Module 2

Processes and Process Variables

Lecture 1
Madivala G. Basavaraj
Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Madras

103
 Process
What is a process?

A process is any operation or series of operations by which a particular

objective is accomplished.

104
 Process
What is a process?

A process is any operation or series of operations by which a particular

objective (such as producing a new chemical, separation of materials,
etc…) is accomplished.

105
 Process
What is a process?

A process is any operation or series of operations by which a particular

objective (such as producing a new chemical, separation of materials,
etc…) is accomplished.

As we have already discussed, the operations that cause a physical

and/or chemical change in a substance or mixture of substances, is
the main scope of chemical engineering.

106
 Process
What is a process?

A process is any operation or series of operations by which a particular

objective (such as producing a new chemical, separation of materials,
etc…) is accomplished.

As we have already discussed, the operations that cause a physical

and/or chemical change in a substance or mixture of substances, is
the main scope of chemical engineering.

Chemical engineer’s job DESIGN or OPERATE a process.

107
 Process
Process DESIGN

- formulation of a process flowsheet (layout), specification

of individual process units (such as reactors, separation
equipment, heat exchangers) and associated operating
variable

Process OPERATION

- the day-to-day running of the process

108
 Process
A typical process involves - a material that enters the process referred
to as the input or feed , and a material which leaves called the output
or product.

https://processdesign.mccormick.northwestern.edu/images/6/67/Io_example.JPG 109
 Process
A typical process involves - a material that enters the process referred
to as the input or feed , and a material which leaves called the output
or product.

It is common for processes to consist of multiple steps, each of which

is carried out in a process unit , and each process unit has associated
with it a set of input and output process streams.
https://processdesign.mccormick.northwestern.edu/images/6/67/Io_example.JPG 110
Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook : Reference since 1934 provides
state-of-the-art coverage of aspects of chemical engineering

https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Perry%27s_Chemical_Engineers%27_Handbook#Media/File:Perry1thru9JMV_8693c
111
r93.jpg
 Typical Process Variables
• Mass, Volume and Density

• Flow rates

• Composition

• Concentration

• Pressure and pressure drop

• Temperature
112
 MASS AND VOLUME
Density:

• The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the

substance:
• Units: kg/m3, g/cm3, lbm/ft3 , etc.

Specific Volume:

• It is the inverse of density.

• The specific volume of a substance is the volume occupied by a unit
mass of the substance.
• Units: m3/kg,cm3/g, ft3/lbm, etc. 113
 MASS AND VOLUME
• The density of a substance can be used as a conversion factor to
relate the mass and the volume of a quantity of the substance.

• Densities of pure solids and liquids are essentially independent of

pressure (such substances are referred to as incompressible – an
important assumption made in fluid flow problems!), but vary
relatively slightly with temperature.

114
 Density of water as a function of temperature

115
Ref: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/density-of-water/
 MASS AND VOLUME
• The density of a substance can be used as a conversion factor to
relate the mass and the volume of a quantity of the substance.

• Densities of pure solids and liquids are essentially independent of

pressure (such substances are referred to as incompressible – an
important assumption made in fluid flow problems!), but vary
relatively slightly with temperature.

• The temperature variation may be in either direction: (i) density

may increase with increase in temperature, (ii) may decrease with
increase in temperature, (iii) may show anomalous behavior
increase followed by decrease. 116
 MASS AND VOLUME
• Typically density decreases with increase in temperature

117
 MASS AND VOLUME
• Typically density decreases with increase in temperature  When
you heat a liquid or a solid it normally expands.

118
 MASS AND VOLUME
• Typically density decreases with increase in temperature  When
you heat a liquid or a solid it normally expands.

• Example: the density of liquid water, for example, increases from

0.999868 g/cm3 at 0 °C to 1.00000 g/cm3 at 3.98 °C, and then
decreases to 0.95838 g/cm3 at 100 °C.

