CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Speed is de ned as the distance travelled per unit time.

Use the equation
1. Motions, Forces and Energy v= d
t Where:
v is speed
1.1. Physical quantities and d is distance
measurement techniques t is time
Velocity is de ned as the speed in a given direction.
Making measurements (apparatus):
Distance & Speed Time Graphs
Liquids: Measuring Cylinder.
A pipette (accurate for one speci c measurement)
Time: Clock, Digital Timers (reading to 0.1s or better)
Length: Metre rule (graduated in mm)
Micrometer Screw Gauge
Vernier Calliper
Volume: Measuring Length, Width, Height
Distance-Time Graphs
Measuring volume by displacement
Mass: Top pan balance, precision of 0.1g 1 Acceleration
2 At rest
Vectors and Scalars: 3 Deceleration
4 Constant Speed
Scalar: has magnitude only
e.g. distance, speed, time, mass, energy and temperature
Vector: has magnitude and direction
e.g. force, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum, electric
eld strength and gravitational eld strength
Speed-Time Graphs
1 Increasing Acceleration
2 Constant Speed
3 Decreasing Acceleration
4 Uniform Acceleration
5 Uniform Deceleration
6 Decreasing Deceleration
7 Increasing Deceleration

Acceleration:

Acceleration is de ned as the change in velocity per unit of

time.

a = v−u
Δt
= Δv
Δt
Where:
a is acceleration
v is nal velocity
u is initial velocity
Δt is change in time

Falling objects:

Acceleration of free fall g for an object near to the surface

of the Earth is constant and is approximately 9.8 m/s².
At the beginning of the paper, the instructions will tell you
to use 10 m/s² or 9.8 m/s². This detail can be very
important.

Terminal Velocity:
1.2. Motion

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An object which is falling because of acceleration due to The centre of mass is the place at which all of the object's
gravity through the atmosphere is subjected to two external mass is concentrated. Because gravity works only on one
forces. One force is the gravitational force, expressed as the spot in the item. For regularly formed objects, the centre of
weight of the object. The other force is the air resistance or mass is in the centre.
drag of the object. It is critical to understand where a body's centre of mass is
An object has terminal velocity when those two forces are located, as this dictates the body's stability. When a body is
equal. tilted slightly, the line of action of its weight passes through its
base, it is stable.
1.3. Mass and Weight
Resultant forces:
Mass: a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest
Determine the resultant of two or more forces acting along
relative to the observer. The mass of a body is a measure of
the same straight line.
the amount of matter in it.
An object either remains at rest (stationary) or continues in a
Weight: a gravitational force on an object that has mass.
straight line at constant speed unless acted on by a resultant
Gravitational eld strength g is de ned as force per unit
force.
mass.
A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by
The equation for gravitational eld strength is :
changing its direction of motion or its speed.
g=W
m
Gravitational eld strength is equivalent to the acceleration of Springs:
free fall.
Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance. Sketch, plot and interpret load-extension graphs for an elastic
The weight of an object is the e ect of a gravitational eld on solid (eg. metal wire) and be able to describe any
its mass. experimental procedures.
The limit of proportionality is a point on a load-extension
graph beyond which the graph is no longer a straight line.
1.4. Density Spring constant is de ned as force per unit extension. \n
Recall and use the equation:
Density is de ned as mass per unit volume.
The equation for density is: k = Fx Where:
p = mv F is the force or load
With this equation, you can determine the density of a liquid, x is the extension
of a regularly shaped solid and of an irregularly shaped solid k is the spring constant ( N/m, N/cm, N/mm)
which sinks in a liquid. You need to record its mass, then
volume and then substitute it through the equation. Hooke’s Law
Know whether an object oats based on density data. A
higher density means that the object will sink. A lower density F = kx
makes it oat. This is called buoyancy. Recall and use the equation F = ma and know that the force
and acceleration are in the same direction.
How to determine whether one liquid will oat on F = ma
another liquid based on density data given that the When F is the force in N
liquids do not mix: m is mass in kg
a is acceleration in m/s²
The liquid with a larger density will descend below the other
liquid. Centripetal Force
A liquid oats over the other liquid if it has a lower density.
Describe the motion in a circular path due to a force
1.5. Forces perpendicular to the motion.
In a circular motion, if speed increases, the force needed
A force is a push or a pull. increases (mass and radius are constants).
Forces may produce changes in the size, shape and In a circular motion, if radius decreases, the force needed
velocity of an object. increases (mass and speed are constants). In a circular
Solid friction is the force between two surfaces that may motion, if mass is increased, an increased force is
impede motion and produce heating. required to keep speed and radius constant.
Friction (drag) acts on an object moving through a liquid
or a gas (air resistance). Moments of forces

Moment of a force as a measure of its turning e ect.

