semi colon, colon, quotation marks, ellipsis and others.

1. Period (Full stop) (.): A period is a punctuation mark that is used to end a declarative or an imperative
sentence.
Example: Money is necessary, but you need not sell your soul for it. (Declarative)
Send me your address as soon as possible. (Imperative)
It is also used after abbreviations like Mr., Ms., Dr., St. as in Mr. Jones, Mrs. Smith, Ms. Evans, Dr.
Peter and St. Louis.

2.Comma (,):A comma is a punctuation mark that is used more frequently in a piece of writing than any
other punctuation marks. It has different functions. Its main role in a given sentence or groups of words or
phrases is to indicate to readers a slightest pause.

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3. Question Mark (?): The question mark closes an interrogative sentence or other sentences with
interrogative meaning. It is used for different purposes.
 To indicate direct question. Example: Can you go with me to the movies tonight?
 Used at the end of a statement that has an interrogative meaning. Example: You think you will be
able to get away?
 Used after a title that is interrogative phrase or sentence. Example: After Graduation – what?

4. The Semi-colon (;): A semi-colon is a punctuation mark which is used to join two closely related
independent (main) clauses that are not connected by coordinating conjunctions. Though it is not always, a
semi-colon can replace a full stop (a period) in separating two independent clauses. The distinct feature of a
semi-colon is that it appears only between equals (clauses of the same rank or items in a coordinate series).

Example:1. The project began slowly; additional staffs were assigned to it.
2. Right means straight; wrong means twisted.

A semicolon is also used to separate elements in a series when some of the elements already contain
commas.
Example: Chala wishes us to attend the first, third, and fifth sessions on Wednesday; the second, fourth
and sixth sessions
On Thursday; and the first only on Friday.

Besides, semi-colon separates main clauses joined by transitional devices like furthermore, Therefore,
Nevertheless, However, for instance, for example etc.
Example: 1. Money is necessary; nevertheless, you shouldn’t sell your life for it.
2. Most Ethiopian farmers use compost; however, modern farmers use commercial fertilizers.

5. The Colon (:): This is a punctuation mark usually used to introduce and prepare the reader for
something to follow.
Example: To write an essay, follow these steps: think of the topic you write about, plan how you write,
write the first draft,
and then read to edit.
It is also used to introduce formal quotations and long explanations.
Example. 1. He began his speech with these words: “My fellow countrymen, I want you to hear me.”

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6. The Exclamation Point (!): used to show strong feeling. It also indicates a forceful command. It is used
after any statement, command or question to which a writer wants to add emotional force.
Example: 1. Help me!
2. What do you know about that!
3. What a beautiful sunset it is!
4. What a pretty dress you bought!
5. Oh! The man I was talking about is coming.

7. The Quotation Marks (“ ”): used to enclose any word, phrase, sentence or text of other body’s less than
four lines, and to enclose unfamiliar slang and other unusual or original expressions. The expressions can
be technical words in general writing or slang in formal writing
Examples: Gabriel Garica Marquez once said, “It is much more important to write than to be written
about.”
I am the “baby” in my family

8. Ellipsis points (…): are three dots used to indicate omission of materials from a quotation. They could
be used anywhere in a given text (quotation) where the omission is made. They can appear at the
beginning, in the middle or at the end of a quotation. When they are used at the end, the number of dots will
be four. The last (fourth) dot is a full stop (period) that closes the sentence.
Example: A split infinitive has a word or several words between the ‘to’ and the ‘verb’ following it.
Splitting an infinitive is generally considered incorrect…
Exercises
Rewrite the following sentences, using appropriate punctuation marks.
1. She will attend the meeting later today
2. Gandhi the father of the Nation lived and died for the poor.
3. The manager said I wish you good luck
4. The Indian put a fish in each hill of corn however, modern farmers use commercial fertilizers
5. His direction was as follows go out of the town north to the main road. When you come to the T-
junction, turn left and go five hundred meters. The hotel is in front of you.
6. He asked will you study with me tonight
7. Oh What a beautiful morning it is
8. I wonder what he is doing right now
9. Closing the book with a sign, my friend exclaimed I love that poem
 Capitalization:
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It is the use of capital letters to make special emphasis on particular letters to set them off from lower case
letters. A letter is capitalized:
 when it is the first letter of the opening word of any sentence
 when it is the first letter of the opening word of a direct quotation that is a complete sentence
 when it begins the first word of a sentence with in a parenthesis or a dash that can stand on its own
 if it is the first letter of proper nouns
 provided that it is the initial letter of titles used along with proper nouns
Examples: He came home after his last examination.
Will you please send me your latest catalog?
Help me please!
The king said, “Show me a wise man and I’ll show you an old one.”
The singer I like most is Aster Awoke. (Proper name)
My sister left for Japan last week
In England there are two dominant political parties–the Conservative Party and the Labor
Party.
I pray to God! He is Almighty.
Introduction to Ethiopian Literature (title initials of content words)

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 UNIT THREE: Writing Effective Paragraphs

3.1. What is a paragraph?

We have tried to familiarize you with structure of English sentences. However, being able to write correct
sentences does not necessarily mean being able to write a correct paragraph. To write at a paragraph level,
you need to be able to write a coherent and unified series of sentences that can convey a single idea.

Brainstorming activities: Try to answer the following questions before we are going to deal with each
of them.
a. What is a paragraph?
b. How many sentences can a paragraph have?
c. How many topics should a paragraph talk about?
d. What is a topic sentence?
e. Where do you usually find a topic sentence of a paragraph?
g. What are supporting details?

Now, check your ideas with the description of a good paragraph given below.
A paragraph is:
 a group of correlated sentences that present and develop one main idea. A paragraph can
stand alone, or it can be part of a longer piece of writing. Just as words are the building
blocks of sentence, sentences are the building blocks of longer forms of writing. Thus, a
paragraph is a unit of writing beyond a sentence level containing one main idea or topic
(Alamirew G/ Mariam 2008). And sentences that develop the main idea. It is termed as
unified because it has one central idea and all the sentences in the paragraph should only talk
about this central idea. A good paragraph is well organized, is fully developed, has properly
linked points and contains sentences developing one idea.
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In a paragraph, every word, every point and every sentence has a useful role to play in fulfilling the purpose
of the paragraph. The sentences in a paragraph should follow each other. It is not a paragraph if every
sentence begins on a new line. The length of a paragraph varies according to the complexity of the main
idea or theme to be developed. However, a well-supported paragraph has about five to ten sentences or
about 100 to 150 words ( Langan, 2008) .

3.2. Structure of a Paragraph

Structure of a paragraph refers to the components of a paragraph. A paragraph contains three major
parts: a topic sentence (introduction), supporting sentences (body) and a concluding sentence.
 Topic sentence: a sentence which expresses the main idea of a paragraph that tells the readers
what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence usually begins the paragraph. It can also appear in
the middle or at the end of a paragraph.
 Supporting sentences: are a group of sentences which develop/ expand the topic sentence (general
idea) with specific information. They can be developed by:
 Explaining or restating ideas
 Providing facts /evidences
 giving specific examples and /or illustrations
 adding specific details, etc.
 Concluding sentence: the sentence that ends a paragraph by summarizing the main points or
restating the crucial point, or by giving a final thought or comment on the issue under consideration.
Activity: Examine the following paragraphs and answer the questions that follow.
Paragraph 1:
Barefoot Boy
I had a scary experience when I was a young boy. One evening, while my parents were eating dinner, I was
playing barefoot in the yard with my toys. While I was sitting on the grass and playing with a truck, I looked
up at the sky, and my attention was distracted by the beauty of the stars. Then I felt something cold and smooth
slide over my feet. I stayed perfectly still, but I looked down at my feet. Then I saw a snake slowly slithering
over my toes. I felt terrible and afraid, so my heart beats very fast. After the snake moved away, I screamed to
my parents for help, and they captured the snake and took it away. The experience frightened me, and I never
went outside barefoot again.

