ULC703

Theory of Computation

Regular Grammar:
Describing Regular Languages

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Ways to describe a regular language

■ State machine: ε-NFA → NFA → DFA.

■ Formal notational scheme: Regular expression and Regular Grammar.
■ Agenda
• Grammars
• Representing Palindrome language
• Formal grammars
• Right Linear Grammars (RLG)
• FA to RLG conversion
• Definition of Right- and Left- linear grammar
• Regular grammars
• FA to LLG conversion
• Linear grammars and examples.
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Using English-type Grammar
■ This the following sentence grammatically correct.

Figure: Some rules from English grammar for our English-type grammar.
Constructs in <> are optional. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Deriving the sentence from the rules

Figure: At every step use only one production/ basic rule.

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The Language Lpal is not regular

1. The language Lpal ={w ∈ {0,1} | w is palindrome.}

2. [Sake of contradiction] An FA M exists with n states and accepts L.
3. We choose x =0n 110n which satisfies x ∈ L and |x| ≥ n.
4. There exists u, v and w such that x = uvw and the conditions 1-3 in
the theorem is true.
5. Present a contradiction
• Condition 1: |uv| ≤ n and the first n symbols of x are 0’s, all the
symbols in u and v must be 0’s.
• Condition 2:|v| >0, therefore, v =0q for some q >0. Also, u =0p
, and w =0r 110n s.t., p + q + r = n
• Condition 3 of PL says uv i w must be in L for all i >=0.
But for all i ̸= 1, uv i w will not be in the language
Example: uv 0 w=0p 0r 110n = 0p+r 110n ∈
/ L since p + r < n as |v| = q ≥1 . This is a contradiction.

• Since Lpal can not be accepted by any FA, hence, it is not regular.
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Grammar for Palindrome

■ There is a natural recursive definition of when a string of 0’s and 1’s

is in Lpal

Figure: A grammar for palindromes

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Important components of grammatical description - I

■ Terminals: There is a finite set of symbols that form the strings of

the language being defined.
• Palindrome: {0,1}
• English-type: {He, looked, dog, at, the, an, one,a,eye, with}
■ Variables/ Non-terminals: There is a finite set of Variables. Each
variable represents a language i.e., a set of strings.
• Language by P : {ε, 0110,010,101,110011}
• Language by N oun[N ]: {He, dog, eye}
• Language by V erb[V ]: {looking}
• Language by Sentence[S]: {He looked at the dog with one eye,
He looked with the eye at one dog,
dog looked, eye looked, · · · }

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Important components of grammatical description - II
■ Start symbol: One of the variables represents the language being
defined.
• Palindrome: P
• English-type: Sentence
■ Productions: There is a finite set of productions or rules that represent
the recursive definition of a language. Each production consists of:

Figure: An specific description, not . a . generalized

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Formal Definition of a Grammar
■ A is grammar G is represented by its four components, G = (V, T, P, S),
where
• V is the finite set of variables
• T the finite set of terminals
• P the finite set of productions and
• S the start symbol
■ Example:

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Deriving Strings in Lpal language

To show that string w=01011010 is in Lpal

P =⇒ 0P 0 . . . Using production(4)
=⇒ 01P 10 . . . Using production(5)
=⇒ 010P 010 . . . Using production(4)
=⇒ 0101P 1010 . . . Using production(5)
=⇒ 0101ε1010 . . . Using production(1)
=⇒ 01011010

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Grammar describing regular languages

■ Grammars are often an alternative way of specifying languages.

■ Regular grammar generates a regular language.
■ There is a correspondence between a FA and regular grammar.
■ Conversion of DFA to grammar:
Step-0 Consider the DFA shown below.
q3 0
1
0
0
q1 q2 1
1

0 q4
1

DFA accepting L having strings with second last symbol being 0

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Grammar describing regular languages

Step-1 Make a variable for every state of the DFA. For each state qi , we
make a new variable.
Let A1 , A2 , A3 , and A4 be variables for q1 , q2 , q3 , and q4 , respec-
tively.
Step-2 Add the rule Ai → aAj if δ(qi , a) = qj where a∈ Σ
(1) A1 → 1A1 (2) A1 → 0A2
(3) A2 → 0A3 (4) A2 → 1A4
(5) A3 → 0A3 (6) A3 → 1A4
(7) A4 → 0A2 (8) A4 → 1A1
Step-3 Add the rule Ak → ε if qk happens to be an accept state.
(9) A3 → ε
(10) A4 → ε

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Deriving strings in last example

To show that string w=0111000 is in DFA considered.