Centre of mass:

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The moment of a force is de ned as moment = force x

perpendicular distance from the pivot.
Apply the principle of moments to situations with one
force on each side of the pivot, including balancing of a
beam. When there is no resultant force and no resultant
moment, an object is in equilibrium.
Apply the principle of moments in situations with more
than one force on each side of the pivot.
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that there is no
resultant moment on an object in equilibrium.
The stability of an object depends on the position of its
centre of gravity.

1.6. Energy Work and Power Energy transfer diagrams :

Energy 'stores’ are: kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical,
elastic (strain), nuclear electrostatic and internal (thermal).
Energy is transferred between stores during events and
processes.
Energy is transferred by forces (mechanical work done),
electrical currents (electrical work done), heating, and by
electromagnetic, sound and other waves.

The principle of the conservation of energy.

The principle of energy conservation states that energy is

Sankey Diagrams:
neither created nor destroyed. It may transform from one
type to another.
Energy can only be used by converting it from one form to
another. Unless energy is added from the outside, a system
always possesses the same quantity of energy.
The chemical energy of the batteries is transformed into
electrical energy in a torch, which is then converted into light
and heat. This energy is either absorbed or re ected by the
environment.

Kinetic energy formula: Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy
transferred.
The equation for (mechanical) work done is:
W = F d = ΔE
Units : Joules (J)
Where:
W = Work Done
F = magnitude of the force
d = the distance in the direction of the force

Energy Resources

Useful energy may be obtained, or electrical power

generated, from:
Change in gravitational potential energy formula: Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy Sources
Sources
Fossil Fuels Wind
Oils Tidal
Coal Hydro-electric
Natural Gas Geothermal

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Non-Renewable Energy Power is de ned as work done per unit time and also as
Renewable Energy Sources
Sources energy transferred per unit time.
Solar (EM Waves from the W
Nuclear P=
sun) t
- Biofuels ΔE
P=
t
Some sources of energy derive their energy from the sun. P = power (watt)
These are: W = work done (J)
ΔE = energy transferred (J)
Coal - formed from dead trees that have used energy T = time (s)
from the sun to produce hydrocarbons that have become
coal under pressure 1.7. Momentum
Biofuels - organic matter that is burned in order to
produce energy Momentum is de ned as mass x velocity (kg m/s)
Hydro-electric - energy relies on the sun’s energy to run
the water cycle so energy can be harnessed The equation for momentum is p = mv Where:
Wind - gets heated and rises up and cooler air ows to ll p is momentum
the space m is mass
Solar - Electromagnetic waves from the sun are captured v is velocity
by photocells and turned into energy Resultant force is de ned as the change in momentum per
unit time:
Environmental Δp
Renewability Availability Reliability Scale
Impact
F= Δt
Wind ✓ high low high on birds ∴ F = mΔv
Δt
Solar ✓ high low high low impact Impulse of a force is de ned as force x time for which force
Almost no acts:
Geothermal ✓ low high low Impulse = F Δt = Δ(mv)
impact
Biofuels ✓ high high high low impact
The principle of the conservation of momentum:
Hydro- impacts
✓ high high high
electric marine life
General law of physics according to which the quantity called
Tidal ✓ high low low - momentum that characterises motion never changes in an
Greenhouse isolated collection of objects; that is, the total momentum of a
Coal ☓ high high low
gases closed system remains constant.
Radioactive
Nuclear ☓ low high high
substances 1.8. Pressure
Boilers, turbines and generators are used to generate Pressure is de ned as force per unit area, and measured in
electricity in a power plant. N/m or Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m
The equation for pressure is: p = Fa Where:
p is pressure
F is force
a is area
Pressure beneath the surface of a liquid changes with depth
and density of the liquid. The change in pressure beneath the
surface of a liquid is given by the equation:
change in pressure = density x gravitational eld strength x
change in depth

E ciency: Δp = ρgΔh Where:

Δp= pressure di erence in pascals (Pa)
Useful energy output ρ = density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Efficiency = × 100 g = gravitational eld strength (N/kg)
Total energy input Δh = change in height/height of vertical column (m)

Power:
2. Thermal Physics

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It is impossible to restrict the thermal expansion of solids

2.1. Kinetic Model of Matter
and liquids
In Solids, when temperature increases it makes the
Properties of the 3 States of Matter - The molecular
particles vibrate faster and expands slightly in volume.
Model
In Liquids, when temperature increases particles move
faster around each other and expand.
In Gases, the volume increases by a large amount.
Increasing internal energy of an object :
Heating
Rubbing
Shaking
Increased Temperature → Increased Internal Energy →
Increase in average kinetic energy of particles

