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Chapter 1: Semiconductors – Diode

I- Introduction to Semiconductors

Semiconductor, any of a class of crystalline solids intermediate in electrical conductivity

between a conductor (generally metals) and an insulator (such as ceramics). Semiconductors
have properties of considerable importance that are put to good use in electronic
components. They can control both the quantity and direction of electric current. They form
the basis of several fundamental components in electronics and optoelectronics, used in
computer, telecommunications and television devices, in automobiles and household
appliances, etc.: diodes, transistors, photodiodes, phototransistors, photodetectors, logic
circuits, amplifiers, laser diodes, etc.
Example of semiconductors: Gallium arsenide, germanium and silicon are some of the most
commonly used semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication, and gallium
arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.
I.1. Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors
Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier,
whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons and holes are equal in
magnitude but opposite in polarity.

Valence electrons are located in an atomic nucleus’s outermost shell (the valence shell).
Atoms are the extremely small particles that are the basic building blocks of ordinary matter.
The structure of an atom is given by the following chemical notation:

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 The number of protons is called the atomic number, denoted 𝒁. The

number of nucleons is called the mass number, denoted 𝑨.
 Neutrons are electrically neutral. The number of neutron is denoted N
and it’s equal to 𝑁 𝐴 − 𝑍
 Protons (p+) have a positive electrical charge called the elementary
9
charge: 𝑒 𝐶.
-1
 Electrons (e )have a negative electric charge -𝑒 − − 𝐶
 An atom is electrically neutral: there are as many protons as electrons.
 The charge Q of the nucleus is that of all protons, i.e. 𝑄 𝑍𝑒
 𝑍: atomic number is used to identify the element of matter
(Mendeleev's Periodic Table).

The mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of all its nucleons and electrons:

Where ; and

 Arrangement of Electron (Shell Model)

An electron shell is the outside part of an atom around the atomic nucleus. It is a group
of atomic orbitals with the same value of the principal quantum number n. Electron shells
have one or more electron subshells, or sublevels. The name for electron shells comes from
the Bohr model, in which groups of electrons were believed to go around the nucleus at
certain distances, so that their orbits formed "shells". According to Bohr’s Atomic model
electrons revolve around the nucleus in a specific circular path known as orbit or called a
shell. Shells have stationary energy levels, the energy of each shell is constant.

We refer to these shells as energy levels. From the nucleus outward, it is numbered

Since each electron shell is linked to a specific range of electron energy and can only
hold a certain number of electrons, each shell must be fully filled before electrons may be
added to an outer shell. Starting from the one closest to the kernel (Kernel means “nucleus”).

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The number of electrons it can contain up

to saturation is maximum number of
electrons that can be in a shell is 𝟐𝒏𝟐 : K= 2 ,
L = 8 , M = 18 , ... etc. (Pauli's Law).
Examples: Oxygen (Z=8): (K=2; L=6);
Aluminium (Z=13): (K=2; L=8 and M=3);
Argon (Z=18): (K=2; L=8 and M=8).

I.2. Mobility of Electrons and Holes

In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the holes. It is mainly
because of their different band structures and scattering mechanisms.
Electrons travel in the conduction band, whereas holes travel in the valence band. When an
electric field is applied, holes cannot move as freely as electrons due to their restricted
movement. The elevation of electrons from their inner shells to higher shells results in the
creation of holes in semiconductors.

I.3. The Semiconductor Band Theory

Band theory was first introduced during the scientific quantum revolution. The energy bands
were discovered by Fritz London and Walter Heitler.
 Greater the value of higher the magnitude of energy. ( )

 Higher the value of ‘n’ the greater the distance of the shell from the nucleus.
( )
 Energy separation between two shells decreases on moving away from the nucleus.
(( ) ( ) ( ) )

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An atom contains electrons at various energy levels. Each atom's level must split into N
levels in the solid when we attempt to create a solid's lattice with N atoms. Energy Bands are
created by this division of closely spaced, acute energy levels. A band gap is the space
between neighbouring bands that represent a range of energies devoid of electrons. So, in a
solid (crystal), which is made up of the assembly (interaction) of a very large number of
atoms, the energy levels are changed into energy bands, in contrast to an isolated atom
where electrons exist only at discrete energy levels. The energy bands are:
 Two so-called permitted bands: the valence band and the conduction band.
 A band known as the gap band.