119
 MASS AND VOLUME
• Typically density decreases with increase in temperature  When
you heat a liquid or a solid it normally expands.

• Example: the density of liquid water, for example, increases from

0.999868 g/cm3 at 0 °C to 1.00000 g/cm3 at 3.98 °C, and then
decreases to 0.95838 g/cm3 at 100 °C.

• As you saw with example of water, in most process applications,

however, it can be assumed with little error that solid and liquid
densities are independent of temperature.
120
 Specific Gravity
• The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the density of the
substance (ρ) to the density of a reference substance (ρref) at a
specific condition
ρ
SG
ρref

• The reference most commonly

used for solids and liquids is water
at 4.0 °C:

121
 Specific Gravity
ρ
SG
ρref
The density of a liquid or solid in g/cm3 is numerically equal to the
specific gravity of that substance. The notation

20°
SG
4°
signifies that the specific gravity of a substance at 20 °C with
reference to water at 4 °C is 0.6.

122
 Test Yourself!
A liquid has a specific gravity of 0.50.

• What is its density in g/cm3?

• What is its specific volume in cm3/g?

• What is its density in lbm/ft3?

• What is the mass of 3.0 cm3 of this liquid?

• What volume is occupied by 18 g?

123
 Test Yourself!
A liquid has a specific gravity of 0.50.

• What is its density in g/cm3? 0.5 g/cm3

• What is its specific volume in cm3/g? 2.0 cm3/g

• What is its density in lbm/ft ? 31.215 lbm/ft3

• What is the mass of 3.0 cm3 of this liquid? 1.5 g

• What volume is occupied by 18 g? 36 cm3

124
 Test Yourself!
Calculate the density of mercury in lbm/ft3 from a tabulated specific
gravity, and calculate the volume in ft3 occupied by 215 kg of mercury.

125
 Test Yourself!
Calculate the density of mercury in lbm/ft3 from a tabulated specific
gravity, and calculate the volume in ft3 occupied by 215 kg of mercury.

+356.9 °C
• Density in lbm/ft3: 845.67678
• Mass in kg : 215
• Mass in lbm: 215*2.20462= 473.9933
• Volume occupied in ft3= (473.9933/ 845.67678)=0.5605
126
 FLOW RATE - Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate
• Chemical processes involve the movement of material from one
point to another— (i) between process units, (ii) between a
production facility and a transportation depot.

• The rate at which a material is transported through a process line is

the FLOW RATE of that material.

• The flow rate of a process stream may be expressed as a MASS

FLOW RATE (mass/time) or as a VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE
(volume/time).

127
 FLOW RATE - Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate
• Chemical processes involve the movement of material from one
point to another— (i) between process units, (ii) between a
production facility and a transportation depot.

128
 FLOW RATE - Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate
• Chemical processes involve the movement of material from one
point to another— (i) between process units, (ii) between a
production facility and a transportation depot.

129
Image credit: https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com
 FLOW RATE - Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate
• Chemical processes involve the movement of material from one
point to another— (i) between process units, (ii) between a
production facility and a transportation depot.

Ref: CONVERSION METHODS FOR COMMERCIAL

STOVES FROM LPG TO NATURAL GAS FIRING. 13rd
Brazilian Congress of Thermal Sciences and
Engineering - ENCIT 2010At: Uberlândia, Brazil
130
Image credit: https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com
 FLOW RATE - Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate
Suppose a fluid (gas or liquid) flows in the cylindrical pipe, where the
shaded area represents a section perpendicular to the direction flow

• If the mass flow rate of the fluid is (kg/s), then every second
kilograms of the fluid pass through the cross section.

• If the volumetric flow rate of the fluid at the given cross section is
(m3/s), then every second cubic meters of the fluid pass through
the cross section. 131
 Relation between Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate
The mass flow rate of the fluid, (kg/s) is related to the volumetric
flow rate of the fluid, (m3/s) as:

Therefore, the density of a fluid can be used to convert a known

volumetric flow rate of a process stream to the mass flow rate of that
stream or vice versa.