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The mass of the object

The material of the object
The temperature change required
The amount of energy required to change the
temperature of a material depends on its Speci c Heat
Particles that make up matter can be made of one or Capacity
more atoms
As particles of gas strike the walls of containers, their ΔE
c=
momentum changes and a force is created which can be mΔθ
calculated using :
Where :
ΔP m = mass (kg)
Fnet = c = speci c heat capacity ( J/K g o C )
Δt
ΔE = energy provided ( J )
Temperature has an Absolute Zero : -273℃
Δθ = change in temperature ( o C )
Brownian Motion is the random motion of particles
suspended in a uid resulting from their collision with fast Note : 1 Joule = 1 Watt for 1 sec \n J = W x t (s)
moving atoms or molecules in the uid.
Melting, Boiling and Evaporation \n
Pressure and Volume at Constant Temperature
(Boyle’s Law) Melting Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a xed Occurs at a xed Occurs at any
P , V , T (Constant)
temperature temperature temperature
1
P ∝ P is inversely proportional to V Speed depends on Relatively fast Relatively slow
V
energy supply process process
k Takes place at the Takes place
P = Takes place at the
V surface of the solid throughout the
∴ k = PV surface only
only liquid
No bubbles Bubbles are formed No bubbles
P1 V1 = P2 V2
Temperature Temperature Temperature may
Temperature Conversions : remains constant remains constant change
Heat from Heat from
External thermal
Celcius to Kelvin o C → K : K = o C + 273 surroundings or surroundings is
energy source
Kelvin to Celcius K → o C : o C = K − 273 external source enough required

2.2. Thermal Properties and 2.3. Thermal Energy Transfers

Temperature
Conduction Convection Radiation
All Materials expand as they get warmer

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Conduction Convection Radiation taking into account the fact that the sound has to travel
there and back.
Infrared Radiation
Sound travels at 343 metres per second in air, 1493
Fluid Conductors and
Thermal metres per second in water, and 5130 metres per second
Trapped air pockets Electromagnetic
conductors Particle in steel.
prevent convection waves All objects
to Particle For a healthy human ear, the audible frequency range is
ow emit and absorb
20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
radiation
Ultrasound is de ned as sound having a frequency of
Through movement Fluid with more more than 20000 Hz:
It depends on
and vibration of energy rises above Ultrasound is partially re ected back when it reaches a
temperature,
delocalised less energy to border between two media. The remaining waves pass
colour, surface
electrons \n Not for create convection through. A transceiver can produce ultrasound and collect
area and texture
Vacuums current the re ected waves to determine the distance of objects
Ex : Radiators or Ex : Vacuum of below the surface. Ultrasound is utilised for SONAR and
Ex : Kitchen Pans
heaters space medical imaging without the usage of ionising radiation.

Radiation vs Colour and Texture 3.2. General Properties of Waves

Wavelength (λ): distance between two crests or troughs,

measured in mm cm or m
Frequency: Number of complete waves that go past a given
point per unit of time.
Measured in hertz (Hz) 1Hz = 1 complete wave per unit
Radiation vs Temperature and Surface Area second
Amplitude: The maximum particle displacement of the wave
Temperature ∝ Surface area ∝ Energy emitted from the undisturbed position, measured in mm cm or m
Speed: Distance travelled by the wave per unit time,
measured in m/s, cm/s or mm/s
3. # Sound Wavefront: A line drawn to represent the peaks of a wave in
two dimensions. The distance between two adjacent
Longitudinal waves produced by vibrating sources are wavefronts is the wavelength of the wave. Wavefronts can be
known as sound waves. Sound waves require a medium to used to show some properties of waves.
be transmitted (such as air).
Compressions - high pressure ; Rarefactions - low Relationship between speed,
pressure
Solids transmit sound the fastest, liquids are slower, and frequency and wavelength:
gases are the slowest.
The louder a sound wave is, the greater its amplitude. wave speed = frequency × wavelength ; v =f ×λ
The higher the pitch of a sound wave, the higher its Re ection, refraction and di raction (using water waves in a
frequency. ripple tank) :
An echo is a re ection of sound waves.
DESCRIBING A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE SPEED
OF SOUND IN AIR:
Make a noise at a known, signi cant distance from a solid
wall and record the time it takes for the echo (re ected
sound) to be heard, then use speed = distance/time,

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1 1
Frequency = f=
period (s) T
1 1
Period (s) = T=
Frequency Frequency

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Describe the use of optical bres, particularly in

