The document discusses the causes and types of distortion in welded assemblies, emphasizing the importance of understanding these issues for designers, welders, and foremen. It outlines methods to control distortion, such as prebending and clamping, and highlights the significance of good design practices to minimize welding shrinkage. Additionally, it provides guidance on correcting distortion in various construction forms and the application of heat for straightening distorted sections.
The document discusses the causes and types of distortion in welded assemblies, emphasizing the importance of understanding these issues for designers, welders, and foremen. It outlines methods to control distortion, such as prebending and clamping, and highlights the significance of good design practices to minimize welding shrinkage. Additionally, it provides guidance on correcting distortion in various construction forms and the application of heat for straightening distorted sections.
PAPER 2
Assemblies incorporating structural sections
By J.S.Allen
INTRODUCTION
Distortion is a general term used to describe the various movements and
shrinkages that take place when heat from cutting or welding processes is
applied.
All welding causes a certain amount of shrinkage and in some situations
will also cause deformation from the original shape.
Longitudinal and transverse shrinkage may only be a minor problem but
angular distortion, bowing and twisting can present considerable difficulties.
‘A full awareness of the problems of distortion is vital to all concerned
with welding including the designer, detailer, shop foreman and the welders,
as each in their field can cause difficulties through lack of understanding and
care. Some distortion effects can be corrected but it is much more satis-
factory to plan to avoid distortion and thereby avoid the difficulties and cost
of straightening to achieve final acceptability of the job.
‘TYPES OF DISTORTION
Consider a single run of fillet weld (Fig.1) made on a 'T' section. On cooling
the weld metal will induce a longitudinal contraction, a transverse contraction
and an angular distortion of the upstanding leg of the assembly. A similar
section (Fig.2) with double weld runs will induce greater longitudinal and
transverse contraction and the combined forces will produce an angular
distortion or bowing of the table and the 'T’.
The longitudinal shrinkage is likely to be about 1mm per 3m of weld and
transverse contraction also about 1mm provided the leg length of the weld
does not exceed 5/4 of the plate thickness.
The contractions produced by a single V butt weld (Fig. 3) induce longi-
tudinal and transverse shrinkage producing angular distortion and possibly
some bowing. The transverse contraction will be between 1.5mm and 3mm
and the longitudinal contraction about 1mm in 3m. The shrinkage figures
quoted are for steel but these will vary for other materials according-to their
coefficient of expansion. Stainless steel and aluminium will of course distort
more than steel. The reasons for angular distortion are shown in (Fig. 4).
The first run of weld cools, contracts and draws the plates together. The
second run has the same shrinkage effect but its contraction is restricted by
the solidified first run which acts as a fulcrum for angular distortion.
Subsequent runs increase the effect and is only slightly influenced by the
counter action of the capping weld. The angular distortion is a direct
function of the number of filler runs and not the plate thickness although of
course the two are related. To achieve the maximum cross section of weld
metal per run, it is advisable to use the largest practicable size of electrode.
It will be seen that the use of a double V preparation to balance the volume
of weld about the centre of gravity of the section will result in the eliminationof angular distortion. To allow for the effect of back chipping asymmetric
preparations are often used to advantage, but it must be remembered that
longitudinal and transverse contractions will still be present. The figures
quoted will enable the total contractions in a structure to be assessed, but a
number of factors will affect the result.
The fit-up is most important as any excess gap will affect the weld volume
and increase shrinkage. The largest size of electrode should be used and
where possible semi-automatic and automatic processes should be used to
reduce the total heat input and the shrinkage to a minimum.
In certain circumstances residual rolling stresses in the parent material
can have considerable effect and may cause otherwise similar sections to
re-act differently. The extent of final distortion will result from a com-
bination of the inherent stresses and those introduced by welding.
METHODS OF CONTROL
All sections which are welded will shrink in their length and the member is
either to be fabricated long and cut to length after welding or the shrinkage
estimate should be allowed for during the fabrication of the sections.
For the control of angular distortion and bowing there are two methods in
common use.
(a) Prebend
‘The section is pre-bent in the opposite direction to that in which it is expected
to bend. Welding is then carried out under restraint. When cool, and the
clamps are removed, the section should spring straight. There are no rules,
only trials and experience can determine the extent of pre-bend for any
particular member (see Fig. 5).
(b) Clamp together and stress relieve
The units are held straight by clamps whilst the welding is carried out and
then stress relieved ina suitable furnace. This method is expensive but
worthwhile on complex units where machining is a subsequent operation
(see Fig.6).
EFFECT OF DESIGN
‘A good welded design will have the minimum amount of weld metal consistent
with the required strength; bending facilities should be used where possible
to minimise the number of welded joints.
Welded sections, should if possible, be designed with their welds balanced
about the neutral axes of the sections. If this can be achieved, little distortion
will occur and only allowances for the overall contraction need be made.
Figure 7 shows a 'T' section in which the welds are disposed above the
horizontal axis of the section. This will distort in the manner illustrated
from the effect of longitudinal shrinkage. The 'I' section however, with
welds balanced about both axes will remain straight after welding. It is
important to realise that if the web is not on the vertical centre line of the
section, lateral distortion will be produced.
Over-welding is a serious danger and all details should be considered,
even small cleats. The optimum size of weld should be specified on the draw-
ing. The amount of distortion is directly proportional to the amount of weld
metal and it is bad practice to specify ‘weld on' or ‘weld all round’. Theee
cumulative shrinkage effect of a number of small cleats can produce a bow in
a column as shown in Fig.7.
DISTORTION EFFECTS AND CONTROL ON VARIOUS FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION
(a) Distortion in light angle frames and latticed girders
‘The greatest danger in this type of construction lies in over-welding and
considerable distortion may result from fully welded lap joints in light angles;
intermittent welding is generally preferable.