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a- Valence Band (VB): The energy band involving the energy levels of valence
electrons is known as the valence band. It is the highest occupied energy band.
When compared with insulators, the band gap in semiconductors is smaller. It
allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the conduction band on
receiving any external energy.
b- Conduction Band (CB): It is the lowest, unoccupied band that includes the
energy levels of positive (holes) or negative (free electrons) charge carriers. It
has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of current. The conduction band
possesses a high energy level and is generally empty. The conduction band in
semiconductors accepts the electrons from the valence band.
c- Gap Band (GB): contains no electrons (intermediate energy level). It is also
called the “Gap”, starting with the one closest to the nucleus.

 A semiconductor is therefore an insulator, but it can become a conductor very easily

by exciting its valence electrons. You do this by heating the material, or by
illuminating it, or by subjecting it to a well-defined electrical voltage.

For example, if you shine a light on a photovoltaic plate, the plate becomes conductive
and an electric current is created: this is the photoelectric effect

The temperature dependence of the energy bandgap, , has been experimentally

determined yielding the following expression for Eg as a function of the temperature, :

(𝑒𝑉)

where Eg(0), a and b are the fitting parameters. These fitting parameters are listed for
germanium (Ge), silicon (Si) and gallium arsenide (GaAs), in following Table:

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Example : Calculate the energy bandgap of germanium, silicon and gallium arsenide at 300,
400, 500 and 600° K(Kelvin).
Solution : The bandgap of silicon at 300 K equals:

Similarly one finds the energy bandgap for germanium and gallium arsenide, as well as at
different temperatures, yielding:

Important note: The lower the “Gap”, the more conductive the material. It therefore plays an
important role in distinguishing materials into insulators, semiconductors and conductors.

 For conductors, the valence and conduction bands overlap (no GB). A small energy
source is enough to move a large number of free electrons from the VB to the CB.
 For insulators, the GB is large ( of the order of 7e.V). The CB contains no electrons.
Even under high temperature or high voltage (e.m.f.), these materials do not conduct.
 For semiconductors, the GB is relatively small ( of the order of 1e.V). Electrons
occupy energy levels within the VB.

I.4. Properties of Semiconductors

Semiconductors can conduct electricity under favorable conditions or circumstances. This

unique property makes them an excellent material for conducting electricity in a controlled
manner, as and when required. Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors only
appear under the effect of external energy (thermal agitation). This causes a certain number
of valence electrons to cross the energy gap and jump into the conduction band, leaving an
equal number of unoccupied energy states, i.e. holes. Conduction due to electrons and holes

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is equally important. A semiconductor has conductivity in the middle of that of an insulator

and a conductor. It possesses certain qualities that are useful in the production of electrical
parts:

 Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm

 Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 S/m

 Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative

 Current flow: Due to electrons and holes.

Example: Conductivity: Insulator: Diamond S/ ; Semiconductor: silicon

) and conductor (silver ).

Some properties of semiconductors are:

 The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of
charge carriers increases rapidly with an increase in temperature, making the temperature
coefficient negative. So, their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than
insulators.
 The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with an increase in temperature and
vice-versa.
 Semiconductors act like insulators at zero Kelvin ( ). On increasing the
temperature, they work as conductors.
 Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping
to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches and amplifiers.
 When a small amount of external energy is applied to a semiconductor, the electrons in a
valence band move to the conduction band leaving a vacancy behind in the valence band.
This vacancy is called as hole.
 The electric charge of hole is same as that of electron but has opposite polarity.

A semiconductor can be either pure, in which case it is said to be “intrinsic”, or doped with
impurities, in which case it is said to be “extrinsic”. Note: In the case of semiconductors: ρ
decreases if increases. can vary considerably in the presence of impurities (doping).

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Example:
 Intrinsic semiconductor: the resistivity of pure silicon is of the order of .
 Extrinsic semiconductor: the resistivity of silicon doped with boron or phosphorus is of
the order of .

 The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an “N type” semiconductor. “N” is for
negative, which is the charge of an electron.
 The silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce locations called holes is
called “P type” semiconductor. “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.

I.4.1. CRYSTAL LATTICE STRUCTURE (Crystalline structure of Semiconductor )

• The unique capability of semiconductor atoms is their ability to link together to form
a physical structure called a crystal lattice.
• The atoms link together with one another sharing their outer electrons. These links
are called covalent bonds.

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If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon, the crystal lattice structure forms an
excellent insulator since all the atoms are bound to one another and are not free for current
flow. To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called impurities must be
added “Impurities” are different elements. This process is called doping. Any doping will serve
to modify the balance between electrons and holes, to favor electrical conduction by one of
the two types of carrier.