1. What is the topic sentence? Where is it? At the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the
paragraph?
27
 2. How many supporting sentences are there?
3. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
4. Write the concluding sentence below.

Paragraph 2:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First Canada has an excellent
health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second Canada has a
high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying
at universities. Finally, Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed. They have many parks and lots of
spaces for people to leave. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

1. What could be the topic of the paragraph?

2. What is the topic senten0ce?
3. How many supporting sentences are there?
4. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
5. Write the concluding sentence below.
 Topics of a paragraph; Wide or narrow?
As stated so far, a paragraph contains only one main idea or topic. Topics should be neither narrow nor wide
but should be moderate enough to be fully developed. Look at the following examples of broad topics which
have been gradually narrowed down to specific ones.
Example 1
1. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia
2. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian Higher Institutions
3. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian Universities
4. Anti HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Admas University
As you can see, the last title (title No 4) is the most specific and appropriate for adequate development. Thus,
you can organize outlines such as background, roles, problems affecting the program, major activities, and
soon, and develop the paragraph. You can now develop a paragraph entitled “Anti-HIV/AIDS campaign
program in Admas University “containing all the outlines (details) or a paragraph on only one of the details
entitled as, “The significance of HIV/AIDS campaign program in Admas University.”
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Example 2
1. The Problem of University Students
2. The Academic Problem of University Students
3. The Language Problem of University Students
4. The Language Problem of Admas University Students
5. The Language Problem of First Year Admas University Students
6. The Writing Problem of First Year Admas University Students
7. The Problem of Taking Notes of First Year English Department of Admas University Students
8. My Problems in Taking Notes
The title in number 8 is e ‘My problems in taking notes’.

 My Problems in Taking Notes

I have hard time while taking notes during my Nursing class. The instructor talks so fast that I cannot keep
up with him. He has a soft voice and I miss lots of things. He never writes on the blackboard like other
instructors. He also talks everything in the same tone and never emphasizes the important points. Because
of this, I have trouble in separating the important points from the rest. Thus, I have decided to listen and
write my notes from reference materials.
Activity: Comment on the following topics of a paragraph
1. A surprise party is a kind of party
2. There were 14 guests at my surprise birthday party
3. My classmates gave me an unforgettable surprise party for my 18th birthday

3.3. Essentials/Characteristics of a Good Paragraph

A good paragraph has the following characteristics: unity, coherence and completeness.
 Unity
Brainstorming activity:
1. What do you think is unity in a paragraph?
2. How can unity be achieved in a paragraph?
Unity refers to the idea that all points and the sentences in a paragraph are related to and aimed
at developing the topic sentence of the paragraph. Unity is achieved by advancing a single point
and sticking to that point with examples, details, steps or definitions.
Example 1:
Topic sentence: My friend Meaza is generous.
29
 Supporting sentences: She often lets travelers stay in her home. She has hosted many students
temporarily. She sends money to her family in Jimma every month to help them with their bills. She
always brings food or items to her friends when they are sick or have a need.
Concluding sentence: Generally, Meaza is one of the most generous people I know.

Notice that all sentences are about Meaza’s generosity. A sentence about the way she looks or about her job
will not support the unity of the paragraph unless it somehow relates to her generosity.

Activity
A. Read the following topic sentences and circle the sentence that is deviating from the controlling
idea. Write your reasons in the blank spaces.
1. There are several reasons why online courses are increasing in popularity.
a. Online courses are flexible in terms of time.
b. Online courses have been available since 1990s.
c. Online courses are more convenient for students who live far away from the campus.

2. Train stations are interesting places to visit.

a. The architecture of each train station is often connected to the history of a city.
b. The passengers are frequently more interested to watch than other types of travelers.
c. Using trains is a good alternative for people who are afraid of flying.

B. Examine the organization of the following paragraphs and answer the questions below it.
1. Native Americans cultivated and developed many plants. Among them were white potatoes,
sweet potatoes, corn, beans tobacco, chocolate, peanuts, cotton, rubber and gum. Native
Americans were also expert builders and tanners. Some of the plants were used for dyes,
medicines, soap, clothes, shelter and baskets.
2. My composition class is in the old building. The classroom walls are white and the desks and
chairs are brown. There are large windows in one wall. The chalkboard is in the front of the
room near the door. My composition class is difficult and I do not like to write compositions. The
classroom is cool in summer and warm in winter. I like my classroom.
1. Underline the topic sentence.
2. One sentence in the paragraph is irrelevant. Identify.
3. Why is the sentence irrelevant?
30
  Coherence
Brainstorming Activities: Try to answer the following questions before you read the notes.
a) What is coherence, and how can we achieve coherence in a paragraph?
b) What are the functions of cohesive devices?
c) List the linking devices you know with their functions.

Coherence refers to the logical flow/ proper linkage of ideas in a paragraph, and this can be
maintained by appropriate use of linking devices/discourse markers.
Note: Cohesion can be achieved by the using linking of devices such as transitional expressions,
pronouns, synonyms and repeated words. Cohesive devices have different functions. But generally they
help to make writing clear, natural and easy to read. They are used to link parts of a sentence or separate
sentences and in showing the relationship between the ideas or facts the writer is expressing.
A paragraph must have coherence. This means that the supporting details are organized so that information
that goes together appears together. A true paragraph is not just a set of sentences put together, but sentences
which are interlinked with each other. These interlinked sentences provide coherence to the paragraph. .
Example 1:
(1)When I was a freshman in high school, I enjoyed most of my courses. (2) Physical education, to be sure, I
didn’t like, probably because I was small for my age then, and rather frail. (3) But English was easy for me,
as I had always been a great reader. (4) I found algebra mostly fun, even, as I am naturally good at figures
and logically relationships. (5) It was biology, however, that I enjoyed most of all; this study of animals and
plants opened a whole new world to me. Generally speaking, I performed well in most of the subject.

As you can notice in the example paragraph, the phrase to be sure in sentence 2 indicates that the writer’s
attitude towards physical education is the exception to the general claim of enjoyment in the topic sentence.
The word but at the beginning of sentence 3 shows that the attitude towards English is in contrast to that
expressed about physical education in sentence 2. The word even in the middle of sentence 4 stresses the
fact that algebra is pleasurable too, despite what many students feel about it. In sentence 5, however
indicates that the feeling toward biology is again in contrast to that expressed in the preceding sentence, and
most of all tells us that this subject is held in the highest regard.
Note: These devices are not needed in every sentence, but they should be used frequently.
There are four significant ways of achieving paragraph coherence.
 Using connectives

