CH1020: PRINCIPLES AND CALCULATIONS

IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
PART 1 - ENGINEERING PROBLEM ANALYSIS
Introduction to Engineering Calculations
Processes and Process Variables
PART 2 - MATERIAL BALANCES
Fundamentals of Material Balances
Single-Phase Systems
Multiphase Systems

PART 3 – ENERGY BALANCES

Energy and Energy Balances
Balances on Nonreactive Processes
Balances on Reactive Processes 1
Energy and Energy Balances

Madivala G. Basavaraj
Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Madras

2
 Something about Energy
Energy is very expensive – due to high demand and less
resources. Sources of energy are:
• Solar
• Wind
• Hydro/Tidal
• Nuclear power generation
• Fuel combustion

3
 Something about Energy
Energy is expensive. Sources of energy are:
• Solar
• Wind
• Hydro/Tidal: not nearly enough waterfalls/dams to provide
sufficient hydroelectric power to meet world’s energy needs
• Nuclear power generation: safe disposal of radioactive
wastes from nuclear reactors is a serious problem
• Fuel combustion— burning a combustible gas, oil, or solid
fuel, and using the energy released as a source of thermal or
electrical energy. 4
 Energy and Process Industries
• From the perspective of process industries  wasting energy
 reduced profits
• For most of early 20th century the cost of energy was often
an insignificant part of the overall process cost, and gross
operational inefficiencies were tolerated.
• 1970s  a sharp increase in the price of natural gas and
petroleum raised the cost of energy severalfold and
intensified the need to eliminate unnecessary energy
consumption.
• If a plant uses more energy than its competitors, its product
could be priced out of the marketplace. 5
 Something about Energy
Job of chemical engineer designing a process

 account carefully for the energy that flows into and out of
each process unit

 to determine the overall energy requirement for the process

You would do this by writing energy balances on the process

6
 Something about Energy
Typical problems that can be solved using energy balances
approach:
• How much energy is required to convert 2000 kg of water at
30 °C to steam at 180 ° C?
• A hydrocarbon mixture is distilled, producing a liquid and a
vapor stream, each with a known or calculable flow rate and
composition. The energy input to the distillation column is
provided by condensing saturated steam at a pressure of 15
bar. At what rate must steam be supplied to process 2000
mol/h of the feed mixture? 7
 Forms of Energy
Total energy of a system has three components:

• Kinetics Energy
• Potential Energy
• Internal Energy

8
 Forms of Energy
Kinetics Energy: Energy due to the translational motion of the
system as a whole relative to some frame of reference or due to
rotation of the system about some axis.

9
 Forms of Energy
Kinetics Energy: Energy due to the translational motion of the
system as a whole relative to some frame of reference or due to
rotation of the system about some axis.

The kinetic energy, Ek(J), of an object of mass m (kg) moving

with velocity u (m/s) relative to a stationary surface (the surface
of the earth) is

10
 Forms of Energy
Kinetics Energy:

If a fluid enters a system with a mass flow rate (kg/s) and

uniform velocity u (m/s), then

(J/s) may be thought of as the rate at which kinetic energy is

transported into the system by the fluid.
11
 Forms of Energy
Kinetics Energy:
Water flows into a process unit through a 1-cm inner radius pipe
at a rate of 2.00 m3/h. Calculate for this stream in
joules/second.

12
 Forms of Energy
Kinetics Energy:
Water flows into a process unit through a 1-cm inner radius pipe
at a rate of 2.00 m3/h. Calculate for this stream in
joules/second.
1. Calculate the linear velocity from the volumetric flow rate
and cross sectional area available for flow 1.77 m/s
2. Calculate the mass flow rate from the volumetric flow rate
and the density of water (2*1000)/(3600 s)=0.556 Kg/s
3.  0.87 J/s (= 0.556*1.77*1.77/2)
13
 Forms of Energy
Potential Energy: Energy due to the position of the system in a
potential field (such as a gravitational or electromagnetic field).

14
 Forms of Energy
Potential Energy: The gravitational potential energy of an object
of mass m is

Where is the acceleration of gravity and z is the height of the

object above a reference plane at which Ep is arbitrarily defined
to be zero.

If a fluid enters a system with a mass flow rate and an

elevation z relative to the potential energy reference plane, then
15
 Forms of Energy
Potential Energy:

may be thought of as the rate at which gravitational

potential energy is transported into the system by the fluid.