‘The order in which individual joints are welded rarely effects the final
result, but it is good practice to sequence the welds so that heat build up is
kept to a minimum.
The normal fabrication procedure for light frames is:
(1) Set out and tack weld or use tack bolts.
(2) Complete any butt welds and then make all fillet welds from one side.
(3) Turn over frame and complete welding.
‘There is usually no need to weld up the tack bolt holes unless the appear-
ance is unacceptable. The quality of welds in such small holes is often
suspect and inconsequential to the overall strength of the assembly.
(b) Welding of 'T' and 'I' sections
A 'T’ section with unbalanced welds about one of its axes will distort. To
counter this effect it will be necessary to pre-bend the section either by
clamping to a welding table, or by clamping two sections back to back as
illustrated (see Fig. 8).
In fabricating 'I' sections it is first necessary to consider the cross
distortion which may occur in the flanges. In some cases this may produce
an unacceptable result. The distortion figures would be lower for machine
welding but, for relatively wide and thin flanges, could still be unacceptable.
The most satisfactory method of counteracting this effect is to pre-bend
the complete flange plate by pressing or rolling. If such facilities are not
available, the flanges can be clamped to a welding grillage over suitable
packing, or alternatively, two sections can be clamped back to back with a
double thickness of packing. Heavy plate sections Imown as ‘strong backs’
may be used to produce the same effect. It is important that clamps or strong
backs are placed at close intervals to avoid a ripple effect at the flange edge.
To avoid the necessity of making allowances for overall welding shrinkage
the sections can be fabricated from stock lengths or from material received
from the steel supplier with its positive length tolerance and the completed
members cut to exact length after welding. In all cases important holing
should be left until after welding.
(c) Fabrication of girders
Butt joints in flanges or webs of girders should be completed before the
girders are assembled into 'I' form.
Extension pieces should be clamped at each end of these joints. These
pieces should be of the same thickness as the plate material and prepared
with the same welding preparation. Suitably bent flats can be adopted but
this method is less satisfactory. Extension pieces are removed after the
completion of the welding and the flange edges carefully dressed with a
suitable grinding disc.
The direction of weld runs should be alternated to avoid a tendency for thejoint to distort in plan. It may be necessary to balance the welding of the butt
joints by making a number of runs in one side of the V preparation and then
turning the flange over to make runs in the second side and so on. Back
chipping or gouging must be carried out before commencing welding on the
second side. The use of suitable rotating fixtures should be considered to
enable long flanges to be turned over without risk of cracking the weld when
snatch lifted by cranes.
On completion of all web and butt joints the girder will ke assembled into
‘I' form and if automatic welding is to be used for the main welds the stiffene
should be omitted until these welds are complete. It may be advisable to
assemble flanges slightly out of square to allow for the greater effect of the
welding of the first side fillet welds (Fig.11).
‘Where hand welding is used on girders it is normal practice to fit the
stiffeners before welding and these are usually sufficient to maintain the
squareness of the flanges.
After all welding is complete the girders can be machined to correct
length. Holing can now be accurately introduced.
(@) Rigid frames, portal frames, ete.
To assist in the control of rigid frame structures it is frequently advantage
to fabricate the frames in sub-sections making suitable allowances for
shrinkage. After welding, these sub-assemblies are trimmed to exact lengt
and are then laid out on a welding grid for the completion of the full section
butt welds.
(e) Box columns
Light sections such as boxed channels or joists with welds balanced about the
neutral axes, should give no difficulties provided suitable allowances have
been made for overall shrinkage.
The heavier boxes will have diaphragms and it is important that these ar
machined perfectly square before assembly. Also the side plates must be fr
from twist. The corner details will vary and such sections lend themselves
automatic welding. Provided that no stresses are introduced into the section
due to out of straight material, or unsquare diaphragms, no difficulties sh
arise from welding. Again allowances must be made for overall shrinkage.
(f) Heavy section splices
It is usual to weld the flange joints before the web. The flange being thicker
and hence requiring a greater number of runs of weld, will shrink more than
the thinner web joint. Otherwise the web may buckle as a result of flange
shrinkage. In the fabrication of such joints it is necessary to take this pro~
cedure into account. The web joint must be fabricated with a root gap larger’
than the drawing gap by an amount equal to the expected weld shrinkage of
the flange joint.
In heavy section joints a variation of the procedure should be adopted
whereby the flange joints are completed in baance to about 2/3 of their weld
volumes.
At this stage the web joints may be welded and finally the flange welds.
This method helps to minimise tensile stresses remaining in the web.
CORRECTION OF DISTORTION
Light sections can be straightened with the aid of hydraulic presses or spec!jo
a SS EE Eh CC tC”
bar bending or straightening machines. In many cases, however, sections
will be too large for this type of straightening and it will be necessary to
adopt techniques involving the application of further heat. Heat has to be
applied to the side opposite to that carrying the welds which caused the
distortion.
The principles involved are as follows:
If heat is applied locally toa member, the heated area will expand, but will
be constricted by the surrounding area of cold metal whose strength will be
much stronger than the heated area. Upon cooling the metal in the heated
area will become compressed plastically to a lesser volume than before
heating thus causing the member to curve in the required direction.
‘The application of heat has to be carefully controlled and considerable experi-
ence is required before it can be successfully applied.
‘The method of heat application can also be used to straighten long strips of
plate that have been oxy-acetylene flame cut along one edge, where release of
the internal residual rolling stresses, and the effect of the heat of the cut
have curved during cutting. The ‘heat should be applied in triangular areas
‘on the edge opposite to the flame cut edge. Also see diagram (Fig.12).
REFERENCE
‘Control of distortion in welded fabrications’, 2nd edition 1976, The
Welding Institute.