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Connectives are words and phrases that writers use to make smooth transition from one idea to another
within a paragraph. They are also called transitional devices or cohesive devices. Some of them are
mentioned below with their functions.
Addition : and, furthermore, moreover, besides, again, likewise, similarly, also, in addition, what is
more, what is worse, next, the other reason
Contrast : but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, though, even though,
although
Result/conclusion: therefore, hence, thus, consequently, as a result, in summary,
Enumeration: firstly, second,(ly)
Sequence : first, second, third, last, then finally, next
Time : in the meantime, then, later, soon, next, after, before, as, while, now, during, finally
Space : above, below, beside, behind, in front of, next, across, the opposite side, to the left, nearby
Illustration : Namely, that is, for instance, for example, specifically, such as
Transitional words signal the direction of a writers thought. They are like the road signs that guide
travelers. Writers often use time, space or order of importance to present the supporting information in a
paragraph coherently. The following example is organized by space.
When you drive into the airport, you will see many signs for the different terminals. After you pass the
signs, you drive over a hill. On your right you will see the international terminal. This terminal is two
stories tall. The front is all glass. On the left, you will see the domestic terminals.
Activities
A. Read the paragraph below. Then circle the word that best describes the way the paragraph is
organized.
My favorite restaurant is in an old house. My husband and I enjoy eating there on summer evenings. We
usually walk from our house so we can enjoy our neighbor’s gardens and get a little bit of exercise. The
afternoon sun shines through the trees, but it is not too bright. We arrive at dusk, and if we are lucky, we
can sit outside. The waiter brings a basket of warm bread and a cold drink. We have an appetizer or a
salad while the sun goes down. Then the waiter lights the candles while we enjoy the main course. By the
time we finish desert it is right time. We walk home slowly, feeling full but happy in the moonlight.
Time____________________________________________________________________________
Space: __________________________________________________________________________
Order:___________________________________________________________________________
B. Underline the cohesive devices in the following paragraphs and then state the direction they give
to readers.
Paragraph 1
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 After you’ve snagged the job of TV sports reporter, you have to begin working on the details of your
image. First invest in two or three truly loud sports jackets. Look for gigantic plaid patterns in odd color
combinations like purple and green or orange and blue. These should become familiar enough to viewers
so that they will associate that crazy jacket with that dynamic sportscaster. Next, try to cultivate a
distinctive voice that will be just annoying enough to be memorable. Be sure to speak only in tough,
punchy sentences that seem to be punctuated with imaginary exclamation points. Finally, you must share
lots of pompous, obnoxious opinions with your viewers. Your tone of voice must covey the hidden message
“I dare anyone to disagree with me.”

Paragraph 2
Supermarkets also use psychology to encourage you to buy. For example, in most supermarkets, the milk and
the bread are either at opposite ends of the store or located far away from the first aisle. Even if you have
stopped at the market only for staples like these, you must pass hundreds of items in order to reach them. The
odds are that instead of leaving with just a quart of milk, you will leave with additional purchases as well.
Special displays such as a pyramid of canned green beans in an aisle and a large end display of cartons of
paper towels, also increase sales. Because you assume that these items are a good buy, you may pick them up.
However they may not even be on sale! Store managers know that the customer is automatically attracted to a
display like this and they will use it to move an overstocked product.
 Repeating words
You might have been taught not to repeat words in writing. However, repeating key words helps you tie
together the flow of thought in your writing.
Example:
Capital can build irrigation canals in India, supply pumps and tube-wells to tap the fresh water under the
saline marshes of the Indus river basin in West Pakistan. Capital can supply tools, machinery, pesticides, and
fertilizers and provide training in modern methods. Most important of all, foreign capital can create an
atmosphere that is conducive to self-help. In the countless analysis of the subject, one fact stands out: the lack
of incentive in the poverty stricken, potentially rich, farm lands of the third world. Capital generates incentive
by producing goods and creating demand and it widest the distribution of the fruits of labour.
As you can see the key word “capital” is repeated to achieve coherence of the paragraph.
 Using pronouns
Pronouns (he, she, it, they and others) are another ways to connect ideas in a paragraph. Pronouns have
transitional values by referring to their antecedents. Also using pronouns in place of other words can help you
avoid needless repetition. .

33
Pasteur proved that he was right by a very simple and clever experiment. He put some soup in to some bottles
and then he boiled it in order to destroy any germs that might already be in the soup. After that, he heated and
pulled out the neck of each bottle until it formed a long narrow neck with a big bend in the middle.

 Using Synonyms
Synonyms are words alike in meaning. Using synonyms can also help you move easily from one thought to
the next. In addition, the use of synonyms increases variety and interest by avoiding needless repetition.
Note how the writer used synonyms to achieve paragraph coherence in the following example.
There are several methods of fund-raising that work well with small organizations. One technique is to
hold an auction, with everyone either contributing an item from home or obtaining a donation from a
sympathetic local merchant. Because all the merchandise and the service of the auctioneer have been
donated, the entire proceeds can be placed in the organizations treasury. A second fund-raising procedure
is a car wash. Club members and their children get together on a Saturday and wash all the cars in the
neighborhood for a few dollars apiece. A third time-tested way to raise money is to hold a bake sale, with
each family contributing homemade cookies, brownies, layer cakes, or cupcakes. Sold by the piece or by
the box, these baked goods will satisfyingly fill both the stomach and the pocketbook.
Generally, coherence in a paragraph means that the ideas have a logical flow: the relationship between the
sentences is clear and one idea connects to the next. All the ideas fit together in a logical flow.
Exercises
A. Underline the sentence(s) that violates unity in the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
(1) I live in a flat with my family. (2) We have two bedrooms and a living room. (3) We have a garden and
we have some flowers there. (4) In weekdays I arrive home at five o’clock and I have lunch. (5) Then I do
my homework and go to bed. (6) I had a computer, but now it doesn’t work. (7) I have a brother and a
sister and I think I am very lucky to leave with them in the flat. (8) Sometimes our relatives visit us and (9)
our flat sometimes becomes very crowded. However, I like it.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
Paragraph 2

(1) I am a Thai girl living in the USA, and there many adjustments that I must make. (2) First of all, I must
get used to a new kind of food. (3) I am learning to eat a lot of hamburgers because they are not expensive
and they are easy to buy. (4) The people are different and I am learning to meet new foreign friends. (5)
34
For example two of my new friends are from Pakistan. (6) Pakistan is also an interesting country to visit.
(7) The weather requires another kind of adjustment. (8) Some days it is hot just as in my country, but on
other days it is cold and this is very strange for me. (9) I came to us to study and I enjoy my classes and my
teachers. I am adjusting to the USA in many ways, but it is not a problem for me because I like to know
about different places and people.
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________

B. Read the following paragraphs. Then list the transitional devices used to achieve the coherence.
Explain their specific function in the paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
The Hazards of Movie Going
(1)Although I love movies, going to see them derives me slightly crazy. (2) For one thing, getting to the
theatre means that I have a thirty- minute drive down a congested highway. (3)Then with a popular movie,
I usually have to wait in a long line at the ticket booth. (4)Another problem is that the theatre itself is
seldom a pleasant place to be. (5)A nasty smell suggests that there has been no fresh air in the theatre since
it was built. (6)Half of the seats seem to be falling apart. (7)And the floor often has a sticky coating that
gets on your shoes. (8)The problem of all is some of the other moviegoers.(9)Kids run up down the aisle.
(10)Teenagers laugh and shout at the screen. (11)People of all ages loudly drop soda cans and popcorn
tubs, cough and burp, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of your seat. (12)All in all I would
rather stay at home and wait for the latest movie hits to appear on TV in the safety and comfort of my own
living room.