Since we are normally interested in the CHANGE in potential

energy when a body or fluid that moves from one elevation to
another

the elevation chosen as the reference plane does not matter.

16
 Forms of Energy
Internal Energy: All energy possessed by a system other than
kinetic and potential energy  energy due to 

• the motion of molecules relative to the center of mass of the

system
• the rotational and vibrational motion and the
electromagnetic interactions of the molecules
• the motion and interactions of the atomic and subatomic
constituents of the molecules
17
 Transfer of Energy
In closed process system  no mass is transferred across its
boundaries while the process is taking place. Energy may be
transferred between such a system and its surroundings in two
ways:

1. As HEAT or energy that flows as a result of temperature

difference between a system and its surroundings. The direction
of flow is always from a higher temperature to a lower one.
Convention: Heat is defined as positive when it is transferred
to the system from the surroundings. 18
 Transfer of Energy
Energy may be transferred between a closed system and its
surroundings in two ways:

2. As WORK or energy that flows in response to any driving force

other than a temperature difference, such as a force, a torque,
or a voltage. For example, if a gas in a cylinder expands and
moves a piston against a restraining force, the gas does work on
the piston (energy is transferred as work from the gas to its
surroundings, which include the piston).
19
 Transfer of Energy
Convention:

Work is defined as positive when it is done by the system on

the surroundings.

The opposite sign convention is sometimes used. The choice is

arbitrary, as long as it is used consistently.

20
 Transfer of Energy

• The terms “work” and “heat” refer only to energy that is

being transferred.

• Therefore, we can speak of the heat or work added to a

system or given off by a system, so it is meaningless to speak
of the heat or work possessed by or contained within a
system.

21
 Energy Units
• Energy  has units of force times distance: joules (N m), ergs
(dyne cm), and ft.lbf. It is common to use energy units
defined in terms of the amount of heat that must be
transferred to a specified mass of water to raise the
temperature of the water by a specified temperature interval
at a constant pressure of 1 atm. Most common units

22
 First law of thermodynamics
• First law of thermodynamics: The principle that underlies all
energy balances is the law of conservation of energy, which
states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

23
 First law of thermodynamics
• The first law states that

The rate at which energy (kinetic + potential + internal) is carried

into a system by the input streams + the rate at which it enters
as heat - the rate at which it is transported out of the system by
the output streams - the rate at which it leaves as work = equals
the rate of accumulation of energy in the system.

That is, accumulation=input-output

24
Test Yourself
 Test Yourself

• Kinetics Energy, Potential Energy, Internal Energy

• Heat and Work
 Test Yourself

• The terms “work” and “heat” refer only to energy that is

being transferred.
• Therefore, we can speak of the heat or work added to a
system or given off by a system, so it is meaningless to speak
of the heat or work possessed by or contained within a
system.
• By definition, heat is the energy that is being transferred
 Test Yourself

• Initial Energy + Energy (transferred from surroundings to the

system) - Energy (transferred from system to
surroundings)=Energy (Final)
• Ei+Q-W=Ef
Test Yourself
 Test Yourself

OUTLET
POUT < PIN
Temp T

INLET
Temp T
 Test Yourself

• The system is at steady state: mass flow rates must be same

• ρ = PM/RT, where M is molar mass
• POUT < PIN
ρOUTRT/M< ρINRT/M  ρOUT< ρIN
• <  <  >
 Test Yourself

•  as outlet pipe is higher, the change in the potential energy

from the inlet to the outlet is positive, that is greater than 0

• Since > ,u >

•  as outlet velocity is higher, the change in the kinetic
energy from the inlet to the outlet is positive, that is > 0
ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
A system is termed OPEN or CLOSED according to whether or
not mass crosses the system boundary during the period of time
covered by the energy balance.

• Example of closed system: A batch process

• Example of open system: Semibatch and continuous systems

 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
A BALANCE on a conserved quantity (total mass, mass of a
particular species, energy, momentum) in a system (a single
process unit, a collection of units, or an entire process) may be
written in the following general way:
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
A BALANCE on a conserved quantity (total mass, mass of a
particular species, energy, momentum) in a system (a single
process unit, a collection of units, or an entire process) may be
written in the following general way:

Since energy can neither be created nor destroyed, the

generation and consumption terms of the general balance drop
out accumulation=input-output
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
Accumulation = Input - Output
As the energy can be transferred across the boundaries as heat
or work, the right side of above Equation may not be eliminated
automatically. Similar to mass balances, however, the
accumulation term equals the final value of the balanced
quantity (in this case, the system energy) minus the initial
value of this quantity. Therefore, above Equation may be
written
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
Accumulation = Input - Output