132
 Relation between Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

• The mass flow rates of process streams must be known for many
process calculations, but it is frequently more convenient to
measure volumetric flow rates.

• A common procedure is therefore to measure and calculate

from and the density of the stream fluid (ρ).

133
 Flow rate measurement
A flowmeter is a device mounted in a process line that provides a
continuous reading of the flow rate in the line.

134
 Flow rate measurement
A flowmeter is a device mounted in a process line that provides a
continuous reading of the flow rate in the line. Two commonly used
flowmeters — the rotameter and the orifice meter

135
 Flow rate measurement
The rotameter is a tapered vertical tube
containing a float; the larger the flow rate, the
higher the float rises in the tube.

Rotameter

136
 Flow rate measurement
The rotameter is a tapered vertical tube
containing a float; the larger the flow rate, the
higher the float rises in the tube.

AR0 is the narrowest area between the tube and the floats
largest cross section when the float is at zero position in the
rotameter; h is the height of the float relative to the zero
position in the rotameter; θ is the angle of the tapered tube;
Rotameter Dm is the diameter of the tapered tube in the zero position; Vf
is the volume of the float; ρ is the fluid density; ρf is the
density of the float; and Af is the largest cross section of the
float 137
See Page 10: https://www.iea.lth.se/publications/ms-theses/Full%20document/5406_full_document.pdf
 Flow rate measurement

Orifice meter

138
 Flow rate measurement
The orifice meter is an obstruction in the
flow channel with a narrow opening through
which the fluid passes.

Orifice meter

139
 Flow rate measurement
The orifice meter is an obstruction in the
flow channel with a narrow opening through
which the fluid passes.

Orifice meter
• The fluid pressure drops (decreases) from the upstream side of the
orifice to the downstream side;

• the pressure drop (which may be measured with a number of

devices, including a differential manometer) varies with the flow
rate — the greater the flow rate, the larger the pressure drop.
140
 Flow rate measurement

Cross sectional area of the orifice

Orifice meter Pressure drop

Volumetric flow rate,

Density of the fluid

Cross sectional area of the pipe
141
 Module 2
Processes and Process Variables

Lecture 2
Madivala G. Basavaraj
Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Madras

142
 Re-cap
Process, Process variables:

Mass, Volume and Density

Flow rate

Flow meters

• Rotameter

• Orifice meter
143
 Chemical Composition

• The feed, product or other streams encountered in chemical

process systems can be single component and often mixtures of
various species.

• The physical properties of mixtures depend strongly on the mixture

composition.

144
 Moles and Molecular Weight

• The molecular weight of a compound is the sum of the atomic

weights of the atoms that constitute a compound

• A gram-mole (g-mole, or mol in SI units) of a species is the amount

of that species whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its
molecular weight.

• If the species is an element, it is technically correct to refer to a

gram-atom rather than a gram-mole.

145
 Moles and Molecular Weight
• Moles can also be expressed in: kg-moles or kmol, lb-moles, ton-
moles

• Example - Carbon monoxide (CO)

 molecular weight of 28  1 mol of CO therefore contains 28 g

 1 lb-mole contains 28 lbm  1 ton-mole contains 28 tons…

• If the molecular weight of a substance is M, then there are M

kg/kmol, M g/g-mol and M lb/lb-mol of this substance.
146
 Mass to Moles Conversion
The molecular weight is used as a conversion factor that relates the
mass and the number of moles of a substance.