Transitional devices:
________________________________________________________________________ Sentence:
__________________________________________________________________________________
Specific Functions:
__________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 2
(1)For people who would like to act in the theater, there are several important rules to remember. (2) One
rule, often forgotten, is to make sure you face your audience when you are on stage. (3) If you turn away
from the audience, they cannot see your facial expressions. (4) Next, make sure that you speak loudly
enough. (5) If your audience has difficulty hearing you, they will quickly lose interest. (6) Another
35
important point is to memorize your lines. (7) Rehearse them often in the taxi, in the mirror while you walk
to the class so that you remember them. (8) Finally, perhaps the most important rule of all is to remain
calm on stage if you forget your lines. (9) Don’t panic and stop speaking because the audience will notice.
(10) Instead make up something to say until you remember your next line. As long as you continue speaking
and appear relaxed, the audience will probably not realize that you have made a mistake. (12) In
conclusion, following these rules will help you ensure a successful stage performance.
Cohesive devices:
____________________________________________________________________________
Sentence:______________________________________________________________________________
______

E. Put the following jumbled sentences in a logical order so that they can make unified and coherent
paragraph.
a. The first year can be a tiring time for parents.
b. Consequently, the child bonds equally with both the mother and the father.
c. Some children suffer from colic, which makes them cry for long hours and refuse to go to sleep.
d. When the child is older, co parents both participate in the daily routines of care
giving: cooking, feeding, bathing, entertaining, and discipline.
e. Many American couples today have chosen not to follow the traditional way of
being parents, in which the mother serves as the primary care giver.
f. Both father and mother take family leave when the body is born, and both feed and
change the newborn.
g. During its first year, a baby is very demanding.
The logical order is ____________

 Completeness
Completeness is related to how explanation an idea requires and it depends on how much the reader needs.
When there is incompleteness, there is an error by giving either too much explanation or not enough.
Giving a reader unnecessary explanation may be boring, but giving too little may block communication.

3.4. Organization of a Paragraph

An effective paragraph is the result of carefully selected and properly ordered details. Different techniques
of organizing details create different effects. In writing a paragraph, you may order details by using one of
these orders: spatial order, time (chronological) order, order of importance, or order of impression.
36
  Spatial Order
 What kind of order is spatial order?

This is a way of organizing a paragraph with respect to spatial relations between ideas relating them to
space.
Example:
My bedroom is very cozy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls. Below the north
window is my double bed covered with an imitation leopard skin bed spread. To the left of the bed against
the wall is a walnut night stand with a reading lamp, a clock a radio. At the foot of the bed is a wooden
stand holiday my portable black-and-white TV and stereo. In all four corners of the room, my speakers are
mounted just below the ceiling. Behind the wooden stand and in front of the closet are three red bean bag
chairs that are sagging from years of use. On the east and west walls are posters of rock groups, and a
family of stuffed monkeys sits on the north and south window ledges. My room is small and cluttered and
has that “lived in” feeling I like.
As the paragraph shows, the details of the paragraph are organized in spatial order. The paragraph also gives
detail information about the position of one object in relation to the other in the scene.
 Time (Chronological) Order
 What does chronological order in a paragraph organization mean?

It is a way of organizing a paragraph in relating with time. This means that it is presenting ideas based on their
happenings one after the other.

Example:
Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 a. m. to attend an Easter sunrise service. Then I had duties
at the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon I visited the Manor Rest Home and talked to shut-
ins who seldom have visitors. Then I went to my aunt’s for dinner and played cards with Uncle Herman
until about 9:00 p.m. Then I drove up into the hills with my family for a special Easter midnight chapel
service in the pines. We stayed in a mountain cabin with ten other people that night and didn’t get to sleep
until after 2:00 a. m. I was exhausted after twenty one hours of activity.
 Emphatic Order (Order of Importance)
What is emphatic order?

It is a method of organizing details which writers use when they want to show readers that some details are
more significant than others. Details can be written (sequenced) by placing the most important ones before the
least important.
37
Example:
Our apartment needs a lot of fixing up. First, we’ve got to fix the leaky roof before the September rains
come. Next, need to patch the big holes in the bedroom walls and then strip the peeling paint off the walls.
Then we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted, we can work on replacing the linoleum
squares in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later the living room carpet needs shampooing, and we
should replace that old sway backed sofa. Then we won’t be embarrassed to have company over once in a
while.

 Size Order
This is a way of organizing ideas based on the size of objects or things to be developed in a paragraph.
3.5. Types of Paragraph
There are four basic types of paragraph in English. They are descriptive, narrative, expository and
argumentative (persuasive) paragraph.
1. Descriptive Paragraph
Descriptive paragraph is a paragraph which clearly and vividly portrays the image of an object, a place, a scene, a person
or spiritual aspects of a person (feeling, emotion, attitude etc). It uses details that concentrated on the five senses such as
hearing, smell, taste and touch.
When writing a descriptive paragraph, writers use appropriate words which clearly describe the image and
nature of the thing described. The most appropriate and commonly used words and expressions are describers
such as adjectives, adverbs, adverbial phrases etc.
Example:
Mekuria is a well-known local man. He is both wealthy and generous – he is also a very handsome man
and popular with the women of the area. Mekuria lives in a huge, rectangular house on the green banks of
Lake Tana. Mekuria works in a nearby Bahir Dar and every morning he drives into town in his expensive,
excellent – new Toyota Amazon. He lives alone. He does not have a wife. He doesn’t have children. He
lives alone with Toto, a beautiful vibrant yellow bird with pink-red eyes black-colored feet and very red
beak.
As the above paragraph shows, almost all the describing words and phrases are adjectives. The adjectives used
to describe the man are well-known, wealthy, generous, handsome and popular. The adjectives employed to
modify the house are huge and rectangular. The describing words used to express the car are expensive,

38
excellent and new. Words and phrases used to describe the bird are beautiful, vibrant, yellow, pink-red,
black-colored and very red.
In descriptive writing, a person, a place or object can be described.
A) Describing a person
When describing a person, it is possible to describe him or her in terms of his or her physical appearance,
behavior, particular characteristics (such as intelligence, wisdom, creativity and social interaction) etc. It is also
possible to describe a person based on the role and responsibilities he has in the family, society, organization
etc.
Example 1:
Christ Morley is one of the original seven British Airways Concorde Pilots. He is central
Casting’s idea of a Senior airline Captain, 47, glamorously grey, firm of jaw, calm of voice, with
a lean athletic build and mien of command and reassurance. He earns more than £ 16,000 a year
which still puts him low in the league in comparison with foreign captains. He has four children,
a pretty wife, a spacious house, and an 11-year-old Renault 16, which he now gets in to drive to
Heathrow.

B. Describing an Object
In describing objects, you can deal with either the physical appearance or the function, or both. When you
describe an object in terms of the physical appearance, you describe it mentioning its attributes as size, shape,
color, texture, material, type etc. when you describe it in terms of its function you mention its uses in detail.
Look at the examples given below, and notice how the paragraphs are developed.
Example 2:
Here are the hammock’s vital statistics. It is free standing, easily and quickly assembled and dismantled.
The ‘weather-sealed’ frame may be left out in the open, and the fabric token indoors after use. The fabric
is of non-fading, red, green, blue and white striped, rot-proof thread. The overall length of the tubular
frame is 7ft 10 in. The hammock itself is 6 ft long and 20 in wide at the head, 22 in wide at the foot. The
ropes are of strong rot-proof poly propylene. The hammock is 2 ft above the ground and it has been tasted
to carry up to 25016 weights. It is easily transportable in a car as the overall length of the dismantled
frame is only 3 ft and the whole pack weighs about 15 ℓb.
Example 3:
A piston pump consists of a cylinder, a piston connected to a handle, an inlet value and an on let check
value. The piston is pushed down wards to force air out through the out let value. Then the piston is pushed
upwards to suck air in through the inlet value. On the return down ward stroke, the inlet check value is
forced against the piston wall, thus preventing any air from escaping; while the out let check value opens to
39
allow the air to flow through the connecting tube. Pumping is continued by moving the position up and
down in the cylinder.