Where
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS

The subscripts i and f refer to the initial and final states of the
system and U, Ek, Ep, Q, and W represent internal energy, kinetic
energy, potential energy, heat transferred to the system from its
surroundings, and work done by the system on its surroundings.
ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS

This equation is the basic

form of the first law of
thermodynamics for a
closed system.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
When applying

to a given process, note the following points:

(i) The internal energy of a system
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
When applying

to a given process, note the following points:

(i) The internal energy of a system depends almost entirely on
the chemical composition, state of aggregation (solid, liquid, or
gas), and temperature of the system materials. It is independent
of pressure for ideal gases and nearly independent of pressure
for liquids and solids.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
When applying

to a given process, note the following points:

(i) The internal energy of a system depends almost entirely on
the chemical composition, state of aggregation (solid, liquid, or
gas), and temperature of the system materials. It is independent
of pressure for ideal gases and nearly independent of pressure
for liquids and solids. If no temperature changes, no phase
changes, or no chemical reactions occur in a closed system and
if pressure changes are less than a few atmospheres, then
U0.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS

(ii) If a system is not accelerating, then Ek0. If a system is not

rising or falling, then Ep0.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS

(ii) If a system is not accelerating, then Ek0. If a system is not

rising or falling, then Ep0.

(iii) If a system and its surroundings are at the same temperature

or the system is perfectly insulated, then Q=0. The process is
then termed ADIABATIC.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS

(iv) Work done on or by a closed system is accomplished by

movement of the system boundary against a resisting force or
the passage of an electrical current or radiation across the
system boundary. Examples of the first type of work are motion
of a piston or rotation of a shaft that projects through the
system boundary.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS

(iv) Work done on or by a closed system is accomplished by

movement of the system boundary against a resisting force or
the passage of an electrical current or radiation across the
system boundary. Examples of the first type of work are motion
of a piston or rotation of a shaft that projects through the
system boundary. If there are no moving parts or electrical
currents or radiation at the system boundary, then W=0.
Test Yourself
 Test Yourself

(i) A system is termed OPEN or CLOSED according to whether or

not mass crosses the system boundary during the period of time
covered by the energy balance.

(ii) If a system and its surroundings are at the same temperature

or the system is perfectly insulated, then Q=0. The process is
then termed ADIABATIC.
Test Yourself
 Test Yourself

250 J is added to the system as heat  Q = 250 J, Q=-250 J

250 J is the work done to the system  W = -250 J, W=250 J

 Test Yourself

250 J is added to the system as heat  Q = 250 J, Q=-250 J

250 J is the work done to the system  W = -250 J, W=250 J

 Test Yourself

250 J is added to the system as heat  Q = 250 J, Q=-250 J

[Convention: Heat is defined as positive when it is transferred
to the system from the surroundings.]

250 J is the work done to the system  W = -250 J, W=250 J

[Work is defined as positive when it is done by the system on
the surroundings.]
 Test Yourself

U = Uf - Ui =50 kcal - 100 kcal = - 50 kcal

 Test Yourself

U  independent of pressure for ideal gases and nearly

independent of pressure for liquids and solids
Problem
 Problem
Stage 1: The cylinder is placed in boiling water with the piston
held in a fixed position. Heat in the amount of 2.00 kcal is
transferred to the gas, which equilibrates at 100 C (and a higher
pressure).
 Problem
Stage 1: The cylinder is placed in boiling water with the piston
held in a fixed position. Heat in the amount of 2.00 kcal is
transferred to the gas, which equilibrates at 100 C (and a higher
pressure).
 Problem

As Q = 2 kcal, U = 2 kcal = 8370 J. Therefore, the gas gains 8370

J of internal energy in going from 25 to 100 C.
 Problem
Stage 2: The piston is then released, and the gas does 100 J of
work in moving the piston to its new equilibrium position. The
final gas temperature is 100 C .
Problem
 Problem

Therefore, Q = W = 100 J  Thus an additional 100 J of heat is

transferred to the gas as it expands and re-equilibrates at 100
C.
Summary: ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED
SYSTEMS
Problem
 Problem

0 0

Heat needs to be taken out from the system Q<0, and there is
expansion  work done by the system on the surroundings,
W>0
Problem
Problem

0 0 0 0
 Problem
0 0 0

As there is chemical reaction, change in U will be non-

zero.
Since the temperature went up, heat must be transferred
from the system to the surroundings to keep isothermal
conditions (T constant)  Q < 0 .
Problem
 Problem

0 0

U = Q-W
 Problem

U = Q-W
Q<0: Heat is transferred from the surroundings to
the system
Water expands when it freezes  ice is less dense
than the water  Work is done by the system on
the surroundings  W>0
ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT
STEADY STATE
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT
STEADY STATE
• In open process system mass crosses its boundaries as the
process occurs.