147
 Mass to Moles Conversion
Consider 100.0 g of CO2 ( M = 44.01). Calculate the following:
(a) mol CO2:

We know that: 1 mol CO2 = 44.01 g/mol

100.0 g CO2 = 100.00 g x(1 mol)/(44.01 g/mol) CO2

= 2.27 mol CO2

148
 Mass to Moles Conversion
Consider 100.0 g of CO2 ( M = 44.01). Calculate the following:
(b) molecules of CO2:

100.0 g CO2 = 100.00 g x(1 mol)/(44.01 g/mol) CO2

= 2.27 mol CO2

Molecules of CO2 = 2.27x 6.023x1023 =1.37x1024 molecules

149
 Mass to Moles Conversion
Consider 100.0 g of CO2 ( M = 44.01). Calculate the following:

(c) lb-moles CO2

Step 1 – Convert 100 g CO2 into lbm CO2

100.0 g CO2 = 100.00 g x(1 kg/1000g) x(2.2 lb/1 kg) CO2

= 0.22 lb CO2

Step 2 – Convert lb into lb moles  Mol. Weight 44.01 lb/lb-moles

0.22 lb CO2 = 0.22 lb x (1/44.01) lb-moles/lb CO2
=4.99x10-3 lb-moles CO2 150
 Mass to Moles Conversion
Consider 100.0 g of CO2 ( M = 44.01). Calculate the following:
(d) mol C; (e) mol O2; (f) mol O;

(d) Mol C = Mol CO2= 100 g/44.01 mol/g = 2. 27

(e) Mol O2 = Mol CO2= 2. 27

(f) Mol O= 2 x Mol CO2 = 4.54

151
 Mass to Moles Conversion
Consider 100.0 g of CO2 ( M = 44.01). Calculate the following:
(d) mol C; (e) mol O2; (f) mol O;

(d) Mol C = Mol CO2= 2. 27

(e) Mol O2 = Mol CO2= 2. 27

(f) Mol O= 2 x Mol CO2 = 4.54

152
 Mass to Moles Conversion
Consider 100.0 g of CO2 ( M = 44.01). Calculate the following:
(g) g O; (h) g O2;

(g) Given  100.0 g of CO2

g O = g CO2 x (2 x Mol. wt of O/ Mol. wt of CO2)

=(100)x(2x16/44.01)=72.71 g

(h)
g O2 = g CO2 x (Mol. wt of O2/ Mol. wt of CO2)
=(100)x(32/44.01)=72.71 g 153
 Mass to Moles Conversion
Consider 100.0 g of CO2 ( M = 44.01). Calculate the following:
(g) g O; (h) g O2;

(g) Given  100.0 g of CO2

g O = g CO2 x (2 x Mol. wt of O/ Mol. wt of CO2)

=(100)x(2x16/44.01)=72.71 g

(h)
g O2 = g CO2 x (Mol. wt of O2/ Mol. wt of CO2)
=(100)x(32/44.01)=72.71 g 154
 Converting mass flow rate to molar flow rate
The molecular weight of a species can be used to relate the mass flow
rate of a continuous stream of any species to the corresponding molar
flow rate

155
 Converting mass flow rate to molar flow rate
The molecular weight of a species can be used to relate the mass flow
rate of a continuous stream of any species to the corresponding molar
flow rate

CO2 flowing at 100 kg/h

mass flow rate

156
 Converting mass flow rate to molar flow rate
The molecular weight of a species can be used to relate the mass flow
rate of a continuous stream of any species to the corresponding molar
flow rate

CO2 flowing at 100 kg/h

mass flow rate

CO2 flowing at 850 lb-

moles per min molar flow
rate 157
 Mass Fraction, Mole Fraction, Average Molecular
Weight
Process streams more often consist of mixtures of liquids or gases, or
solutions of more then one solutes in a liquid solvent. We define the
composition of a mixture of substances, including a species A as:

The percentage by mass of A is 100 xA , and the percentage by moles

of A is 100 yA. 158
Convert Composition by mass to molar composition

159
160
Basis: 100 g of the mixture

161
Basis: 100 g of the mixture

162
163
 Molecular weight of a mixture
The average molecular weight (or mean molecular weight) of a
mixture, (kg/kmol, lbm/lb-mole, etc.), is the ratio of the mass of a
sample of the mixture (mt) to the number of moles of all species (nt)
in the sample.
=

If yi is the mole fraction of the i th component of the mixture and is

the molecular weight of this (i th) component, then

164
Molecular weight of a mixture
=

= …….