Waves telecommunications.
A thin converging lens converges a parallel beam of light.
Thin diverging lens diverges a parallel beam of light.
3.3. Light
The principal focus (focal point) is the point on the
Light is an electromagnetic wave that is capable of principal axis where parallel waves passing through the
passing through free space or through a material medium lens meet.
in the form of varying electric and magnetic elds. The principal axis is a line of symmetry passing through
the centre of the lens.
Normal is a line drawn at right angles between the
boundary of two materials. The focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens
The angle of incidence is the angle made by the incident to the principal focus
ray to the normal. The angle of re ection is the angle How to draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a
made by the re ected ray to the normal. real image by a converging lens.
Describe the characteristics of an image using the
The image formed by a plane mirror has the following
characteristics: same size, same distance from the terms enlarged/same size/ diminished,
mirror, and virtual. upright/inverted and real/virtual.
The law of re ection states that the angle of incidence is Know that a virtual image is formed when diverging
equal to the angle of re ection. rays are extrapolated backwards and do not form a
visible projection on a screen.
How to use simple constructions, measurements and
calculations for re ection by plane mirrors. Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a
The angle of refraction is the angle made by the refracted virtual image by a converging lens.
ray to the normal.
Position of Relative size of Nature of
Describe an experiment to show the refraction of light by Position of Image
Object image Image
transparent blocks of di erent shapes.
Describe the passage of light through a transparent Point sized, Real and
At In nity At Focus
material. very small Inverted
The critical angle is the angle made to the normal in the Real and
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished
denser material when the angle of refraction is 90°. Inverted
The equation for critical angle is: Real and
At 2F At 2F Same size
Inverted
Between F Real and
Beyond 2F Enlarged
and 2F Inverted
Huge, very Real and
At Focus F At In nity
large Inverted
On the same side of
Between F Virtual and
the lens as the Enlarged
and O Erect
object

Describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass.

Describe internal re ection and total internal re ection. A converging lens is used to correct long-sightedness.
Refractive index, n, is de ned as the ratio of the speeds of A diverging lens is used to correct short-sightedness
a wave in two di erent regions The dispersion of light as shown by the refraction of white
The equation for refractive index is: light passing through a glass prism.

Know the seven colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue,

indigo and violet) of white light, and that frequency

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increases from red to violet and wavelength decreases are the best electrical conductors as they have free
from red to blue. electrons. E.g. copper
Visible light of a single frequency or wavelength is
described as monochromatic. Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their
electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly move, but
they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber Charging
4. Electricity and Magnetism insulators by friction

4.1. Magnetism Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle

and a length of string so that the material can rotate
A magnet has a north pole and a south pole. freely Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order
The magnetism is strongest at the poles. to give it a charge) Now take a second piece of insulating
Unlike poles attract and like poles repel. material and charge that by rubbing with a cloth
A magnetic material is de ned as something that can be Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the
magnetised temporarily or permanently. charged end of the rst piece: If the rst piece rotates
When we refer to a 'magnet', we are referring to a away (is repelled) from the second piece then the
permanent magnet, made of magnetically hard materials. materials have the same charge If the rst piece moved
Permanent magnets remain magnetic (hard) whereas towards (is attracted to) the second piece then they have
temporary magnets lose their magnetism (soft). opposite charges
A soft magnetic material can be induced by attracting it to
a strong magnet, however it loses its magnetism once it is Simple Electrostatic Experiments
removed.
A magnetic eld is a region in which a magnetic pole
experiences a force.
The direction of a magnetic eld at a point is the direction
of the force on the north pole of a magnet at that point.

Magnetic eld lines can be plotted using a compass or

iron lings.
The spacing between the magnetic eld lines shows how
strong the eld is. As the eld lines get further away, the
force gets weaker.
Electromagnetism is explained in the next few lessons.

4.2. Electrical Quantities

Electric Charge (measured in Coulombs)
Attraction and Repulsion of Point Charges
positive or negative
similar charges repel, opposite charges attract
Electrical conductors and insulators Conductors:
materials that let electrons pass through them. Metals

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Alternating Current vs Direct Current

Direct Current (dc)

Direct current is produced when using dry cells and

batteries (and sometimes generators, although these are
usually ac)
The electrons ow in one direction only, from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal.
Conventional current ows from the positive to the
negative terminal
Current
Alternating Current (ac)
Current: a ow of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is Alternating current typically comes from mains electricity
connected in series and generators
Current is a rate of ow of charge It is needed for use in transformers in the National Grid
In metals, current is caused by a ow of electrons (covered later in this topic)
The direction of electron ow changes direction
regularly
A typical frequency for the reversal of ac current in
mains electricity is 50 Hz

Electromotive Force (EMF)

The energy supplied by the source in driving a unit charge
around a complete circuit.
The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the
Current follows path of least resistance
electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts.
Conventional current ows in the direction opposite to
When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower
that which electrons ow in. because of the energy wastage inside the cell.
Red = Conventional Current A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit and
Green = ow of electrons
not supplying current.