• Work must be done on such a system to push mass in, and

work is done on the surroundings by mass that emerges.

• That is, both work terms must be included in the energy

balance.
ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE: Work done by the system
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE: Work done by the system
Flow work and Shaft Work: The net rate of work done by an
open system on its surroundings may be written as

 Shaft work or rate of work done by the process fluid

on a moving part within the system (e.g., a pump rotor)

 Flow work or rate of work done by the fluid at the

system outlet minus the rate of work done on the fluid at the
system inlet
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT
STEADY STATE
To derive an expression for , we initially consider the single-
inlet–single-outlet system:

Fluid at a pressure Pin (N/m2) enters a pipe at a volumetric flow

rate (m3/s) and exits at a pressure Pout (N/m2) and volumetric
flow rate (m3/s).
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT
STEADY STATE

The fluid that enters the system has work done on it by the fluid
just behind it at a rate:

The fluid leaving the system performs work on the surroundings

at a rate:
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT
STEADY STATE
The net rate at which work is done by the system at the inlet and
outlet is therefore:
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT
STEADY STATE
The net rate at which work is done by the system at the inlet and
outlet is therefore:

If several input and output streams enter and leave the

system, the products for each stream must be summed
to determine
Test Yourself
Test Yourself

<0
<
< or >
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE
Specific Properties and Enthalpy:
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE
Specific Properties and Enthalpy:
• In general, the properties of a process material are either
extensive (proportional to the quantity of the material) or
intensive (independent of the quantity).
• Mass, number of moles, and volume (or mass flow rate,
molar flow rate, and volumetric flow rate for a continuous
stream), and kinetic energy, potential energy, and internal
energy (or the rates of transport of these quantities by a
continuous stream) are extensive properties, while
temperature, pressure, and density are intensive.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE
Specific Properties and Enthalpy:

A specific property is an intensive quantity obtained by dividing

an extensive property (or its flow rate) by the total amount (or
flow rate) of the process material.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE
Specific Properties and Enthalpy:

Examples:

(i) if the volume of a fluid is 200 cm3 and the mass of the fluid
is 200 g, the specific volume of the fluid is 1 cm3/g.
(ii) if the mass flow rate of a stream is 100 kg/min and the
volumetric flow rate is 150 L/min, the specific volume of the
stream material is (150 (L/min)/100 (kg/min)=1.5 L/kg;
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE
Specific Properties and Enthalpy:

Examples:

(iii) if the rate at which kinetic energy is transported by a stream

flowing at a mass flow rate of 100 kg/min is 300 J/min, then the
specific kinetic energy of the stream material is (300 J/min) (100
kg/min)=3 J/kg. We will use the symbol ˆ to denote a specific
property: will denote specific volume, specific internal
energy, and so on.
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE
Specific Properties and Enthalpy:
If the temperature and pressure of a process material are such
that the specific internal energy of the material is (J/kg), then
a mass m (kg) of this material has a total internal energy

Similarly, a continuous stream of this material with a mass flow

rate (kg/s) transports internal energy at a rate
 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY
STATE
Specific Properties and Enthalpy:

A property that occurs in the energy balance equation for open

systems is the SPECIFIC ENTHALPY defined as

where P is total pressure, and and are specific internal

energy and specific volume.
Test Yourself
 Test Yourself

(1) 6000 cal

(2) 1000 cal/min
(3) The specific enthalpy is given by .
Therefore, we would require pressure and
specific volume
 The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
The first law of thermodynamics for an open system at steady
state has the form:
Input = Output

“Input”  the total rate of transport of kinetic energy, potential

energy, and internal energy by all process input streams plus the
rate at which energy is transferred in as heat