= …….

165
 Molecular weight of a mixture

Similarly, if xi is the mass fraction of the ith component of the mixture:

166
 Concentration of a mixture
The mass concentration of a component of a mixture or solution is the
mass of this component per unit volume of the mixture (g/cm3 ,
lbm/ft3, kg/in3,… ).

The molar concentration of a component is the number of moles of

the component per unit volume of the mixture (kmol/m3, lb-
moles/ft3,… ).

The molarity of a solution is the value of the molar concentration of

the solute expressed in gram-moles solute/liter solution
Example: 2-molar solution of A contains 2 mol A/liter solution.
167
 Parts per Million and Parts per Billion
The units parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) are used
to express the concentrations of trace species (those present in
minute amounts) in mixtures of gases or liquids. If yi is the fraction of
component i, then by definition

The definitions may refer to mass ratios (usual for liquids) or mole
ratios (usual for gases) and signify how many parts (grams, moles) of
the species are present per million or billion parts (grams, moles) of
the mixture. 168
Test yourself!

169
 Test yourself!

(2) ×10-9 kg phenol/Kg of liquid

×10-9×1000 g phenol/Kg of liquid
×10-9×1000×1000 mg phenol/Kg of liquid
×10-3mg phenol/Kg of liquid
170
 Test yourself!

(3)
×10-9×1000 g phenol/Kg of water
Since phenol is only present in trace amount
 Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 kg/L
×10-9×1000 g phenol/L of water
×10-6g/L 171
 Module 2
Processes and Process Variables

Lecture 3
Madivala G. Basavaraj
Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Madras

172
Pressure  fluid pressure, pressure head, absolute
pressure, atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure

173
Pressure  fluid pressure, pressure head, absolute
pressure, atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure

174
 Pressure
Definition and units:

Pressure is the ratio of force to the area on which the force acts.
Units of pressure  force units divided by area units (e.g., N/m2 also
called pascal (Pa), dynes/cm2, and lb /in.2 or psi).

175
 Fluid Pressure
Consider a gas or a liquid contained in a closed vessel or flowing
through a pipe.

Hole of area A is depicted in the wall 176

 Fluid Pressure

The fluid pressure may be defined as the ratio F/A, where F is the
minimum force that would have to be exerted on a frictionless plug in
the hole to keep the fluid from emerging (or coming out).
177
Hydrostatic Pressure

Consider a vertical column of

fluid of height h (m). The
uniform cross-sectional area of
the fluid column is A (m2). The
fluid density is (kg/m3), and
that a pressure P0 (N/m2) is
exerted on the upper surface of
the column.

178
Hydrostatic Pressure
• The pressure of the fluid at the base of the
column, called the hydrostatic pressure of
the fluid, is the force F exerted on the base
divided by the base area A.

• F/A thus equals the force on the top surface

plus the weight of the fluid in the column i.e.,
P = P0+ρgh

• Note: A does not appear in this equation

equation is applicable to a column of fluid as
thin as a test tube or as wide as the ocean.
179
 Hydrostatic Pressure
• Pressure may be expressed as a HEAD of a particular fluid —that is,
as the height of a hypothetical column of this fluid that would exert
the given pressure at its base if the pressure at the top were zero.

• The equivalence between a pressure P (in force/area) and the

corresponding head Ph (height of a fluid) is given by:

P = P0+ρgh P = ρgPh

• A pressure of 14.7 psi ~ a pressure (or head) of 33.9 ft of water (33.9

ft H2O) ~ 76 cm of mercury (76 cm Hg).
180
Atmospheric Pressure

181
 Atmospheric Pressure
• The pressure of the atmosphere can be thought of as the pressure at the
base of a column of fluid (air) located at the point of measurement (for
example, at sea level).