C) Describing a Place
In describing places, the main issues you raise in the description are the location of the place described,
things that are found in the place, the position of the things and the appearance of the place.
Example 4:
From north to south across the region, there are five major zones. First there is a narrow coastal
plain, immediately behind which there are coastal ranges up to a thousand feet high. Behind these
ranges, there is a wide zone of Intermountain low land, which is intersected by extensive alluvial
plains. Finally, there are the inland ranges, running parallel to the coast, and rising to 12,000 feet at
the highest point.
2) Narrative Paragraph
Narrative paragraph is a type of discourse writing that reports an account of events in the past. It is a
reporting of a series of happenings, incidents, actions and events. Since it is concerned with time and
action, it is presented following chronological order. The most commonly used verb forms in narrative
writing are simple past and past perfect though it is possible to use other verb forms too.
Example 1:
My first step onto the bus was filled with fear. I had never taken the bus alone before, but I was reassured
by an old guy who smiled at me, so I sat next to him. I couldn’t help noticing the many wrinkles on his
face and obviously out-of-style clothes he wore. I took out my cookies and thought that mom would
have wanted me to offer him one. He said no, mentioning not being able to chew well. I couldn’t
imagine not being able to chew sweets. I was feeling a little uncomfortable, but he got off soon. He
walked away slowly as if it hurt to move. It was really sad, and I realized, I was lucky to be young and
healthy.
Example 2:
Max boarded the bus and paid the fare. He took a seat next to an elderly man, took off his mittens, and
let his feet swing in the air. Staring down at him, the man could sense Max’s nervousness. Max took
out a bag of cookies his mom had baked for him and offered one to the stranger. The gray-haired
fellow pleasantly said, “No, Thank you, but my teeth can’t chew them.” Max was a little upset by the
man’s condition and he watched the senior citizen slowly and painfully departs the bus at the next
stop. The aged man knew that he had left an impression on the future.
Activity
40
Read the following sentences. Then number them in the order you think they occurred. Use the
sequence words and phrases as clues.
a. A few years ago, my two older brothers and I went trekking in the mountains.
b. Finally, I found the muddy trail, and we made it back to our base camp.
c. Soon we were hiking through thick pine forests.
d. After that experience, I realized it is very important to be careful when hiking in the mountains.
e. We set out from base camp on a bright winter morning.
f. A little while later, we stopped to eat, and my oldest brother said we should turn around because we were
losing the trail in show.
g. Eventually, it began to snow, and visibility became poor.
h. Going back down the mountain was harder because it was icy
The correct order is __________________________________________________________
3. Expository Paragraph
This is the other type of paragraph in which facts are presented, information is explained and concepts or
ideas are expressed in detail. As its name implies, expository paragraph exposes and explains topics, ideas,
thoughts or issues. It is the most frequently used type of written discourse. When students answer essay
questions, when they give written instructions, define terms, express the cause and effect of something,
when explaining process; comparing and contrasting things, and when classifying topics, they often use
expository writing. Since it is usually factual, expository paragraph is free from the emotion of the writer.
Example:
Behavioral scientists have found that a child’s emotional health is strongly affected by the number of
brothers and sisters he or she has. Emotional health means the ability of a person to cope intellectually
and emotionally with everyday stress. Several studies of elementary and high school children have
shown that youngsters in small family get along more happily with their brothers and sisters, as well as
their parents, than youngsters in a large family. They are less liable to suffer emotional upsets and much
less likely to end up in a mental hospital. A survey of state hospitals in Maryland revealed that mental
illness among children in two-parent families increases with the number of children in the family.
Activity
Now Read the Following Paragraph and Analyze Its Features Based on the Questions Given Below It.
What children eat can affect their health. Children who do not eat enough foods containing vitamin A
can develop serious nutritional disorders. Of the effects caused by vitamin A deficiency, those involving
eye diseases are the most pronounced and widespread. Several thousand children became blind each
year because of this dietary deficiency, which is most prevalent in poor, non industrialized countries.
Another result of vitamin A deficiency is skin dryness.
41
1.What is the topic of the paragraph?
___________________________________________________________
2. Which sentence contains the most important idea in the paragraph?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__

3. How is the paragraph developed?

____________________________________________________________
4. Argumentative (Persuasive) Paragraph
Argumentative paragraph is a paragraph in which you try to show that your idea or belief is more acceptable
than another idea. In this kind of paragraph, writers attempt to influence readers to accept their idea and
think or act in certain way. In developing an argumentative paragraph, you need to employ logical reasoning
and concrete evidences by stating facts, giving sound reasons, using examples or/and quoting experts.
When we state evidences, hearsays, personal opinion, speculations are not effective. Thus, in argumentative
paragraph, using reliable evidences which are relevant, unbiased, up-to-date, complete and verifiable is very
important.
Now look at the following two paragraphs about the solution of the growing problem of trash
disposal. Which paragraph is more convincing and why?
Example 1:
Americans have developed a throwaway mindset. We are too accustomed to throwing away everything.
You name it; we throw it away. Many people think recycling is the answer, but it is not enough. We need
to reduce the amount of waste we produce as well. We need to change our disposable lifestyle. And one
way to do that is to discourage the throwaway habit by charging households and businesses for the
amount of trash they create.

Example 2:
We live in a throwaway society. Each day, all day long, we dispose of things – napkins, paper bags,
diapers, juice boxes, and razors - more than three pounds of trash per person per day. Of the
approximately 160 million tons of garbage American produce each year, only about 10 percent is
recycled. The rest goes into about 6,000 landfills, one – third of which are nearly full. What’s more,
people do not want pollution – causing landfills started in their communities. More recycling can
help, but it won’tbe enough. We also need to produce less trash, and one way to encourage people
to reduce the amount of trash they produce is to charge them for it.

42
As you can see the above examples, the first paragraph is developed without the use of supporting evidences.
The second paragraph is more specific and uses concrete examples and statistics as evidences; that is, it is
developed by the use of supporting evidences. Thus, it is more convincing than the paragraph in example
one.

3.6. Methods of Expository Paragraph/Essay Development

A writer can employ various expository paragraph/essay developing techniques according to the nature of the
topic. Thus, in this section, we will introduce you with the most common methods of expository
paragraph/essay development.

1. The Method of Definition

This method is used when a term/concept in a topic sentence/introductory paragraph is explained at some
length. Mostly the terms defined at length are abstract, unfamiliar or unknown words. When defining such
kinds of words, a writer describes or explains the unknown term by relating it to something known or
concrete. There are four ways of defining a term/concept. These are, by:
A. expressing the use or quality of the term
Example: A zebra is a black and white striped animal which is found in Africa and
Asia…………………………………………………. .
B. Categorization ( by giving the group in which the term to be defined belongs to )
Example: A scissor is an instrument used to cut things like clothes, paper, etc.
--------------------------
C. giving examples ( defining a term by giving examples )
Example: Buses, Cars, Lorries, etc. are all called vehicles. -------------------------------------------------

D. negative definition ( Defining a concept by telling what is not )

Example: When I say “the medical personnel”, I am not referring to the administrative staff.

Example:
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s point of view. It is a great asset in a police
work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed-minded. It will help them to see all
sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates bias; instead, introduces tolerance,
understanding and sympathetic human relations.
43
2. The Method of Illustration
This is a paragraph developing technique which writers employ to help readers understand a more general idea
with something specific. It is a method of developing paragraph by giving examples to readers to help them
understand an idea easily.
Example:
Science has helped us get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. For example, advancement in the
field of psychology have enabled effective cures for many mental elements like claustrophobia,
schizophrenia etc. Similarly, many other discoveries in science have made it possible to cure terrible
diseases such as malaria, small pox, pneumonia and tuberculosis.
As you can see in the paragraph, the writer illustrated the general ideas stated in the topic sentence by
presenting instances that helped to get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. All the sentences
beginning from sentence two are examples used to illustrate the idea in the topic sentence.
3. The Method of Comparison
This is a paragraph developing technique which is used to show the similarity between two things. It compares
the similar aspects or qualities of two subjects. Notice how a paragraph and an essay are compared below.
Example:
Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally. For
example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic introducer followed by topic sentence. In an essay, the
first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the topic focus. Next, the sentences in the
body of an essay consist of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the idea presented in the
introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator, whether it is a restatement, conclusion or observation ends
the paragraph. The essay too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically and psychologically
satisfying completion: the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may be
observed in modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in
structure.

