Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Co- Your notes

ordinated Sciences (Double

Award): Biology
Cell Structure & Size of Specimens
Contents
Cell Structure
Organisation of Cells
Magnification Formula
Converting Between Units

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 Cell Structure
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Animal & Plant Cells
Animal cells
Animal cells have the following structural features:
A cell membrane that separates them from their surroundings
A gel-like liquid known as cytoplasm
A nucleus
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion)
Many tiny ribosomes

Animal cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria and ribosomes

Plant cells
Plant cells share the features of animal cells, so they contain:
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosomes

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 Plant cells also have some structural features that are not present in animal cells:
A cell wall made of cellulose Your notes
Large structures called chloroplasts that contain the green pigment chlorophyll
A permanent vacuole

Plant cells have all of the features found in animal cells, as well as a cellulose cell wall,
chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole

Comparing animal and plant cell structures

Structure Animal / plant cells

Cell membrane Both

Cytoplasm Both

Nucleus Both

Mitochondria Both

Ribosomes Both

Cellulose cell wall Plant only

Chloroplasts Plant only

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 Permanent vacuole Plant only
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Comparing animal and plant cell structure diagram

Animal and plant cells have some features in common, while other features are found only
in plant cells

Bacteria Cells
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms
They have a cell structure that is distinct from that of animals and plants:
Features of bacterial cells include:
Bacterial cells contain a cell membrane, and have cytoplasm and ribosomes
Bacterial cells have cell walls made of a chemical called peptidoglycan; this is
different to the cellulose cell walls of plants
The DNA of bacteria is circular
Some bacteria have small loops of DNA known as plasmids
Bacteria lack some features that are present in animal and plant cells:
They do not contain internal membranes, so they lack:
A nucleus
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts

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 Your notes

Bacteria have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, circular DNA and, in
some cases, plasmids

Identifying Cell Structures & Function

Identifying cellular structures
It is possible to identify cellular features in diagrams and when looking at microscope
images
The structures that are visible depend on the magnification at which a cell is being
viewed, e.g.
Under a light microscope structures are viewed at a relatively low magnification, so
it is possible to view:
Nucleus
Chloroplasts
The position of the cytoplasm, cell membrane and cell walls, but no details of
these structures
Under an electron microscope much higher magnification can be achieved, so it is
possible to view:
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Details of structures, e.g. cell walls and chloroplasts

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 Your notes

The structures visible in animal and plant cells will differ depending on the type of
microscope used

Functions of cellular structures

Structure Cell Function
type

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 Cell membrane Animal Separates the cell contents from the external
environment
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Plant Controls passage of substances into and out of the cell
Bacteria

Cytoplasm Animal Gel-like liquid within which the chemical reactions of the
cell occur
Plant
Provides some structural support to the cell
Bacteria

Nucleus Animal Contains the genetic material of the cell in the form of
DNA
Plant

Mitochondria Animal Site of aerobic respiration, releasing energy for cell

activities
Plant

Ribosomes Animal Site of protein production, also known as protein

synthesis
Plant
Bacteria

Cellulose cell wall Plant Provides structural support to the cell, giving plant cells
a rigid shape

Chloroplasts Plant Contain chlorophyll and absorb light energy for

photosynthesis

Permanent vacuole Plant Storage of cell sap; this is a solution that contains sugars
and salts dissolved in water
When full of cell sap the vacuole provides additional
support to the cell

Circular DNA Bacteria Contains the genetic material of the cell

Plasmids Bacteria Carry a small number of genes

Can be passed from one cell to another easily

Peptidoglycan cell Bacteria Provides structural support to the cell, giving bacterial
wall cells their shape

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 Organisation of Cells
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Producing New Cells
The body need to produce new cells in order to grow and repair itself
New cells are produced from existing cells when they divide; this is known as cell
division
The new cells can then become specialised in order to carry out particular functions
within the body

Specialised Cells
Specialised cells are cells that are adapted to carry out specific functions within the
body
The structure of each specialised cell type aids cell function