Two of the most important materials silicon can be doped with, are boron (3 valence
electrons = 3-valent) and phosphorus (5 valence electrons = 5-valent). Other materials are
aluminum, indium (3-valent) and arsenic, antimony (5-valent).
The dopant is integrated into the lattice structure of the semiconductor crystal, the number of
outer electrons define the type of doping. Elements with 3 valence electrons are used for P-
type doping, 5-valued elements for n-doping. The conductivity of a deliberately contaminated
silicon crystal can be increased by a factor of 106.
If sufficient thermal energy is supplied to the crystal: (E G = 0.72eV for Ge; EG = 1.1 eV
for Si; EG = 1.42 eV for AsGa). Several of the covalent bonds can be destroyed, releasing an
electron. The atom with 1 electron less on its outer layer therefore carries a positive electric
charge q = + 1.6 10-19 C. Such a lack of an electron in a covalent bond is called a hole.

I.4.2- Intrinsic Semiconductor

An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is made up
of only a single type of element. Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are the most common types

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of intrinsic semiconductor elements. They have four valence electrons (tetravalent). They are
bound to the atom by a covalent bond at absolute zero temperature.

At absolute zero Kelvin temperature: At this temperature, the covalent bonds are very
strong, there are no free electrons, and the intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect
insulator.
As the temperature rises, the electron's energy increases, releasing it from the valence band
and creating a hole. Thermal agitation therefore creates electron-hole pairs, the number of
which is determined by intrinsic concentration given by:
𝑛 is the electron carrier
− density, 𝑝 is the hole
( ) ( )
carrier density

: constant dependent on semiconductor type, : Boltzman constant (≈ 8,617 × 10−5 eV/K )

and : Temperature in Kelvin
 Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor:

For a semiconductor, conductivity is expressed as a function of carrier density and

mobility. Conductivity is therefore expressed as:

which, in the case of an intrinsic semiconductor, reduces to:

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with the electron mobility, the hole mobility, is the electron carrier density electron
carrier density, is the hole carrier density and intrinsic concentration of each type of free
carrier.
 In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons, as
well as holes. The total current is the sum of the electron current due to
thermally generated electrons and the hole current .

Note:For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of electrons

existing in a conduction band decreases exponentially with an increasing band gap (E g).

I.4.3- Extrinsic Semiconductor (Doping)

The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a small
number of suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The process of adding impurity
atoms to the pure semiconductor is called DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in 10 7 is replaced by
a dopant atom in the doped semiconductor. An extrinsic semiconductor can be classified into
types:
 N-type Semiconductor
 P-type Semiconductor

 N-Type Semiconductor
 Mainly due to electrons
 Entirely neutral
 I = Ie and ne >> nh
 Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes

When a pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium) is doped by pentavalent (5 valence

electron) impurity (example: Phosphorus (P: Z=15) , Arsenic (As: Z=33) and Antimony (Sb:
Z=51), then four electrons out of five valence electrons bond with the four electrons of Ge or
Si. The fifth electron of the dopant is set free.

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Thus, the impurity atom donates a free electron for conduction in the lattice and is
called a “Donar“. Since the number of free electrons increases with the addition of an
impurity, the negative charge carriers increase. Hence, it is called an n-type semiconductor.
 P-Type Semiconductor
 Mainly due to holes
 Entirely neutral
 I = Ih and nh >> ne
 Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons.

When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent (3 Valence electron) impurity

(Example: Boron (B: Z=5) (most commonly used) - Aluminium (Al) - Gallium (Ga)), then the
three valence electrons of the impurity bond with three of the four valence electrons of the
semiconductor. This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity
atoms which are ready to accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“. With an increase in
the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are increased. Hence, it is called
a p-type semiconductor.

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II. PN JUNCTION ( Diode)

A PN junction is the combination in the same crystal of two semiconductors, one doped N-
type (containing free electrons) and the other doped P-type (containing holes (free slots)),
both of which are electrically neutral. The transition zone is known as the P-N junction. The
PN junction is one of the simplest semiconductor devices. Two semiconductors of different
types are juxtaposed to form a diode. Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the
voltage and to also transform AC into DC. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used
to make the most of the diodes. Even though they transmit current in a single direction, the
way with which they transmit differs. There are different kinds of diodes and each type has its
own applications.

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II.1. Formation of PN Junction Diode

In a PN junction diode, an ionized donor is left behind on the N-side when an electron
diffuses from the N-side to the P-side and a layer of positive charge develops on the N-side of
the junction. When a hole moves from the P-side to the N-side, an ionized acceptor is left
behind on the P-side, causing a layer of negative charges to accumulate on the P-side of the
junction. The depletion area is defined as a region of positive and negative charge on each
side of the junction. An electric field with a direction from a positive charge to a negative
charge develops on either side of the junction.