4. The Method of Contrast.

The method of contrast is a way of developing a paragraph by showing the differences exist between two
subjects.
Example:
Antarctica differs from the Arctic regions, which are better known to us and easier to reach. The North Pole is
crossed daily by commercials airlines, whereas not a single commercial airliner operates over Antarctica. The
Arctic is an ocean with drifting ice and hemmed in by the continents of North America, Asia, and Europe, The
Antarctic, on the other hand, is a continent as large as Europe and the United States put together, and surrounded
44
entirely by oceans- the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific. More than a million persons live with 2,000 miles of
the North Pole, and the area is rich in forest and industry. There are animals and birds of many varieties. Within
the same distance of the South Pole, there are no settlement a part from scientific stations, which are entirely
dependent on outside supplies for every need. There is not a single tree and not a single animal. It takes 70 to 80
years to grow an inch of moss.
The writer discussed the differences between the two regions, Antarctica and Arctic, in terms of their location
and what they possess.

5. The Method of Cause and Effect

This is a method of developing idea that looks for the relationship between two actions or two events of which
one is the reason and the other the result.
During the past five years, the number of persons killed annually in car accidents has risen to more than
55,000. This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be attributed to general causes. Mechanical
failures, especially, those related to faulty brakes and bald tires, account for a significant number of fatal
accidents. Environmental conditions such as blind corners, narrow streets and heavy roads also contribute
to the grisly accident statistics. But without doubt, the most frequently reported factors in car accidents are
errors of human judgment, all the way from follies such as excessive speed and drunken driving to such
momentary lapses as failure to signal a turn, or a change from one lane to another.
The above paragraph reveals the general and specific causes for car accidents. The writer developed the
paragraph by presenting evidences for the causes of the accidents.

6. The Method of Classification

This is a method of developing a paragraph by classifying subjects into separate category. It presents ideas,
objects, or issues to be discussed in their respective category. The following sample paragraph illustrates how
the paragraph is developed by classifying illustrations used in science and technology writing.
Example:
Illustrations used in science and technology writings can be broadly classified into two categories namely
‘tables’ and ‘figures’. A table is used for displaying the original numerical data and the derived statistics
in a logical, orderly and compact fashion. There are two sub-categories of table, namely, dependent table
and independent table. The former is a part of the text, whereas the letter is self-contained and separated
noticeably from the text. A figure is generally used as a visual to summarize the text and to present the
details left out in the discussion. The sub-categories of the figure are graph, chart, drawing, photograph
and map. The choice of the type to be used depends up on the purpose and the kind of information to be
presented.
45
 7. The Method of Enumeration
This is a method of paragraph development which lists or enumerates details.
Example:
Whatever be our purpose of writing, it is likely to correspond to one of the four types of writing
conventionally classified as discourse. The first type is exposition or explanation, where our main
intention is to convey information. The second is argument or persuasion, in which we persuade our
readers to accept or do what we want. The third is description, in which our aim is to share with our
readers those impressions that have made an impact on our senses. Finally, it is narration where our
intention is to enable the reader to perceive real or imagined events that took place within a particular
framework of time.
When using a method of enumeration, writers normally use words or phrases which enable them to list their
points. As used in the example above, words like first, second, third, finally are words which maintain the
coherence and smooth flow of a paragraph.
8. The Method of Process Description
This is a method which explains how to do something step by step. It is a convenient method to enable readers
to be able to follow the step to get a desired result.
Example:
Imagine that you are on vacation at beach, and open your suitcase to discover that you have forgotten your
swimsuit! This and other disasters and inconveniences can be avoided if you follow certain steps when packing your
suitcase. The first step is to review your travel plans and activities. Make a list and save it so that you can check
your items before you leave. Next, gather the items you will need for your activities. Remove any item that is not
necessary. Try to mix and match fewer pieces of clothing and shoes by choosing a colour or colours that match.
Third, you are ready to pack. Start with large items such as books or shoes. Stuff your shoes with extra socks to
save space. Then place shoes in plastic bags and fit them into the corners of your suitcase. There should be plenty
of room for the clothes. To avoid wrinkles, layer your clothes and roll them up. Put the rolls of clothing into the
suitcase. Then put in the smaller items. Finally, before you close your suitcase, check your list. Make sure you have
not forgotten your swimsuit!
In developing a paragraph by describing a process, writers employ sequence words or phrases which show
sequence or time order. These words tell readers the sequence of steps in a process. The most commonly used
words are first, second, next, then, later, after that, finally etc.
The other feature of a process description paragraph is the use of imperative sentences. An imperative is used
to give instructions or direction or to tell the reader the steps in the process directly. Apart from this, modals of

46
advice, necessity and prohibition such as should, must, should not or must not are common when developing a
process description paragraph. Passive sentences can also be used here.

UNIY FOUR: Essay Writing

4.1. Definition of an Essay
What do you think is an essay?

An essay is a short piece of writing that tells a writer’s thoughts or opinions on a given subject. Alemayehu
G/ Mariam( 2008 ) defines an essay as it is an extended writing on a particular topic/subject. At this level
discusses Alemayehu, a writer has ample opportunity to develop his/her ideas in detail when compared
with a paragraph writing which limits a writer to develop only one major idea.

In a paragraph, the statement that states the controlling idea is called a topic sentence. In a short essay, it is
known as a thesis statement.
The supporting sentences of a paragraph support the idea in the topic sentence. Similarly in the short essay, the
body paragraph(s) support(s) the idea in the thesis statement. Each body paragraph has a topic sentence. In a
paragraph, a concluding sentence summarizes the idea in the topic sentence. Likewise, the concluding
paragraph of an essay summarizes the idea in the thesis statement.
4.2 Parts of an Essay
For example, a five-paragraph essay consists of one-paragraph introduction, a three-paragraph body and a
one-paragraph conclusion. The roles of these paragraphs are described and illustrated below.
 The introduction/introductory paragraph
The introduction to a five-paragraph essay must have a hook, background information, and the thesis
statement.
 A hook is a statement that begins the introduction. It includes one or two interesting sentences that
engage the reader’s attention and stimulates their curiosity. Look at the following example.
We all dream about our wedding celebration, but when it happens, we do not know what to expect.
The example sentence provides the hook for an essay about a wedding celebration.

47
  The background information in most cases follows the hook. It contains a general statement or
statements that gives a broader picture of the subject matter to be discussed. The sentence below
provides the context (situation) for the essay on a wedding celebration.
I met my husband on a student trip to Langano. After three years of letter writing and visit, we finally
announced our engagement and planned for the event.
 A thesis statement usually comes at the end of the introduction. It summarizes what the entire
essay is about. It contains the topic and controlling ideas for the whole essay. The topic is the
theme or the subject matter of the essay. The controlling idea defines the purpose of the essay
and sets its direction.

One of the Best Moments of My Life

It was a sunny day in the summer of 1998 when my family moved out of the city to the suburbs. I did not
like leaving because I would lose my friends and the places where I had so much fun. It was very sad for me
to see my friends standing in front of the old house as we said our last goodbyes. I knew little that this move
would turn out to be one of the best moments of my life.
1. Circle and label the hook.
2. Underline the background information.
3. Write the thesis statement.