182
 Atmospheric Pressure
• The pressure of the atmosphere can be thought of as the pressure at the
base of a column of fluid (air) located at the point of measurement (for
example, at sea level).

• Using  P = P0+ρgh, the atmospheric pressure, P can be calculated.

Assumptions:
The pressure at the top of the column (P0) = 0;
ρ is the average values of the density of air
g is the acceleration of gravity between the top of the atmosphere
and the measurement point.

• A typical value of the atmospheric pressure at sea level, 760.0 mm Hg,

has been designated as a standard pressure of 1 atmosphere. 183
 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure
• The fluid pressures are usually referred to in absolute pressure,
wherein a pressure of zero corresponds to a perfect vacuum.

• Typically, pressure-measuring devices give the gauge pressure of a

fluid i.e., the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. The
relationship between absolute and gauge pressure is

Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric

A gauge pressure of zero indicates that the absolute pressure of

the fluid is equal to atmospheric pressure. 184
 Fluid Pressure Measurement
Some common pressure-measurement devices/methods:

• Elastic-element methods - use measuring elements which

deform elastically under the influence of pressure: Bourdon
tubes, bellows, or diaphragms

• Liquid-column methods: Manometers

• Electrical methods - stretching or compression of measuring

element results in change in current/voltage/resistance: Strain
gauges, piezoresistive transducers, and piezoelectric
transducers 185
 Bourdon gauge (vacuum to about 7000 atm.)
• Bourdon gauge is a hollow tube
closed at one end and bent into
a C configuration.

• The open end of the tube is

exposed to the fluid whose
pressure is to be measured.

• As the pressure increases, the

tube tends to straighten, causing The position of the pointer
a pointer attached to the tube to on a calibrated dial gives the
rotate. gauge pressure of the fluid.
186
 Manometers
• A manometer is a U-shaped tube partially
filled with a fluid of known density (the
manometer fluid).
• When the ends of the tube are exposed to
different pressures, the field level drops in
the high-pressure arm and rises in the low-
pressure arm.
• The difference between the pressures can
be calculated from the measured difference
between the liquid levels in each arm.
• Provide more accurate measurements of
pressures below about 3 atm. 187
 Open-end, Differential and Scaled-end Manometers
Used to measure the Has a near-vacuum
pressure difference enclosed at one end (the
between two points fluid may vaporize into
the empty space, thus
in a process line.
preventing the existence
of a perfect vacuum.)

One end is exposed to

a fluid whose pressure
is to be measured, and
the other is open to the
atmosphere. 188
 Manometers

• The formula that relates the pressure

difference P1-P2 to the difference in
manometer fluid levels is based on the
principle that the fluid pressure must be the
same at any two points at the same height
in a continuous fluid.

189
 Manometers
• The pressure at the height of the lower surface of a manometer
fluid is the same in both arms of the manometer.

Writing and equating

expressions for the
pressures at points (a ) and
(b) yields the general
manometer equation

190
 Differential manometer equation
In a differential manometer, fluids 1 and 2 are the same

 ρ1=ρ2=ρ.

The general manometer equation

becomes

191
 Differential manometer equation
In a differential manometer, fluids 1 and 2 are the same

 ρ1=ρ2=ρ.

The general manometer equation

becomes

If both the fluid are gasses:

192
Temperature

193
 Temperature
• The temperature of a substance (solid, liquid, or gas) is a measure of
the average kinetic energy possessed by substance’s molecules.

194
 Temperature
• The temperature of a substance (solid, liquid, or gas) is a measure of
the average kinetic energy possessed by substance’s molecules.