A1 =⇒ 0A2 . . . Using(2)
=⇒ 01A4 . . . Using(4)
=⇒ 011A1 . . . Using production(8)
=⇒ 0111A1 . . . Using production(1)
=⇒ 01110A2 . . . Using production(2)
=⇒ 011100A3 . . . Using production(3)
=⇒ 0111000A3 . . . Using production(3)
=⇒ 0111000ε . . . Using production(9)
=⇒ 0111000 (Derived)

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Right- and Left-Linear Grammars

■ A grammar G = (V, T, S, P ) is said to be right-linear if all productions

are of the form
A → xB
A→y
where A, B ∈ V and x, y ∈ T ∗ .
■ A grammar G = (V, T, S, P ) is said to be left-linear if all productions
are of the form
A → Bx
A→y
where A, B ∈ V and x, y ∈ T ∗ .
Regular grammar
A regular grammar is one that is either right-linear or left-linear.

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Example-2: Convert DFA to right-linear grammar
(RLG)

0 0
q1 q2 q3 0
1

• Let A1 , A2 and A3 corresponds to the states q1 , q2 , and q3 .

• The right-linear grammar is as follows:
A1 → 1A1 A1 → 0A2
A2 → 1A1 A2 → 0A3
A3 → 0A3 A3 → 1A1 A3 → ε
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DFA to left-linear grammar (LLG) conversion Algorithm/ Steps

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Using LLG for deriving strings in last example

To show that string w=01100 is in DFA considered.

A3 =⇒ A2 0 . . . Using A3 → A3 0
=⇒ A1 00 . . . Using A2 → A1 0
=⇒ A1 100 . . . Using A1 → A1 1
=⇒ A2 1100 . . . Using A1 → A2 1
=⇒ A1 01100 . . . Using A2 → A1 0
=⇒ ε01100 . . . Using A1 → ε
=⇒ 01100 (Derived)

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Regular expression to RLG and LLG steps

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Linear Grammar

■ A grammar G = (V, T, S, P ) is said to be Linear if all productions are

of the form
A → xBw
B → y where A, B ∈ V and x, w, y ∈ T ∗ .
■ General production for linear grammar: A → α where α ∈ (V ∪ T )∗
s.t., α contains at most a single variable.
■ Not all linear grammars are regular
• Although every production may be either in right-linear or left-
linear form, the grammar itself may neither right-linear nor left-
linear, and therefore is not regular.
■ All regular grammars are linear.

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Linear Grammars

■ L = {an bn |n ≥ 0}
• S → aSb|ε LINEAR BUT NOT REGULAR
■ L= {an+1 bn |n
> 0}
• S → aSb|a LINEAR BUT NOT REGULAR
■ (0+1)∗ 00
• LINEAR AND REGULAR
A1 → 1A1 A1 → 0A2
A2 → 1A1 A2 → 0A3
A3 → 0A3 A3 → 1A1 A3 → ε
■ Example of L(G) s.t., G is linear but not Regular
S → aA
A → Bb
B→a
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RE to RLG and LLG conversion rules.
RE RLG LLG
a S→a S→a
a+b S→a | b S→a | b
ab S→aA, A→ b S→Ab, A→ a
a∗ S→aS, S→ ε S→Sa, S→ ε
a+ S→aS, S→ a S→Sa, S→ a
(a + b)∗ S→aS | bS | ε S→Sa | Sb | ε
(a + b)+ S→aS | bS | a | b S→Sa | Sb | a | b
(ab)∗ S→aA | ε, A→bS S→Ab | ε, A→Sa
(ab)+ S→aA , A→bS | b S→Ab , A→Sa | a
Table: RE and their corresponding left-and right-linear

Figure: Use above to convince yourself with

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each rule.
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FA to recognize identifiers (Application: Lexical analysis)

Figure: identifier recogniser.

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FA for recognizing relational operators

Figure: RO recogniser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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FA for unsigned numbers

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(ToC, Dr. Ashish Gupta) Figure: FAULC703
for unsigned
: Unit-I/II/III numbers. 24 / 25
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