4. Write the topic of the thesis statement.

5. Write the controlling idea of the thesis statement.

Owning a pet has several important benefits. The topic owns a pet and the writer’s main point is that
owning a pet has several important benefits.
 Body Paragraphs
The three body paragraphs of a five-paragraph essay contain the supporting details of the essay. Each
paragraph has a topic sentence that states the content of its paragraph. Each paragraph supports and
expands on an aspect of the topic and controlling idea of the thesis statement. The topic sentences are often
the first sentences of the body paragraphs.
Each body paragraph must develop a point presented in the topic statement. All the supporting details in a
body paragraph must clearly relate to each other. They can be descriptions, definitions, examples,
anecdotes, statistics, and so on.
The concluding sentences may either bring the ideas of the paragraphs to a close or suggest the content of
the next paragraph.
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  The concluding paragraph
The conclusion brings the essay to an end. It is usually two to four sentences in length. It restates the thesis of
the introduction in different words. This restatement connects the conclusion to the introduction. The
conclusion may give advice or warning. It may make a prediction or ask a question. It can provide new
insights and discoveries that the writer has gained through writing the essay.

Activity
Read the following essay and answer questions that follow it:
Becoming an Academic Writer
Learning how to write an academic essay is essential for students who are planning to attend
college. Most professors require critiques of books and films, research papers, and formal reports
related to the content of their courses. When I first started college, I was excited about facing
these challenges and pursuing my major, media and communications. I was determined to
improve my writing. To achieve this goal, I focused on three points: the content of an essay,
correct grammar, and advanced level vocabulary. Introduction

As soon as I started to write for college, I realized that college writing was different from the
writing I was used to doing. In high school, most of my writing dealt with my personal
experiences. I wrote mainly about my family, childhood, and friends. In contrast, college writing
focused on a variety of issues that I was unfamiliar with, such as reacting to a piece of literature Body
P. 1
or writing about the community. Therefore, the most important thing for me was to understand the
assigned topic before attempting my first draft. In some cases, I would have to read and do
research to build a foundation. I wanted to include examples, statistics, and direct quotations
whenever possible to support my opinions. By giving specific examples, I realized that my essays
became more detailed, easier to read, and much more interesting. However, grammatical
problems in my writing were still an issue.
I realized that I had to improve my understanding of grammar in order to write for college.
Before I came to college, grammar was not my strong point, For example, I often created run-on
sentences or sentence fragments. I was more concerned with what I wanted to say than with how
it was said. In fact, my professors would not accept this type of writing and made me revise many
Body
times. Consequently, I made grammar my second priority. I reviewed the basic grammatical P.2
2
structures such as subjects and verbs and checked all my work for verb tense consistency and
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 punctuation. As a result, my sentences became more complex because I included transitional
words, gerunds, and embedded clauses. The more I wrote, the more my writing improved.
Furthermore, because I was accustomed to writing letters and informal essays, I usually wrote the
way I spoke with my family and friends. It was quite common for me to include slang and
abbreviated terms, which were appropriate in social contexts but were unacceptable in formal
essays. I soon realized that academic writing required a much more sophisticated vocabulary. Not Body
P.3
surprisingly, improving my vocabulary became my third and final goal. Thus, I bought a new
dictionary and thesaurus to help expand my knowledge. I became more aware of how often I
repeated the same words and phrases throughout my essay. I often searched for synonyms to
replace words that I thought were too simple for a college essay. I also focused more on the rules
of spelling and corrected any errors I found before submitting my assignment to the instructor.
Academic writing requires critical thinking skills, an understanding of the topic, high level
vocabulary, and correct grammar. Having these skills is empowering since it has made me a
better communicator and student. I have come a long way since I started college, and I am now
proud of the writing that I produce. Conclusion

1. What is the thesis statement? Write it below.

2. Body paragraph 1
. Underline the topic sentence. Then, write the topic sentence in your own words.
.
What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence

____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ .
The concluding sentence
a. brings the idea of the paragraph to a close.
b. suggests the content of the next paragraph.

3. Body paragraph 2
Underline the topic sentence. Then, write the topic sentence in your own words
___________________________________________________________________
. What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence?

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 The concluding sentence
a. brings the idea of the paragraph to a close.
b. suggests the content of the next paragraph.
3. Body paragraph 3
Underline the topic sentence. Then write the topic sentence in your own words
___________________________________________________________________
What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence?
___________________________________________________________________
4. The concluding sentence
a. brings the idea of the paragraph to a close.
b. suggests the content of the next paragraph.
Answer the following questions based on the concluding paragraph of the essay.
a. How many sentences appear in the conclusion?
b. Underline the sentence in the conclusion that restates the thesis in the introduction.
c. The conclusion ends with:
1. Some advice 2. A prediction 3. A warning 4. An insight
4.3. Types of Essay
 Descriptive Essay
A description according to is a verbal picture of a person, place, or thing. When you describe a person, a place
or an object, you have to provide your readers detailed information by employing relevant words which portray
the facts and your impression towards what you describe. In addition, you need to use words which build
image for readers. These images may come from sights, sounds, smells, tastes or even feelings. This is to mean
that what you write should emphasize specific sensory details. As the main purpose of a descriptive essay is to
make readers-see-or hear, taste, smell, or feel what you are writing about, vivid details are the key to this type
of essay.
In descriptive essay, writers usually incorporate both objective and subjective description. An objective
description is a description which involves observable details and sensation, and subjective description is a
kind of description which portrays the impression the writer holds in mind.
The other distinct feature of a descriptive essay or a descriptive writing in general is the use of figurative
language. Figurative languages are languages that are used imaginatively rather than literally. They help
writers to communicate ideas beyond the literal meaning of words. The most commonly used figures of speech
in descriptive writing (essay) are simile, metaphor and personification.
 Simile

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A simile is a figure of speech which associates the quality of one thing with the qualities of another. The
comparison is made by using the words such as like or as.
Example:
1) The sun was like a glowing ball of fire.
2) The stars looked like diamonds.
3) He is as clever as a fox.
 Metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech which equates or identifies one thing with another. The comparison is made
directly, without the use of the word like or as.
Example:
A deafening concert of crashing thunder caused the dog to whimper and the toddler to scream.

 Personification
Personification is a figure of speech that assigns human qualities or abilities to animals, objects, or ideas.
Example: Fat raindrops played drum solos on the over turned buckets.
These figures of speech have significant role in descriptive writing. They enrich the description, create
images, add emphasis, evoke emotion, or express fresh and vivid meanings. If they are used wisely, figures
of speech help readers to understand the essence of an idea or to grasp the basic quality of a person, a place,
or a thing. They also help the writer communicate his/her impression whether it is enlightening, witty,
shocking, playful, sympathetic etc. Look at the following description and notice how the writer portrayed
his/her idea.
Example:
At last the rain came. It was sudden and tremendous. For two or three moons the sun had been gathering
strength till it seemed to breathe a breath of fire on the earth. All the grass had long been scorched brown,
and the sands felt like live coals to the feet.
Evergreen trees wore a dusty coat of brown. The birds were silenced in the forests, and the world lay
panting under the live, vibrating heat. And then came the clap of thunder. It was an angry, metallic and
thirsty clap, unlike the deep and liquid rumbling of the rainy season. A mighty wind arose and filled the air
with dust. Palm trees swayed as the wind combed their leaves into flying crests like a strange and fantastic
coiffure.
As the above description shows, the writer vividly revealed what the situation of waiting for rain in the
described place looks like. The writer tried to make readers to feel, hear and see what he or she has
experienced by reflecting his or her impression. By using phrases like dusty coat of brown, live coals and