II.2. Unbiased (non-polarized) PN junction at equilibrium

 On the P side of the junction, holes are in the majority and electrons are in the
minority.
 On the N side of the junction, electrons are in the majority and holes are in the
minority.
 As a result, electrons will tend to diffuse towards the P side and holes will diffuse
towards the N side.
II.2.1- Electric potentials ( ) and ( )
The electric field is associated with an electric potential ( ) through the relation:

This result in a potential difference across the depletion region (i.e. between junction N
and P) called Junction potential or Barrier Potential:

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Note 1: At ambient temperature,

this threshold potential or
potential barrier 𝑉0 is equal to
𝟎 𝟕 𝑽 for Silicon-PN junction
and 𝟎 𝟑 𝑽 for Germanium ones.

Note 2: For an electron to cross

the barrier potential, it needs
external energy to generate a
potential greater than 𝑉0 . An
external voltage must therefore
be applied to the PN junction,
which is then referred to as PN
junction polarization.

II.2.2- Equilibrium currents

In a PN junction, there are two currents: the diffusion current due to the displacement of
majority carriers, and the current resulting from the entrainment of minority carriers by the
electric field of the space charge zone. Some carriers diffuse in either direction, while others
are pulled in the opposite direction by the electric field. At equilibrium, the net current is
zero. By convention, the positive current is a current flowing from region P to region N. The
net current is the sum of two terms,
−

where is the diffusion current and is the saturation or leakage current due to the
transport of minority carriers. At equilibrium | | | |. The displacement of these minority
electrons creates a very small current called the saturation current . This current flows in
the opposite direction to the diffusion current

II.3. Biased (polarized) PN junction:

Polarizing a PN junction involves applying a DC voltage to both ends. To determine the
polarization state, we need to know whether the applied voltage will add to or subtract from
the height of the barrier potential. There are two types of polarization: forward and reverse.
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 If a suitable positive voltage (Forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to
cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is
decreased.
 By applying a negative voltage (Reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled
away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has
the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself
allowing or blocking the flow of current through the diodes PN-junction.
II.3.1- Forward Bias PN Juction Diode (see the following figure)
A PN junction is said to be “forward polarized” if the “P” region is connected to a higher
potential than the “N” region: . When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias

condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied
to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential
barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers
opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.

This is equivalent to applying an

external field 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 directed in the

opposite to 𝐸𝑖
In this situation, this external field
created by the emf generator V
opposes to the internal field. Soe
the total field is given by:
𝐸 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝐸𝑖 .
As soon as the external field exceeds
the internal field, the potential
barrier drops (𝑉 − 𝑉0

In this case, the PN junction is said to be “Pass” or Forward bias (conductive)

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P-N junction diode allows the

current to flow in the forward
direction and blocks the flow of
current in the reverse direction.

II.3.2- Reverse Biased Junction PN Diode

A PN junction is said to be “reserve polarized” if the “P” region is connected to a lower
potential than the “N” region: . When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias

condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied
to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons
towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end
are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode .

Applying a DC voltage source across the

junction therefore amounts to applying
an external field 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑡 directed in the
same direction as 𝐸𝑖 . In this situation,
the external field created by the
generator is added to the junction's
internal field, causing the potential
barrier to increase (widening the
transition zone). This means that the
majority carriers cannot cross the
transition zone. The PN junction is said to
be “blocking”.

The depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high
impedance path, almost an insulator and a high potential barrier is created across the
junction thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

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A diode is said to be reverse-biased

when the battery’s voltage is dropped
completely. For silicon diodes, the
reverse current is -20μA and for
germanium, -50μA is the reverse
current. The potential energy across the
p-type material is negative and across
II.3.3-Diode: (The “diode” was invented in 1942 by American physicist William Bradford Shockley)
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which
has the electrical characteristic of passing current through itself in one direction only. The
diode (from the Greek di : double; odos : path) is an electronic component. It is a non-linear,
polarized (or non-symmetrical) dipole. The direction in which a diode is connected
determines the operation of the electronic circuit in which it is placed .
𝐼𝐹 : Foward current
A diode has two terminals: an Anode (positive
side) and a Cathode (negative side).
The diode conducts current (Passing) when
the voltage at the anode is higher than the
voltage at the cathode by more than a value
specified in a datasheet (Example :0.7 V in the
case of silicon PN junction diodes).
The diode has two operating modes:
 The diode does not conduct current
blocked (off) or conducting (on).
(Blocking) when the difference between the
anode and cathode potentials is less than this
value.