“Output” the total rate of energy transport by the output

streams plus the rate at which energy is transferred out as work.
 The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
If denotes the total rate of energy transport by the jth input or
output stream of a process, and and are defined as the
rates of flow of heat into and work out of the process, then the
Equation, Input = Output, may be written
 The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
If , , and are the flow rates of mass, kinetic energy,
potential energy, and internal energy for the jth process stream,
then the total rate at which energy is transported into or out of
the system by this stream is
where is the velocity of the jth
stream and is the height of this
stream relative to a reference plane
at which =0.
 The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
The total work done by the system on its surroundings equals
the shaft work plus the flow work . If is the volumetric
flow rate of the jth stream and is the pressure of this stream as
it crosses the system boundary, then
The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
 The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance

Above Equation states that the net rate at which energy is

transferred to a system as heat and/or shaft work ( - ) equals
the difference between the rates at which the quantity (enthalpy
+ kinetic energy + potential energy) is transported into and out
of the system ( +  +  ). We will use this equation as
the starting point for most energy balance calculations on open
systems at steady state.
 The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
Notice that if a process has a single input stream and a single
output stream and there is no accumulation of mass in the
system ( = ), the expression

Also notice that if a specific variable has the same value for all
input and output streams, further simplification can be done.
 The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
For example, if is the same for all streams,

But from a total mass balance the quantity in brackets (which is

simply total mass in minus total mass out) equals zero, and
hence  = 0.
The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance
 = 8.75 kW

= 0.00681 kW

Heat is defined as positive when it

= -104 Kcal/h = -11.6 kW is transferred to the system from
the surroundings.
Work is defined as positive
= 70 kW when it is done by the system
on the surroundings.
The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance

= -90.3 kW
= -650 kJ/kg
 1.86×105 Pa and 0.68 L

Final pressure =
downward force/area =
Piston moves by 0.14 m and Q = 47 J 1.16×105 Pa
 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
Reference States and State Properties

• The absolute value of or can not be found, but we can

determine the CHANGE in  or in 
corresponding to a specified change of state (temperature,
pressure, and phase).
 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
Reference States and State Properties

Calculation of 
• Bring a known mass m of a substance through the specified
change of state in such a way that all terms of the energy
balance except U (i.e., heat, work, and changes in potential
and kinetic energies) are known.

Calculation of 
• Once  ( /m) has been determined,  for the same
change in state can be calculated as  + 
 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
Reference States and State Properties

A convenient way to tabulate measured changes in or is to

choose a temperature, pressure, and state of aggregation as a
REFERENCE STATE and to list  or  for changes from this
state to a series of other states.
 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
Reference States and State Properties
Suppose, for example, that the enthalpy changes for carbon
monoxide going from a reference state of 0 °C and 1 atm to two
other states are measured, with the following results:
CO(g, 0 °C, 1 atm)  CO(g, 100 °C, 1 atm):  = 2919 J/mol
CO(g, 0 °C, 1 atm)  CO(g, 500 °C, 1 atm):  = 15,060 J/mol
(the specific enthalpy of CO at 100 °C and 1 atm relative to
CO at 0 °C and 1 atm is 2919 J/mol.)
Since cannot be known absolutely, for convenience we may
assign a value  = 0 to the reference state; then  - =
and  - = , and so on.
 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
Reference States and State Properties

A table may then be constructed for CO at 1 atm:

 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
Reference States and State Properties

Some enthalpy tables give the reference states on which the

listed values of are based and others do not; however, you do
not have to know the reference state to calculate  for the
transition from one tabulated state to another.
 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
Reference States and State Properties

 calculated from both the data (with reference state and

without reference state) is same.
 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
Reference States and State Properties

This result (that  calculated for the two cases is the same) is a
consequence of the fact that , like , is a state property or a
property of a system component whose value depends only on
the state of the system (temperature, pressure, phase, and
composition) and not on how the system reached that state.
Test Yourself
 of A(l) at 0 °C, 1 atm = 0

(b) of A(v) at 0 °C, 5 atm ~ of A(v) at 0 °C, 1 atm = 5000 J/kg

(assuming that the pressure change is moderate)

(c)  = of A(v) at 0 °C, 1 atm - of A(v) at 30 °C, 1 atm

= 5000-7500 = -2500 J/kg
(c) Answer will not depend on reference state as is a state
property
Steam Tables
 Steam Tables

Phase diagram of water

 Steam Tables

Phase diagram of water

 Steam Tables

Phase diagram of water

Steam Tables
Pure water may coexist as liquid and
vapor only at temperature–pressure
pairs that fall on the vapor–liquid
equilibrium (VLE) curve.