Potential Di erence (P.D)

Potential di erence, or PD for short, is also known as

voltage.
Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the
electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V)
and is measured by a voltmeter (connected in parallel). If
a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each
coulomb of charge (J/C).

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Measuring potential di erence and voltage

Potential di erence is measured using a voltmeter.

Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component
being tested. The potential di erence is the di erence in
electrical potential between two points, therefore the
voltmeter has to be connected to two points in the circuit.

Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to current. For a given potential
di erence, the higher the resistance, the lower the current.
Therefore resistors are used in circuits to control the current.
The unit of resistance is the ohm Ω.
Voltage
Resistance (Ω) =
Current

Factors a ecting resistance:

Length

Ω∝L
The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus
encounter more resistance.
Cross-sectional area

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1 Component Symbol Function

Ω∝
A Supplies the
More electrons can ow per unit time, increasing the
Cell electrical energy to
current and therefore decreasing the resistance.
the circuit
Current Voltage (IV Graphs)

As the potential di erence (voltage) across a component is

increased, the current in the component also increases. The A battery is more
precise relationship between voltage and current can be Battery
than one cell.
di erent for di erent types of components and is shown by
an IV graph:

A power supply is a
device that converts
one voltage to
Power Supply d.c.
another more
and a.c.
convenient voltage
while delivering
(Ohmic Conductor = Resistor) power.
Electrical Energy and Electrical Power Electrical energy is Instrument used to
transferred from the battery or power source to the circuit Ammeter measure electrical
components then into the surroundings. current.
ΔE Instrument used to
1 Watt is 1 J/s P =
t Voltmeter measure potential
P = IV ∴Electrical power = Voltage (V) × Current (A)
di erence.
ΔE
IV = ∴Electrical energy = Voltage (V) × Current (A) ×
t Converts electrical
Time (s) Lamp
energy to light.
E = V It
Restricts the ow of
The Kilowatt Hour electrical current.
Can be used to limit
Fixed Resistor
This energy is commonly measured in kilowatt-hour (kW h), the ow of current to
which is then used to calculate the cost of energy used. 1 kWh a particular
is the electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW appliance in 1 component.
hour Used to control
Energy in kWh = power in kW x time in hours. current and
Variable Resistor
To convert between Joules and kWh: resistance in a
circuit.

Converts heat to
Thermistor
electrical resistance.
Explanation:
ΔE = Pt ⟹ 1kWh = 1kW × 1h Light-Dependent Converts light to
1J Resistor electrical resistance.
1Watt = and 1kW = 1000W ⟹ 1kW =
s Converts electrical
1000J Heater
energy to heat.
s
⟹ 1kWh = 1000J × 3600s = 3.6 × 106 J To provide a variable
Circuit diagrams and components potential di erence.
Component Symbol Function To split the potential
Potential Divider di erence of a
In open position the
power source
Switch circuit is broken so
between two or
no current ows
more components.

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Component Symbol Function Component Symbol Function

A transformer is a A motor is a device
device that transfers that can convert
Motor
electric energy from electrical energy into
one alternating- mechanical energy.
current circuit to one
Transformer or more other A device which only allows
circuits, either Diode
current to ow in one direction
increasing (stepping
up) or reducing Light Emitting
A diode that emits light
(stepping down) the Diode (LED)
voltage.
Electromagnetic
coils are used in 5. Atomic Physics
electrical
engineering, in
applications where 5.1. Nuclear Model of The Atom
electric currents
Magnetising interact with All matter is made up of atoms.
Coils magnetic elds, in
devices such as
electric motors,
generators,
inductors,
electromagnets and
transformers.
A safety device
which melts to break
the circuit if the
Fuse electrical current
owing through it
exceeds a speci ed
value.
The relay permits a
small amount of
electrical current to
control high current
loads. When voltage
is supplied to the
coil, small current
Relay
passes through the The structure of an atom is simple.
coil, resulting in a
larger amount of Alpha Scattering Gold Foil experiment
current passing (Rutherford’s)
through the contacts
to control the
electrical load.
An electric generator
is a device that
converts mechanical
Generator energy obtained
from an external
source into electrical
energy as the output.