A. Diode equation describes the exact current through a diode, given the voltage dropped
across the junction, the temperature of the junction, and several physical constants. So,
the voltage V between the anode and cathode of a diode, and the current I flowing
through it, are related by an exponential relationship such that:

( − ) ( )

Where is the diode current, is the saturatuion current (typically 10-12 A), is the charge
of an electron (1,6 10-19 C) , is the voltage applied across diode, kB is Boltzmann's constant
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(8,617× 10−5 eV K-1) , and T is the Junction temperature in Kelvins). η is the emission coefficient,
which is 1 for germanium devices and 2 for silicon devices.
B. The current-voltage characteristic of a diode is described by the diode equation

The expression is
exponential and
then tends to
become linear
(straight line)
from the
threshold voltage
𝑉0 (Knee).

To obtain the characteristic of a diode, we use the electrical circuit shown below and perform
the experiment by varying the source voltage E in forward and reverse bias.

The diode is a non-linear

dipole

 Zone 0A: diode is forward-biased, but the voltage is too low to unblock the junction: this is
the forward-blocking zone.
 Zone AB: the voltage V begins to unblock the diode: this is the elbow zone (Knee zone
 Zone BC: the diode passes, a linear zone.
 Zone OE: the diode is reverse-biased, the reverse blocking zone.
 Zone EF: the intensity raises sharply, the breakdown zone.

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To make the diode work, we need to bias it. It means place diode in a circuit so as to create a
voltage between its terminals and a current of intensity (direct current or for
Forward) flowing through it:
 Blocked diode: , preventing current flow:
 Passing diode: , which results in Vseuil (or 0 or for Forward) is
the threshold voltage.

 Diode dynamic resistance ( )

 Symbolic representation of diode

 A diode is characterized by its threshold voltage :

 A forward-biased diode . This is means::

 Diode On or Passing if (Close Switch)

 Diode Off or Blocking if (Open Switch)

The real diode can be represented (modeling) by the equivalent diagram below:

𝑽𝑫 𝑽𝟎 𝑹𝑫 𝑰𝑫

 Reverse biased diode : the current (in the opposite direction) increases very

slowly with the inverse voltage: reverse current. For a certain voltage value, called the
“Zener voltage” , this current increases rapidly: this is the avalanche phenomenon.
This phenomenon can lead to crystal destruction or “breakdown”.

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The diode is blocking. It is equivalent to a very high resistance: “Reverse resistance”

( ):

C. Diode Models : Diode Approximation

In electronics, diode modelling refers to the mathematical models used to approximate
the actual behavior of real diodes to enable calculations and circuit analysis. A diode's I-V
curve is nonlinear (it is well described by the Shockley diode law). This nonlinearity
complicates calculations in circuits involving diodes so simpler models are often required.
Diode approximations are a way to analyze diodes in circuits. In all approximations,
the diode acts as a switch. There are 3 approximations that are used for diodes.

Approximations of junction diode characteristics: (a) the ideal diode; (b) ideal diode with an
offset voltage;

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 Ideal diode The first approximation is viewing the diode as an ideal diode. With this
first approximation, the diode acts as a perfect switch that doesn't consume any
voltage and doesn't have any internal resistance. It is not used for real-life situations
but just as general approximations when preciseness isn't needed. For certain circuits
where the forward voltage needed to turn on diode is seen as trivial, the first
approximation can be adopted and used. The characteristic of an ideal diode is
illustrated in the figure opposite.

 Perfect diode : Ideal diode with voltage offset . In the second approximation, the
diode is seen as as a diode that needs voltage in order to turn on. For a silicon diode,
the diode needs about 0.7V in order to turn on. When the voltage fed into the diode
forward biased is 0.7V or greater, the diode switches on. When the voltage is less than
0.7V, the diode turns off. Practical diode model or Constant Voltage Drop Model

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 Real diode : In the third approximation, the diode is seen as a diode that consumes
0.7V (for silicon diode) and voltage across the internal bulk resistance of the diode.
This is most real-world form of a diode and is usually used when a circuit is in design.
The third approximation is crucial if the load resistance is very low. The bulk
resistance, . This model is useful when there is a small varying signal
superimposed to the biasing voltage: Piecewise linear model

D. Static and Dynamic resistance of diode

In a junction diode, applied voltage (V) is not proportional to the diode current and
hence it does obey Ohm’s law. So junction diode is the example of non-ohmic conductor. The

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resistance of a is the function of the operating current. The resistance offered by the p-n
junction diode in forward biased condition is called forward resistance. There are two types of
forward resistance.
 Static resistance or DC resistance
 Dynamic resistance or AC resistance
1- Static resistance or DC resistance (Static Resistance = Voltage / Current)

 The application of a DC voltage to a circuit

containing a semiconductor diode will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will
not change with time.
 The static resistance of the diode 𝑅𝑆 at the operating
point can be found simply by finding the
corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown in Figure
𝑉𝐷
below and applying the following equation: 𝑅𝑆
𝐼𝐷

2- Dynamic resistance or AC resistance

If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied, the situation will change completely A.C. or
Dynamic resistance of the diode is defined as the ratio of the small change in voltage to
corresponding small change in current in the diode.