At points above the VLE curve (but

to the right of the solid–liquid
equilibrium curve), water is a sub-
cooled liquid
Steam Tables

• At points on the VLE curve, water

may be saturated liquid or
saturated steam (vapor) or a
mixture of both.

• At points below the VLE curve,

water is superheated steam
Steam Tables

The compilations of physical

properties of liquid water, saturated
steam, and superheated steam
issued in STEAM TABLES have been
standard references for mechanical
and chemical engineers involved
with steam cycles for electrical
power generation.
Table B.5: Properties of Saturated Steam:
Temperature Table
 Table B.5: Properties of Saturated Steam:
Temperature Table

This table lists properties of saturated liquid water and

saturated steam at temperatures from 0.01 °C (the triple
point temperature) to 102 °C.
Table B.5: Properties of Saturated Steam:
Temperature Table
The pressure corresponding to the given
temperature on the VLE curve, is by
definition, the vapor pressure of water at
the given temperature.
Instead of looking up a given temperature
and finding the pressure, you could look
up a given pressure in the second column
and find the corresponding boiling point
temperature in the first column.
 Table B.5: Properties of Saturated Steam:
Temperature Table

The specific volumes (in m3/kg), of liquid water and saturated

steam at the given temperature. The inverses of these quantities
are the densities (kg/m3) of liquid water and steam.
 Table B.5: Properties of Saturated Steam:
Temperature Table

The specific internal energies, (kJ/kg), of saturated liquid

water and saturated steam at the given temperature relative to a
reference state of liquid water at the triple point
 Table B.5: Properties of Saturated Steam:
Temperature Table

The specific enthalpies, (kJ/kg), of saturated liquid water

(Column 7) and saturated steam (Column 9), and the difference
between these quantities, known as the latent heat of
vaporization (Column 8). The reference point for the tabulated
values of is again liquid water at the triple point.
Table B.6: Properties of Saturated Steam: Pressure
Table
 Table B.6: Properties of Saturated Steam: Pressure
Table

Table B.6 lists the same properties as Table B.5, except that
pressure is the first column and temperature in the second and the
table covers a much broader range of temperatures and pressures.
Tables B.5 and B.6 are commonly referred to as the saturated
steam tables
Table B.7: Properties of Superheated Steam
 Table B.7: Properties of Superheated Steam

This table is referred to as the SUPER HEATED STEAM

TABLE and it lists , , and of water (the latter two
properties relative to liquid water at the triple point) at ANY
temperature and pressure, not just at points on the VLE curve.
 Table B.7: Properties of Superheated Steam

If you are given a temperature and a pressure, you can locate the
properties of water at the intersection of the column
corresponding to the given temperature and the row
corresponding to the given pressure.

If the intersection falls within the closed region on the table

bounded by the vertical line to the left of the 50 °C column, the
horizontal line below the 221.2 bar row, and the zigzag
hypotenuse, the water is a liquid; outside this region, it is a
superheated vapor.
 Table B.7: Properties of Superheated Steam

In the first column, the data in the parentheses is the boiling point
temperature
In Columns 2 and 3 the properties of saturated liquid water and
saturated steam at that pressure.
If you are at a point in the superheated steam region, you can
move all the way to the left to determine the saturation
temperature at the same pressure, or the DEW POINT of the
superheated steam.
 ENERGY BALANCE PROCEDURES
• A properly drawn and labeled flowchart is essential for the
efficient solution of energy balance problems.
• When labeling the flowchart, be sure to include all of the
information you will need to determine the specific enthalpy
of each stream component, including known temperatures
and pressures.
• In addition, show states of aggregation of process materials
when they are not obvious: do not simply write H2O, for
example, but rather H2O(s), H2O(l), or H2O(v), according to
whether water is present as a solid, a liquid, or a vapor.
 ENERGY BALANCE PROCEDURES
• When process streams contain several components, the
specific enthalpies of each component must be determined
separately and substituted in the energy balance equation
when  is evaluated.

• For mixtures of near-ideal gases or of liquids with similar

molecular structures (e.g., mixtures of paraffins) you may
assume that for a mixture component is the same as for
the pure substance at the same temperature and pressure.
Since we are in a regime to
the right of the zig-zag line,
water is superheated steam
(b) -30.7 kJ/mol and -153.5 kJ/mol (c) 0.057 kJ
Oxygen at 150 K and 41.64 atm has a tabulated specific
volume of 4.684 cm3/g and a specific internal energy of
1706 J/mol. Calculate the specific enthalpy of O2 in this
state.
Oxygen at 150 K and 41.64 atm has a tabulated specific
volume of 4.684 cm3/g and a specific internal energy of
1706 J/mol. Calculate the specific enthalpy of O2 in this
state.