Examples of specialised cells

Specialised cells in animals table

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 Your notes

Ciliated epithelial cell diagram

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 Your notes

Ciliated cells are adapted to aid movement of mucus in the airways

Nerve cell diagram

Nerve cells are adapted to carry nerve impulses around the body
Red blood cell diagram

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 Your notes

Red blood cells are adapted to carry oxygen

Sperm cell diagram

Sperm cells are adapted to carry genetic information to egg cells

Egg cell diagram

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 Your notes

Egg cells are adapted to aid fertilisation and support the developing embryo
Specialised cells in plants table

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 Your notes

Root hair cell diagram

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 Your notes

Root hair cells are adapted to aid absorption from the soil
Palisade mesophyll cell diagram

Palisade mesophyll cells are adapted to maximise photosynthesis

Examiner Tips and Tricks

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 Note that the specification does not require detailed knowledge of the specialised
features of xylem cells.
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Levels of Organisation in an Organism
Cells are organised at different levels within multicellular organisms
This means that cells form tissues, which together form the organs, making up organ
systems which carry out different functions to aid survival

Levels of organisation table

Levels of organisation example diagram

Cells are organised at different levels to aid survival in multicellular organisms

Levels of organisation examples table

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 Your notes

Worked Example

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 Your notes

Answer:

Step 1: determine the level of organisation of structure 1

Structure 1 is a leaf, and contains multiple tissues which all work together to carry out
photosynthesis
Tissues working together to perform a specific function make up organs
Structure 1 is an organ
Step 2: determine the level of organisation of structure 2
Structure 2 is a palisade mesophyll cell, adapted to perform photosynthesis
Structure 2 is a cell
Step 3: determine the level of organisation of structure 3
Structure 3 is made up of several spongy mesophyll cells
Similar cells working together to carry out a function make up a tissue
Structure 3 is a tissue
Step 4: determine which answer option is correct
Answer option B gives organ, cell and tissue in the correct sequence

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Examiner Tips and Tricks
Make sure that you know the definitions for the different levels of organisation. Your notes

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 Magnification Formula
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Magnification Formula
Magnification can calculated using the following formula:
magnification = image size ÷ actual size
This formula can be entered into an equation triangle to aid memory and allow for easy
rearranging:

The triangle allows the formula to be rearranged as follows:

Magnification = image size ÷ actual size
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
Image size = magnification x actual size
When using the magnification formula it is essential that any units used in the calculation
are the same, e.g. if the size of an image is measured in mm then the actual size of the
object must also be in mm within the calculation
Note that magnification does not have any units and is just written as, e.g. x10 or 5000x

Worked Example
An image of an animal cell measures 30 mm with a ruler and has been magnified by a
factor of x3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?

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 Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

This skill most often comes up in papers 5 and 6, though it sometimes appears in
multiple choice and the theory paper.
Remember the following when carrying out magnification calculations:
1. Always look at the units that have been given in the question - you will usually be
expected to measure objects in mm rather than in cm - double check the
question to see!
2. Learn the equation triangle for magnification
3. Don’t forget that magnification has no units - students often lose a mark
because they put one in

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 Converting Between Units
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Converting Between Units: Extended
Extended Tier Only
The size of cellular structures is often given in micrometres (μm), while rulers are usually
used to measure the size of objects in millimetres (mm)
The conversion between µm and mm is:
1 mm = 1000 µm
The discrepancy between cellular size and the measurements that can be gained using a
ruler means that calculations will sometimes require conversion between μm and mm,
or vice versa

Unit conversions table

Converting mm to μm diagram

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 Your notes

Worked Example

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 Your notes

Answer:
Step 1: convert the units so that they match
1 mm = 1000 µm
The actual thickness of the leaf is given as 2000 µm
To convert 2000 µm into mm we divide this number by 1000
2000 ÷ 1000 = 2
The actual thickness of the leaf in mm is 2 mm
Step 2: enter numbers into the magnification equation
magnification = image size ÷ actual size
50 ÷ 2 = 25

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 So the magnification is x25

Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Unit conversion is the most common source of error in questions that include
magnification calculations, so don't forget to do this, and make sure that you are
confident converting µm into mm or mm into µm.

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