For a p-n junction diode at room temperature, ( − ) . The conductance is

given by:

( ) ( )

Since is negligible compared to so :

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VT = : voltage equivalent of temperature, Volts. At room temperature 27°C, T = 273 + 27 =

300 K; VT = 8.62 x 10-5 x 300 = 26 mV.

[ ] [ ]
So, we obtain: . For Ge,

Graphically, resistance is defined by the inverse tangent

of the diode's I-V characteristic curve at operating point Q.

E. Operating point of a diode

Load line of Diode
In graphical analysis of nonlinear electronic circuits, a load line is a line drawn on the
current–voltage characteristic graph for a nonlinear device like a diode or transistor. It
represents the constraint put on the voltage and current in the nonlinear device by the
external circuit.
The diode, a nonlinear device, is in series
with a linear circuit consisting of a resistor,
R and a voltage source, VDD. The
characteristic curve of the diode VD, is an
exponential curve. The load line (diagonal
line), representing the relationship
between current and voltage due to
Kirchhoff's voltage law in circuit:

− 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷𝐷
𝑉𝐷𝐷 𝑉𝐷 𝑅x𝐼 𝐼𝐷 𝐼
𝑅 𝑅
 Saturation point (maximum current)
 Cut-off point (minimum current). (*)

Since the same current flows through each of the three elements in series, and the voltage
produced by the voltage source and resistor is the voltage across the terminals of the diode,
the operating point of the circuit will be at the intersection of the curve with the load line.

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Operating point in static regime

point or the operating point of a device, also known as a bias point, or Quiescent point is
the steady-state DC voltage or current at a diode with no input signal applied. The static

operating point ( ) is the point of intersection between a diode's static load line and

its characteristic curve see previous figure (*).

III. Types of Semiconductor Diode

There are different types of semiconductor diodes that are used widely in our daily life
some of which are:

1- Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and made
up of a special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward biased, then it is
called a light-emitting diode. When an electric current between the electrodes passes through
this diode, light is produced. In other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of
forwarding current passes through it. In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as
there are frequency levels that do not allow visibility. LEDs are available in different colours.
There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three colours at a time. Light colour depends on the
energy gap of the semiconductor used. The PN junction is formed using the lowest band gap
materials like Gallium Arsenide, Gallium Arsenide Phosphide, Gallium Phosphide, Gallium
Indium Nitride, Aluminum Gallium Nitride, Silicon Carbide etc.

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 LED Symbol Characteristics of LED

 Applications of Light Emitting Diode

LEDs find usage in many areas because of its long-lasting capability, low power requirements,
swift response time, and fast switching capabilities. Below are a few standards LED uses: Bulb
in the homes and industries; Motorcycles and Automotives; TV back-lighting; Mobile phones
to display the message; Traffic light signals led’s.
2- Photodiode
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric
current. They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor.
Photodiodes are designed to work in reverse bias condition. Typical photodiode materials are
Silicon, Germanium and Indium gallium arsenide.
 The symbol of the photodiode:

The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an

LED, but here the arrow points inwards.
 Applications of Photodiode: Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications.
The reason for their prominent use is their linear response of photodiode to light
illumination. Electric isolation (Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers); Safety
electronics such as fire and smoke detectors; Medical applications such as: analyze
samples, detectors for computed tomography and blood gas monitors; Solar cell
panels; Lighting regulation and Optical communication.

3- Zener Diode
 A Zener diode is an assembly of two semiconductors whose electrical properties were
discovered by the American physicist Clarence Zener.

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 The Zener diode is a special diode, that enables the current to flow not only from the
positive terminal (anode) to the negative terminal (cathode) but also in the opposite
direction.
 Unlike conventional diodes, which only allow current to flow in one direction, the
forward direction, Zener diodes are designed to allow reverse current to flow as well,
but only if the voltage at their terminals is higher than the avalanche effect threshold.
 Diode designed for operation in the reverse breakdown zone, characterized by a
negative threshold voltage or “Zener Voltage” (VZ)
 The doping of the Zener diode is more than the conventional diode, so its depletion
Symbol
part has less area.