1706 J/mol+ (4.684 cm3/g)(41.64 atm)

Make sure to convert all the quantities into consistent
unit system
MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE

Closed Systems

Open Systems
 MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE
For certain process units  reactors, distillation columns,
evaporators, and heat exchangers  shaft work and kinetic and
potential energy changes tend to be negligible compared with
heat flows and internal energy and enthalpy changes.

Closed Systems

Open Systems
 MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE
• On the contrary, there are class of operations for which the
opposite is true — heat flows and internal energy changes
are secondary in importance to kinetic and potential energy
changes and shaft work.

• Most of these operations involve the flow of fluids to, from,

and between tanks, reservoirs, wells, and process units.

• Accounting for energy flows in such processes is most

conveniently done with mechanical energy balances
 MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE

• The general form of the mechanical energy balance is derived

starting with the open system energy balance and a second
equation expressing the law of conservation of momentum

• We will consider simplified form of mechanical energy

balance for a single incompressible liquid flowing into and
out of a process system at steady state.
 MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE
• Consider a system, wherein is the mass flow rate and is
the specific volume of the liquid. If is replaced by 1/ρ,
where ρ is the liquid density, then the open-system energy
balance

becomes

Where the shaft work is the work done by the fluid on

moving elements in the process line.
MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE
MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE

= +P  =  +  P
=  + P+P
=  +  = =  +
at outlet = at outlet =
 MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE

In many cases
• only slight amounts of heat are transferred to or from the
surroundings
• there is little change in temperature from inlet to outlet,
• no phase changes or reactions occur.
Even under these circumstances, some kinetic or potential
energy is always converted to thermal energy as a result of
friction due to the movement of the fluid through the system.
MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE

Therefore, the quantity is

always positive and is
termed as the friction loss,
 MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCE

• Above equation is the mechanical energy balance

• It is valid for steady state flow of an incompressible fluid.
• The mechanical energy balance for frictionless processes in
which no shaft work is performed is
 Mass + Energy Balance
One thousand liters of a 95 wt% glycerol–5% water solution is to
be diluted to 60% glycerol by adding a 35% solution pumped
from a large storage tank through a 5-cm ID pipe at a steady
rate. The pipe discharges at a point 23 m higher than the liquid
surface in the storage tank. The operation is carried out
isothermally and takes 13 min to complete. The friction loss is 50
J/kg. Calculate the final solution volume and the shaft work in
kW that the pump must deliver, assuming that the surface of the
stored solution and the pipe outlet are both at 1 atm. Density of
water and glycerol can be taken as 1.0 Kg/L and 1.26 Kg/L
respectively.
 Given Data
• Water – will be labelled as “W” and Glycerol – will be
labelled as “G”
• Storage tank: 1000 L; 95 wt% G and 0.05 wt% W. Let m
be the mass of the liquid in the tank
• min is the mass of the liquid added to the tank through
the pipe. Its composition is 35 wt% G and 65 wt% W
• mout is the final mass of the liquid of composition 60
wt% G and 40 wt% W
• Storage tank: 1000 L; 95 wt% G and 0.05 wt% W. Let m
be the mass of the liquid in the tank. How to calculate
m?
• Storage tank: 1000 L; 95 wt% G and 0.05 wt% W. Let m
be the mass of the liquid in the tank. How to calculate
m?
• = +
• = +

• = +  = + =
 Calculation of Density of Mixtures

Stream
Kg/L Kg/L Kg/L
In 1.26 1.00 0.35 0.65 1.08

Storage 1.26 1.00 0.95 0.05 1.24

Tank
Out 1.26 1.00 0.60 0.40 1.14
 Mass flow rate calculation
• Storage tank: 1000 L; 95 wt% G and 0.05 wt% W. Let m
be the mass of the liquid in the tank

• m=Volume × Density = (1000 L)(1.24 Kg/L) = 1240 Kg

 Flow sheet

min, 0.35G, 0.65W

23m

M (1240 Kg), mout

Storage Tank
0.95G, 0.05W 0.6G, 0.4W
 MASS BALANCE

Overall mass Balance: min+m =mout

min+1240 =mout
Glycerol Balance: 0.35min+0.95m =0.60mout
0.35min+1178 =0.60mout
Water Balance: 0.65min+0.05m =0.40mout
0.65min+ 62 =0.40mout
 MASS BALANCE