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Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars. In a

The Atom fusion reaction, two light nuclei merge to form a single
heavier nucleus. The process releases energy because the
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons (positively total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the
charged) and neutrons. These two types of particles are mass of the two original nuclei. The leftover mass becomes
called nucleons. They are bound together by the strong energy.
nuclear force.
Electrons: almost massless particles which orbit nucleus
in shells
Proton number: number of protons in an atom
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in an atom
The following is the nuclide notation for atoms

5.2. Radioactivity
Detecting radiation

ISOTOPES It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to

radiation
Atoms of the same element that have di erent numbers Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a GM Tube
of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14. detector connected to a radiation counter.
They have identical chemical properties but can have Count rate is the number of decays per second recorded
di erent physical properties eg: radioactive by a detector and recorded by the counter. It is measured
in counts/s or counts/min
Nuclear Fission The count rate decreases the further the detector is from
the source. This is because the radiation becomes more
Nuclear ssion is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom spread out the further away it is from the source
splits into two or more smaller nuclei, because of the addition
of an electron. The ssion process often produces gamma
photons, and releases a very large amount of energy.

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- Helium Nucleus \n - - Relative -short wavelength

Relative charge of +2 \n - charge of -1 EM waves \n -
2p and 2n \n -1e− uncharged

E ects of electricity & magnetism on radioactive

emissions, and ionisation caused by them.

Alpha Beta Gamma

Electric Move away from Move towards
No change
elds + particles + particles
Magnetic Use the left hand Use the left
No change
elds rule hand rule
Ionises most Ionises least
Ionises lesser
Ionisation particles due particles because
particles
great mass no charge

Radioactive Decay

During α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to a

di erent element
Background Radiation The initial nucleus is often called the parent nucleus
The nucleus of the new element is often called the
It is important to remember that radiation is a natural daughter nucleus
phenomenon During α-decay, 2p and 2n is lost and hence the nucleon
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in number and proton number changes and a new element
outer space is formed.
However, human activity has added to the amount of During β-decay, one neutron from the nucleus changes
radiation that humans are exposed to on Earth. into a proton and electron. The electron is removed from
Background radiation is de ned as the radiation that the atom and given out as radiation.
exists around us all the time. During gamma ray decay, the nucleus releases an EM
The sources of it include : radioactivity in air, cosmic rays, wave and rearranges itself internally. No change is made
rocks and buildings, food and drink, medical, nuclear in the number of subatomic particles.
power and testing.

The three types of nuclear emission

Atomic nuclei of most isotopes are unstable.

To become stable they give out radiation. As the radiation
moves away it takes some energy with it. This makes the
nucleus more stable. This is called radioactive decay.
This cannot be controlled by external factors so it is
known as a spontaneous and random event.
The 3 types of radioactive emissions are:

Half Life

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It is impossible to know when a particular unstable

nucleus will decay
But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases
can be known. This is known as the half-life. Half-life is
de ned as:

The time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any
sample to decay
Nuclide notation is the notation of an element when it is
The activity of a source is measured in becquerels. (Bq)
written with its proton number and nucleon number. \n A
Di erent isotopes have di erent half-lives and half-lives
nuclear reaction would take place like this.
can vary from a fraction of a second to billions of years in
length
Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph

The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease

from 100 % to 50 % is the half-life
It is the same length of time as it would take to
decrease from 50 % activity to 25 % activity 6. Earth and The Solar
The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
System
Uses of isotopes
6.1. Earth and Other Bodies
Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of
cancer The Earth rotates around its axis, which is tilted 23.5
Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria) degrees, from West to East and revolves around the sun
Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays) in 365.25 days.
Checking the thickness of materials
The Earth has a Southern Hemisphere and a Northern
Smoke detectors (alarms)
Hemisphere divided by the Equator.
Medical and industrial tracers Hemisphere: half of a sphere; Earth is divided into 2
hemispheres.
Safety Precautions

Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and

return them to their boxes as soon as you have nished
using them
During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from
the sources as feasible. When handling the sources do not
point at human tissue, using a pair of tweezers
Store the sources in lead-lined boxes.
Sometimes you can wear lead lined aprons

Nuclide Notation and Nuclear reactions.

https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-
There are 2 basic types of questions: c99eb0c0beb3e19bef78e8bfed6bc564

Countries at the equator do not experience season

changes as the sun hits them at the same angle at all

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times. The dust particles clump together and form the inner
The solar system consists of eight planets: Mercury, rocky planets while gasses orbit the centre farther away
Venus, Earth and Mars are the inner, rocky planets. and form gas giants.
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer, gas The centre of the accretion disk starts to form a new star
giants. called a protostar. At this point, gravity is still pulling mass
There are millions of asteroids and meteoroids orbiting together.
the sun, mainly found between Mars and Jupiter.