 Application:
 Zener diode is mostly used in types of electronic devices like computers, laptops etc, it is
the basic component of the electronic circuitries.
 It is used for power stabilizer circuitries to maintain the voltage level for a particular
device.
 Zener diode also provides protection to any circuitry from over-voltage, particularly from
ESD (electrostatic discharge). In ESD the current flows suddenly among two charged
points by a short circuit or breakdown of insulation.

 Breakdown in Zener diode : There are 2 main breakdown areas in the Zener diode:
 Avalanche Breakdown
 Zener breakdown
 Avalanche breakdown
This type of break-down not only exits in the Zener diode but also in the general diode due
to higher voltage in reversed biased conditions. Due to the larger quantity of electrons, the
backward current will flow from cathode to anode, in some conditions the general diode can

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be damaged. But the Zener diode may not burn because they are sketched to operate under
those conditions. The avalanche breakdown voltage for the Zener is 6 volts.
 Zener Breakdown
This type of break-down appears in the high doping diode like Zener, as this diode has less
depletion area due to higher doping. When the voltage provided to the diode increases, in a
thin depletion area highly effective electrical field is established. When the reversed polarity
voltage almost equals the Zener voltage, the electric field in the depletion portion is such
strong that it pulls out the electrons from their valance shells. The outermost shell electron
that gets enough power from the field will break out from the effect of the mother atom.
Due to the free drift of the elections, the reverse current will flow in the diode. The less
increment in the voltage will cause to move current very fastly at the Zener breakdown
portion.
 Zener Diode I-V Characteristics
 Zener diode works in the reversed biasing conditions is reversed biased mode its anode
is connected with the negative terminal and cathode with the positive terminal of
supply.
 The reversing biasing effect of the Zener is shown in the curve between the current and
the voltage.
 When the value of applied voltage approaches the Zener voltage then a large amount
of the reversed current flows in the diode and the curve suddenly changes its state.
 Due to the instant increase in the current value, the breakdown that happens in the
diode is called the Zener breakdown.
 The quantity of the Zener breakdown voltage fluctuates according to the doping level
of the diode (doping level larger breakdown occurs at a lesser voltage; doping less
higher value of the revered supplied voltage).

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In forward bias:
 When the applied voltage is lower than the threshold voltage V0 ( ), the

diode does not allow current through it but only the small leakage current.
 Once the applied voltage crosses the threshold limit ( ) , the current increases

suddenly while the voltage remains constant. The forward bias operation in the Zener
diode is the same as in any normal diode.
In reverse bias:
 The diode does not allow current (but only a small leakage current) until the voltage
reaches the Zener breakdown voltage .

 In the region , the current through the diode flows in the reverse direction.

The value of the Zener voltage is determined by the doping concentration in the diode.

 Specifications of Zener Diode : The basic specifications of a Zener diode are:

 Zener Voltage : The Zener voltage is the reverse breakdown voltage or the Zener
breakdown voltage. It is the reference voltage that appears across the Zener diode in
reverse biased. It can range from 2.4V to 200V.
 Current : The rated Zener current is the maximum current the diode can allow at
the rated Zener voltage (Range from 200 uA to 200A). The minimum current is the
minimum current required for the breakdown Rranges between 5 mA to 10 mA).

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 Power Rating : This is the maximum rated power the diode can tolerate. It is the
product of Zener voltage and the current flowing through it. The power ratings of the
Zener diode can range between 400 mW and 5 W.

 Zener Resistance : ( ) is the resistance of the diode in the ON state (Zener

breakdown region). It is evident from the IV characteristic curve where the Curve is not
completely vertical in the breakdown region
 Modeling (equivalent diagrams) of the Zener diode

Note:If the dynamic resistance Rz is neglected ( ), the voltage across the diode when it
conducts in reverse is constant, whatever the current flowing through it. The Zener diode is
ideal.

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IV. DIODE CIRCUITS (Diode Applications)

IV-1. Rectifier Circuits
A rectifier is an electronic device that converts an alternating current into a direct current
by using one or more P-N junction diodes. A diode behaves as a one-way valve that allows
current to flow in a single direction. This process is known as rectification. Rectifiers are
mainly classified into two types as:
 Uncontrolled Rectifier
 Controlled Rectifier
The type of rectifier whose voltage cannot be controlled is known as an uncontrolled rectifier.
Uncontrolled rectifiers are further divided as follows:
Half Wave Rectifier
Full Wave Rectifier
IV-1.1- Half Wave Rectifier:
This type of rectification removes the negative half-wave from a signal, while retaining
the positive half-wave. A simple diode in series with the load is all that's needed to perform
this rectification. Given below is the half-wave rectifier diagram:

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Assumption: Diode D is assumed ideal.