Overall mass Balance: min+1240 =mout

Glycerol Balance: 0.35min+0.95m =0.60mout
0.35min+1178 =0.60mout
0.35min+1178 =0.60(min+1240)
min=(1178-0.6 ×1240)/(0.6-0.35)=1736 Kg
mout=2976 Kg
 MASS BALANCE

The volume of the 35 wt% solution added=Vin

1736 Kg / 1.08 kg/L = 1607 L (1607.41 L)

The final volume of the 60 wt% solution = Vout

1000 L +1607 L = 2607 L
 Uin= (Vin/t)/Area
=(1.607/(13*60))/(pi*(2.5/100)2)
min, 0.35G, 0.65W =1.05 m/s
U=0
23m

m (1240 Kg), mout

Storage Tank
0.95G, 0.05W 0.6G, 0.4W
 0 50 J/Kg = 50 N.m/Kg

1736 Kg/13 min

9.81(23)=225.63 m2/s2 =2.23 Kg/s
= 225.63 N.m/Kg
(1.05)2/2=0.551 m2/s2
=0.551 N.m/Kg =-620 J/s = -0.62 kW
Shaft work that pump must deliver
 Energy Balance
Liquid water is fed to a boiler at 24 °C and 10 bar and is
converted at constant pressure to saturated steam. Use the
steamtables to calculate  (kJ/kg) for this process, and then
calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.
 Energy Balance
Liquid water is fed to a boiler at 24 °C and 10 bar and is
converted at constant pressure to saturated steam. Use the
steamtables to calculate  (kJ/kg) for this process, and then
calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.

H2O(l), H2O(v), at 10 bar

24 °C, 10 bar 15,000 m3/h
 Energy Balance
Liquid water is fed to a boiler at 24 °C and 10 bar and is
converted at constant pressure to saturated steam. Use the
steamtables to calculate (kJ/kg) for this process

(kJ/kg) = (2776.2 – 100.6) KJ/Kg = 2675.6 KJ/Kg

 Energy Balance
Liquid water is fed to a boiler at 24 °C and 10 bar and is
converted at constant pressure to saturated steam. Use the
steamtables to calculate (kJ/kg) for this process, and then
calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.
 Energy Balance
Calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.
0 0
 Energy Balance
Calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.
uout=(15000/(60*60))/(pi*(7.5/100)^2)= 9.82 m/s
0 0

̇(u2out-u2in)/2
 Energy Balance
Calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.
uout=(15000/(24*60*60))/(pi*(7.5/100)^2)= 9.82 m/s
0 0

̇(u2out-u2in)/2 ̇= Q/
 Energy Balance
Calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.
uout=(15000/(60*60))/(pi*(7.5/100)^2)= 235.79 m/s
0 0

̇= Q/ (15000/(60 60))/(0.1943)
̇(u2out-u2in)/2 =21.44 Kg/s
 Energy Balance
Calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.

0 0

̇(u2out-u2in)/2= 21.44 Kg/s (235.79 m/s)2= 5.96×105 J/s

 Energy Balance
Calculate the heat input required to produce 15,000 m3/h of
steam at the exiting conditions. Assume that the kinetic energy
of the entering liquid is negligible and that the steam is
discharged through a 15-cm ID pipe.
0 0

̇ +5.96×105 = = (21.44 Kg/s)(2675.6 KJ/Kg)+

+5.96×105= 573.64×105+5.96×105= 579.6×105 J/s
= 5.8×104 kJ/s = 5.8×104 kW
 Energy Balance

CH4, 10 bar
30 °C 200 m CH4, 9 bar
5 m/s 30 °C
(a)

 is negative, outlet is at a location higher than the

inlet

 There is a pressure drop from 10 bar to 9 bar 

velocity at the outlet is larger than velocity at inlet 
change in kinetic energy is positive
(b)
ρ = PM/RT
= (10E5)*(16.01E-3 Kg/mol)/(8.314*303)=6.35 kg/m3
= Density*Volumetric Flow Rate
= 6.35*(5*pi*0.015*0.015)=0.0225 Kg/s

= 0.0225*9.81(0-200)= -44.1 J/s = - 44.1 W

(b)
uout=5.56 m/s  from Pin = Pout  Pin = Pout

= 0.0225*(5.56*5.56-5*5)/2=0.067 J/s = 0.067 W