• As this energy cannot be measured directly, the temperature must be

determined indirectly by measuring some physical property of the
substance whose value depends on temperature in a known manner.

195
 Temperature
• The temperature of a substance (solid, liquid, or gas) is a measure of
the average kinetic energy possessed by substance’s molecules.

• As this energy cannot be measured directly, the temperature must be

determined indirectly by measuring some physical property of the
substance whose value depends on temperature in a known manner.

• Such properties and the temperature-measuring devices based on

them include electrical resistance of a conductor (resistance
thermometer), voltage at the junction of two dissimilar metals
(thermocouple), spectra of emitted radiation (pyrometer), and
volume of a fixed mass of fluid (thermometer). 196
 Need for Temperature Scale
• It is convenient to have a simple numerical temperature scale, so that
you do not have to use large sentence of large number of words to
provide the value of a single temperature. For example –

“the temperature at which the resistivity of a copper wire is 1x10-6

ohms/cm3”

“the temperature two-thirds of the way from the boiling point of

water at 1 atm to the melting point of NaCl.”.

197
 Temperature Scale

• A temperature scale is obtained by arbitrarily assigning numerical

values to two reproducibly measurable temperatures; for example,
assign a value of 0 to the freezing point of water and a value of 100
to the boiling point of water at 1 atm.

• The assigned values completely specify the scale  in addition to

locating the two points  they specify that the length of a unit
temperature interval (called a degree) is of the distance between
the two reference points on the scale.

198
 Temperature Scales
The two most common temperature scales are defined using the
freezing point (Tf) and boiling point (Tb) of water at a pressure of 1
atm.

1. Celsius (or centigrade) scale: Tf is assigned a value of 0 C, and

Tb is assigned a value of 100 C. Absolute zero (theoretically
the lowest temperature attainable in nature) on this scale falls at
- 273.15  C

2. Fahrenheit scale: Tf is assigned a value of 32 F, and Tb is

assigned a value of 212 F. Absolute zero falls at -459.67 F.
199
 Temperature Scales

In addition,

the Kelvin and Rankine scales are defined such that absolute zero
has a value of 0 and the size of a degree is the same as a Celsius
degree (Kelvin scale) or a Fahrenheit degree (Rankine scale).

200
 Temperature Scales
The following relationships can be used to convert a temperature
expressed in one defined scale unit to its equivalent in another:

201
202
Problem 1

203
(ft3) and (1/hr2)

204
ln(V)=ln(3.53x10-2)+2t2  ln(V) vs. t2 (linear plot)

You can also use semi-log plot (V on the logarithmic axis and t2 on the linear axis)
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V(m3)=(0.000999)exp(2/(3600)2)t2
=(1x10-3)exp(1.5x10-7)t2
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Problem 2

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Problem 3

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 lnP vs. lnV
10

4
y = -1.573x + 12.736

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

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Problem 4

210
211
 ρtoluene= 0.866 g/cm3 ρHg= 13.6 g/cm3

ρair=0.0012 g/cm3 ρwater=1.0 g/cm3

[ρtolueneg(R+350cm)]= (ρHggR)+ (ρairg350cm)

[(0.866)(980)(R+350cm)]= (13.6)(980)(R)+ (0.0012)(980)(350cm)

R=23.77 cm 212
 ρtoluene= 0.866 g/cm3 ρHg= 13.6 g/cm3

ρair=0.0012 g/cm3 ρwater=1.0 g/cm3

[ρtolueneg(R+350cm)]= (ρHggR)+ (ρairg350cm)

[(0.866)(980)(R+350cm)]= (1)(980)(R)+ (0.0012)(980)(350cm)

R=2258.80 cm 213
Problem 5

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Problem 6 and 7

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 Problem 8

Answers:
(a) (P1 +14.7)V1= 10.7n1(T1+ 460)
(b) The total amount of gas (lb-mole) = 0.31
The mass of CO (lbm)=2.61
(a) 2730  F
216