Comets are balls of ice, dust and gas. They orbit the sun in a
Our Solar System
very elliptical orbit leaving a trail of gas and dust behind.
The Sun makes up about 99.8% of the mass of the solar
However, this is not the tail of the comet because the tail
system. It has a strong gravitational pull keeping al the
always faces away from the Sun.
planets in orbit.

We know from the chapter of circular motion that in order for

an object to move in a circular path, a force needs to act on
the object towards the centre of its orbit.

All the planet’s orbits are elliptical and the measure of

how elliptical it is is called eccentricity.
The centre of orbit is not directly on the sun but close
enough to the centre that we say that we orbit the sun.

Source: IGCSE textbook 0625

The Formation of A Solar System

Our solar system was formed when a molecular cloud
collapsed into itself because of its own gravity. Gasses and
dust particles start to come together getting closer and
faster. They gain speed in a spinning motion. This process is
called accretion. The disk formed by accretion is called the
accretion disk.
https://static8.depositphotos.com/1163607/1070/i/950/depositp
stock-photo-our-solar-system.jpg
The reason all orbits are not perfectly circular is because of
the energy changes during its orbital period.
The star pulls the body of mass towards itself. This pull
generates speed which, we know, will cause the body to move
away from the star. (Increasing speed increases the size of
the orbit.)
There are only two main types of energy we need to consider
in space.

1. Kinetic Energy
https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images? 2. Gravitational Potential Energy
q=tbn:ANd9GcRhn2q4cvaoJd08MCr6EiNBafbyhktMBpjbfz_DIn7MqYm7aSRc
A planet close to the sun has a low GPE but a high KE. A
Gravity pulls heavier particles close together toward the planet far away from the sun has a high GPE and a low KE.
centre. How to calculate orbital speed:
The gasses get hot and pressurised enough to start
The formula for speed is distance/time. We consider the
nuclear fusion.
orbits to be perfectly circular in this situation. The formula
is:
2

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2πr Accretion begins to pull matter in.

Orbital speed = A protostar is formed (refer to previous card for revision)
t
A stable star is born when gravity is equal to the radiation
pressure exerted by the high temperature and nuclear
Universe and Stars fusion.
Radiation pressure - the outward force due to the high
temperature of the star.
6.2. Sun
The Sun produces energy through nuclear fusion of hydrogen
into helium.

It is made of 75% hydrogen, 24% helium and the rest is

made of other elements like oxygen and carbon.
40% of its energy is visible light, 50% of it is infrared
radiation and 10% is ultraviolet.
Matter exists as plasma in the sun’s core which has a
temperature of 15 000 000K, and a surface temperature
of 5800K.
It has a mass of 2 × 10 30 Kg which is often referred to as
solar mass.

Light Year and Distances

http://www.cosmos.esa.int/documents/519784/1188283/Hydros
A light-year is the distance travelled by light in one year. So:
8 be12-4a56-9da8-592533719992?t=1476554115279
one light-year = 3 × 10 m/s × 365.25 days ×
24 hours × 3600 seconds = 9.5 × 10 15 m Life Cycle of a Star Less Than Eight Solar Masses
Astronomers can also use other ways to measure distances.
They can be done using parallax. This is when the stars Like the sun, a stable star fuses hydrogen into helium. This is
appear to move across the sky when we view them from a stable main sequence star. Our sun is 4.5 billion years old
di erent points on our orbit. and about half-way though its time as a stable star.

Main sequence - stable star that is burning up hydrogen in

its core; once it has used up 12% of its hydrogen it goes
onto another stage of its life cycle.

Once it burns through the hydrogen, it starts to fuse helium.

This requires a higher temperature at the core. It becomes a
red giant which are larger stars with cooler surfaces.
Eventually the core will collapse into a white dwarf star not
exceeding 1.4 solar masses.
It is not hot enough to fuse the elements inside it and cools to
Point A is Earth in the summer and point B is Earth in the become a black dwarf.
winter. The telescope is pointed towards X at point A and the The outer shell is blown o by radiation pressure and
stars are seen. The telescope is pointed in the direction of X becomes a planetary nebula.
at point B - denoted by the dotted line - and shows that the
same stars cannot be seen. The telescope is moved twice the Red Giant - a star that began with fewer than eight solar
parallax angle to see the point Y. masses and is burning helium at its core; the shell of
We can use trigonometry to calculate the distance between hydrogen has expanded and cooled.
the stars and the Earth. White dwarf - the nal stage of a star that started with
fewer than eight solar masses after all its fuel has been
used up
Stars and Star Life Cycles
There might be 200 billion stars in the Milky Way. A star starts
out as a protostar. Interstellar clouds are dust clouds that
exist between stars. Molecular clouds are clouds mostly of
hydrogen that is cold and dense enough to collapse and form
stars.