52
the world lay panting, the writer reflected his impression that the situation was disastrous and he or she
was worried.
The writer used figurative languages in the description. If you look at the second sentence of the first
paragraph, the writer employed personification. The sun is given human attribute, breathing. If you look at
the third sentence of the same paragraph, the phrase like live coals to the feet is simile. If you look at the
second paragraph, you can find figures of speech in all sentences of the paragraph.
 Narrative Essay
Narration is telling story. A narrative essay thus is a type of writing that is concerned with telling a story. A
good narrative always tells to make the point. It makes the readers either laugh, sympathize, understand, or
change their attitudes.
Like narrative paragraphs, narrative essays are usually arranged in chronological order. The writer tells
what happened first, then what happened next and next until finally he or she gets to the end of the story.
When writing a narrative essay, the use of colorful details, the nature of the events, and the way of
arranging the details make the essay effective.
In addition to this, a narrative essay is presented either from the first person point of view (using I, me, my)
or from the third person point of view (he, she, her, him they and them).Besides, as mentioned in
paragraph writing, the types of tenses most commonly used are past forms (simple past, past continues
and past perfect) though it is possible to present a narrative through simple present as well. Look at the
sample essay below and notice the nature of the essay.
Example:
It was about nine o’clock when Paul’s mother and father drove up to their house. All was still. Paul’s
mother went to her room and slipped off her white fur cloak. She had told her old maid not to wait for
her…
And then, because of the strange anxiety at her heart, she stole upstairs to her son’s room. Noiselessly she
went along the upper corridor. Was there a faint noise? What was it?
She stood with arrested muscles, outside his door, listening. There was a strange, heavy, and yet not loud
noise. Her heart stood still. It was a soundless noise, yet rushing and powerful, something huge, in violent,
hushed motion. What was it? What in God’s name was it? She ought to know. She felt that she knew the
noise. She knew what it was.
Yet she could not place it. She couldn’t say what it was. And on and on it went, like amadness.
Softly, frozen with anxiety and fear, she turned the door-handle.
In this essay, you can see that the story is told from third person point of view. The writer presented the
event in the story in chronological order that (Paul’s mother first came home, then went to her room, after

53
 that slipped of her white fur clock, next stole up stairs and next along the upper corridor, then stood outside
her son’s door, then listened strange noise, next felt afraid, finally turned the door handle.)
He or she also narrated the essay by employing sensory description of the mother’s thought, feeling and
impression to create suspense. He or she also creates image of the setting by using relevant descriptive
words and phrases.
 Expository Essay
An expository essay is a kind of discourse which provides information about and explains a particular
subject. It is a type of writing which informs readers by presenting and explaining concepts and ideas. It is
usually organized by using one of these patterns. The patterns are giving examples, detailing a process of
doing or making something, analyzing causes and effects, comparing and contrasting etc. An
expository essay is the most commonly used essay. When people write a term paper or answer essay
questions on exam, they often use exposition; when they write about the process of something, define
terms, write about differences between things, they employ expository writing. Now look at the sample
expository essay below. And then notice how it is written and the pattern employed to develop it.
Example
Why Students are Poor
It is easy to recognize a college student because he or she is carrying books and usually wearing old pants or
jeans and a T-shirt. You will not see a college student driving a new car. Instead, you will see him at a bus
stop or a bicycle. And at mealtimes, a college student is more likely to be eating a slice of pizza than dining
in a fine restaurant. Very few college students have extra money to spend on clothes, cars, or good food.
There are two main reasons why being poor is an unavoidable part of the collage experience.
The first reason college students are poor is that they cannot work full-time. An eighteen year-old is an adult
with the needs and wants of an adult; however, if that young person is taking courses at a university or a
community college, he or she must spend as much time as possible studying. Therefore, the student has to
sacrifice the extra money that a job would provide in order to have the freedom to concentrate on classes.
A second reason college students have little money is that they have other expenses that working adults do
not have. A college student must pay tuition fees every semester. A full time student usually takes three or
four clashes each semester and the fees for these classes can cost thousands of dollars per year. Also,
students need to buy several expensive textbooks each semester. A single textbook can cost as much as a
hundred dollars. Other necessary expenses include computers, papers, pens, note books, and other items
needed for school projects.
Many students cannot afford to attend college full-time, so they have a job and go to school part-time, but
they are still poor because of the cost of attending college. Fortunately, the causes of student poverty are

54
temporary. Most students do not mind because they have the hope that a college degree will get them a good
job and they will have good prospects in the future.
 Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay is a type of essay in which a writer attempts to support a controversial point or to
defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion. An argumentative essay takes a firm stand on an
issue and then attempts to convince readers to agree with that stand. For instance, an essay suggesting that
drinking alcohol should be banned by law can be an argument because its purpose could be to convince
readers to accept the writer’s point of view.
When you write an argumentation, your main purpose could be either to convince readers that your opinion is
correct or to persuade your audience to take some sort of action. Whatever the purpose be, in writing an
argumentation essay, it is important to provide your reader or audience with a clear main point and plenty of
logical evidences to back it up. Look at the following example and notice the nature of argumentative essay.
Example
Teenagers and Jobs
“The pressure for teenagers to work is great, and not just because of the economic plight in the world today.
Much of it is peer pressure to have a little bit of freedom and independence, and to have their own spending
money. The concern we have is when the part-time work becomes the primary focus.” These are the words of
Roxanne Bradshaw, educator and officer of the National Education Association. Many people argue that
working can be a valuable experience of the young. However, working more than about fifteen hours a week is
harmful to adolescents because it reduces their involvement with school, encourages a materialistic and
expensive lifestyle, and increases the chance of having problems with drugs and alcohols.

Schoolwork and the benefits of extracurricular activities tend to go by the wayside when adolescents work
long hours. As more ad more teens have filled the numerous part-time jobs offered by fast-food restaurants
and malls, teachers have faced increasing difficulties. They must both keep the attention of tired pupils and
give homework to students who simply don’t have time to do it. In addition, educators have noticed less
involvement in the extracurricular activities that many consider a healthy influence on young people. School
bands and athletic teams are losing players to work, and sports events are poorly attended by working
students. Those teens who try to do it all – homework, extracurricular activities, and work-may find
themselves exhausted and prone to illness. A recent newspaper story, for example, described a girl in
Pennsylvania who came down with mononucleosis as a result of aiming for good grades, playing on two
school athletic teams, and working thirty hours a week.

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Another drawback of too much work is that it may promote materialism and an unrealistic lifestyle. Some
parents claim that working helps teach adolescents the value of a dollar. Undoubtedly that can be true. It is
also true that some teens work to help out with the family budget or to save for college. However, surveys
have shown that the majority of working teens use their earnings to buy luxuries-computers, video-game
systems, clothing, even cars. These young people, some of whom earn $400 or more a month, don’t worry
about spending wisely-they can just about have it all. In many cases, experts point out, they are becoming
accustomed to a lifestyle they won’t be able to afford several years down the road, when they no longer have
parents paying for car insurance, food, lodging, and so on. At that point, they’ll be hard-pressed to pay for
necessities as well as luxuries.

Finally, teenagers who work a lot are more likely than others to get involved with alcohol and drugs. Teens
who put in long hours they seek a quick release from stress, just like the adults who need to drink a couple of
martinis after a hard day at work. Stress is probably greater in our society today than it has been at any time
in the past. Also, teens that have money are more likely to get involved with drugs.

Teenagers can enjoy the benefits of work while avoiding its drawbacks, simply by limiting their work hours
during the school year. As is often the case, a moderate approach will be the most healthy and rewarding.

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References
Alemayehu G/ Mariam, Dr. (2008). College Writing Skills : A reference and Practice.
Book for Sophomore. English Addis Ababa.
John Langan (2008). College Writing Skills with Readings ( 7th ed. ). New York: Mc Graw Hill.

Siliver level ( 2001 ). Writing and Grammar: Communication in Action. Prentice Hall: USA.

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