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 The Average values:

( )
∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0

 The effective values

( )
√ ∫ ( ) √ ∫ [ ( )] ( ) ( )
0 0

Note: If the diode is ideal with offset voltage ( 0 ), −

Other Half Wave Rectifier specitivities

 Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier : Ripple  Efficiency of Halfwave Rectifier : The
factor determines how well a halfwave rectifier efficiency of a halfwave rectifier is the ratio of
can convert AC voltage to DC voltage. output DC power to the input AC power.

The ripple factor of a

halfwave rectifier is 1.21.
 Form factor of a Halfwave Rectifier: The form factor is the ratio between RMS value and average
value and is given by the formula:
or √ −

IV-1.2- Full Wave Rectifier

The above circuit has the disadvantage of allowing only half the current through. To remedy
this, there are two solutions: use a Midpoint transformer or a Graëtz bridge.
A- Double alternating rectification with Graëtz bridge
The Graëtz Bridge consists of four diodes connected in parallel two by two. The diodes (D1
and D2) have common cathodes and the diodes (D3 and D4) have common anodes. The
bridge is supplied with a sinusoidal AC voltage such as:

Assumption: All four diodes are assumed to be identical and ideal.

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During positive alternation [ ]of input voltage ( )( ( ) ):

Diodes D1 and D2 are conducting and diodes D3 and D4 are blocked. In this case, a
positive current flows through diode D1, load R and diode D2. The voltage across load R
is positive. The circuit corresponding to this state is as follows

( )−( − ) ( ) ( ) ( )

with : (Ideal diodes D1 and D2 are equivalent to short circuits).

During negative alternation [ ]of input voltage ( )( ( ) ):

Diodes D3 and D4 conduct, and diodes D1 and D2 are blocked. In this case, a negative
current flows through diode D4, load R and diode D3. The voltage across load R is also
positive. The circuit corresponding to this state is shown by:

− ( )−( ) − ( ) ( ) − ( )

with : (Ideal diodes D3 and D4 are equivalent to short circuits).

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During both half-periods, the load voltage has the same polarity and the output current the
same direction. The circuit is called a full-wave rectifier because it transforms the input AC
voltage into a wavy output voltage.

 The Average values:

( )
∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0

 The effective values

( )
√ ∫ ( ) √ ∫ [ ( )] ( ) ( )
0 0 √ √

 The form factor of a full-wave rectified voltage

√

 The ripple rate is given by : √ −

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IV-2. Peak detector circuits – Filtering

The circuits described above rectify sinusoidal voltages. They therefore deliver positive
voltages, but with very strong ripple. To obtain a positive DC voltage (or at least a very smooth
one), we'll add a filter to the rectifier circuit (capacitor in parallel with the load).

Peak detector and filter

A simple peak detector circuit is a modification of a half-wave rectifier where a
capacitor is added after the diode as shown in the following figure

Consider the circuit shown opposite with:

 𝑣𝑒 (𝑡) 𝑉𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 )
 The diode is assumed to be ideal
 C is initially discharged.

From the first half-wave, the capacitor C is charged and

then, as soon as the voltage at its terminals greater than
the rectified voltage, it discharges through resistor R

Considering the resistor R (load) in parallel with the capacitor C (“RC filter”) of the peak
detector circuit, the capacitor will discharge through this resistor according to a dynamic
depending on the time constant τ equal RC (if rapid discharge; if slow discharge)

.Note :
For better filtering, we choose τ much larger than T.

For peak-detector, we must use a large ( ) . For ( ) ( ) ( )

the diode is reverse biased it becomes blocking. The capacitor will retain its
maximum charge (it cannot discharge through R because ( )≈ open circuit).
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Determine filter capacity: During capacitor charging, the filtered voltage changes
from to , i.e.

Full Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

IV-3. Clipping circuits

The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that
takes an input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves
together. This circuit protects sensitive circuits (integrated circuits, high-gain amplifiers,
etc.) from excessively high input voltage.
IV-3.1- Single-level clipping (Series positive clipper with bias)

Clipping is performed at a single level. The circuit used mainly comprises, in series, a
diode with a battery. We have series positive clipper or negative clipper with bias.

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Series positive clipper with positive bias

IV-3.2- Two-stage clipping (Dual (combination) clipper) :

In this case, clipping is performed at two levels. The circuit used comprises 2 diodes,
each in series with a battery. Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of both
positive and negative half cycles. In such cases, the dual clippers are used. The dual clippers
are made by combining the biased shunt positive clipper and biased shunt negative clipper.
Let us consider a dual clipper circuit in which a sinusoidal ac voltage is applied to the
input terminals of the circuit

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