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heavier elements and pushing matter out into space as a

nebula.
After the supernova, the core becomes one of two things:
a neutron star or a black hole.
A neutron star is formed if the mass of the core is less
than about 3 solar masses. It forces protons and
electrons together to form neutrons.
A heavier core will keep collapsing till it becomes so
dense that not even light can escape it. It becomes a
black hole.

https://schoolworkhelper.net/wp-
content/uploads/2010/05/life-cycle-of-star.jpg Spectroscopy
The Life Cycle of A Star Exceeding Eight Solar There are many dark lines in the wavelengths of visible light
coming from the Sun. This is because the cool gas in the Sun’s
Masses
atmosphere absorbs them. A spectrum with these absorption
It begin as a protostar but the core is more massive and hot lines is known as an absorption spectrum.
enough to fuse heavier elements further from the core. The
outer shell expands into a red supergiant.

Red Supergiants - similar to red giants, they form when

stars with at least 8 times the mass of the sun run out of
hydrogen fuel in their core but fusion of hydrogen
continues in their outer shell

https://www.redshift-
live.com/binaries/asset/image/18408/image/Redshift_of_spectr
The top line represents the absorption spectrum observed in
an experiment in earth and the bottom line is a redshifted
one from a distant galaxy.

Redshift is the shifting of light to the red end of the

spectrum which has longer wavelengths.
Redshift is caused by the Doppler e ect

The Doppler E ect

The doppler e ect is the rise or fall in pitch as the source of
https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/H58eVHSXEQH37qkPX2qdUC70S6-
the wave moves closer or away from us. Here is an example.
U0kITDK1YQqFDsIe1kN2SRXc5cd66h-
Kyh4n5JZweLHyFi8lSqL0HSpIER3PubnM-
RwIRzk3yVsK88RyJuwaDholouMZFGrQuzShftvpurUk
The layers go in order of outer-most to inner-most:
HYDROGEN, HELIUM, CARBON, OXYGEN, NEON,
MAGNESIUM, SILICON and then IRON.

It is not possible to make elements heavier than iron by

nuclear fusion.
Once all the fuel runs out, the star collapses in a
supernova, providing the energy to fuse the iron into

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( For a detailed understanding, refer the new text book,

Chapter 25, Page 477 - 478 )

Hubble’s Law
The Doppler e ect can be used to work out how fast galaxies
are moving away from us. The speed at which galaxies are
moving away from us is proportional to the distance away
from us.

https://www.youphysics.education/wp-
content/uploads/Doppler2.webp

The ambulance is moving at a certain speed towards the

right.
As the siren rings once, the sound wave is produced and
starts to move away from that point.
By the time the siren rings again, the ambulance has
moved.
The ambulance closes that gap between itself and the
wave in front of it.
This causes the second wave to be released closer to the
https://physicsanduniverse.com/wp-
rst wave. The waves ahead of the vehicle compress as it
content/uploads/2014/02/Hubble-Law-2010.jpeg
approaches and observer B hears a rising pitch.
The line of best t is Hubble’s Law:
The wave emitted behind the car is moving in the opposite
V = Ho d where v is the recession speed of the galaxies, d is
direction. The car is moved away before emitting a
their distance from us and Ho is the Hubble Constant
second wave.
The waves behind the ambulance are further apart giving The Hubble constant is the gradient of this graph:
v
it a receding pitch as the waves are stretched behind the Ho =
vehicle. Observer A hears a receding pitch. d
Estimate for the age of the Universe:
The Doppler e ect is a property of all waves including light. It d 1
=
is proof that the Universe is expanding and suggests that the v Ho
galaxies must have been close together in the past. The reciprocal (inverse) of the Hubble constant is known as
Hubble time because it can be used to work out the age of the
The Big Bang Theory and Cosmic Microwave universe. The current estimate for Ho is 2.2 x 10^-18 per
Background Radiation second.
We know that:
The theory that the Universe had a beginning is the Big distance
Bang Theory which states that the Universe (space, time, time = So:
matter, energy) was created at a single point 13.8 billion
speed
d 1
years ago and has been expanding and cooling ever tuniverse = =
since. v Ho
The Big Bang was not an explosion. The singularity was Therefore the age of the Universe is:
unimaginably hot and dense which has been expanding 1 1
tuniverse = = = 4.5 × 1017 s =
and cooling. Neutral atoms could not form due to the heat Ho 2.2 × 10−18
of the early Universe; they would ionise. 14.4 × 109 years
Light continuously scattered around until the universe The Universe began at a single point (called a singularity)
cooled. about 14.5 billion years ago.
The expansion of the Universe has caused the wavelength
of the light to redshift.

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