2/1/2021

RADIOACTIVITY

Rate of decay
The amount of decay of a radioactive
material depends only on two
things: the amount of radioactive
material and the type of radioactive
material (the particular isotope).

The rate of decay does NOT depend

on temperature, pressure, chemical
composition, etc.

Rate of decay
Mathematically, then, we have:
dN/dt = -l*N

where l is a constant that depends on the particular

isotope,
N is the number of radioactive isotopes present, and
the minus sign comes from the fact that dN/dt is
DECREASING rather than growing.

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Rate of decay
We can solve this differential equation for
N(t): dN/dt = -lN , or dN/N = -l dt , or
log (N/No) = -l t , or N(t) = No e-lt

Further, if we define activity, A, as

A = -dN/dt then A = lN = lNoe-lt = Aoe-lt
;which means that the activity decreases
exponentially with time also.

Half Life
N(t) = No e-lt The number of radioactive atoms does
decrease with time.
But is there a definite time in which the number
decreases by half, regardless of what the beginning
number is? YES:

N(T=half life) = No/2 = Noe-lT , or 1/2 = e-lT

or -lT = ln(1/2) = ln(1) – ln(2)
= 0 - ln(2), or T(half life) = ln(2) / l .

Half Life
After two half lives, is the number now down to zero?
As we saw before, the answer is NO.

After a second half life, we only have half as much as we did

after the first half life:
N(t = 0) = No
N(t = 1 half life) = ½ No
N(t = 2 half lives) = ½ (½ No) = (½)2 No
…
N(t = n half lives) = (½)n No = 2-n No
= e-ln(2)n No
= No e-[ln(2)/half life]*t = No e-lt .

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Activity
Review: N(t) = No e-lt
A = lN = Aoe-lt
T(half life) = ln(2) / l .

If the half life is large, l is small.

This means that if the radioactive isotope will last a long
time, its activity will be small;
if the half life is small, the activity will be large but only
for a short time!

Law of radioactive decay

• Activity A = number of dN
decays per unit time A .
dt

• decay constant l = probability of

decay per unit time
• Rate of decay  number N of nuclei
dN
• Solution of diff. equation (N0 = nb.  l N .
dt
of nuclei at t=0)
N (t )  N0elt .
• Mean life  = 1/ l 

 t dN  
t e lt dt
1
 0

 dN  e l dt

 t l
0

Nuclear decay rates

Nuclear Decay

1000.0
Nuclei Remaining

N (t )  N0elt .
800.0

600.0

400.0

200.0 At t = 1/l,
0.0 N is 1/e
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 (0.368)
Time(s) of the original
amount

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Types of Radioactive
Decay

Units of Energy
• Mass and energy are interchangeable –
E = mc2
where energy usually expressed in MeV
• 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J = 1.60219 x 10-12 erg
• 1 MeV = 1.602 x 10-13 J = 1.60219 x 10-6 erg
• 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2

Decay Modes
• Alpha decay
• Beta decay
• Gamma decay
• Spontaneous fission
• Delayed neutron and proton emission
• Two-proton decay
• Composite particle emission
• Double beta decay
• Prompt proton decay (new)

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Alpha Decay
A
Z X N ZA24X N 2  24He  

• 210Po  4He + 206Pb + γ

• t1/2 (210Po) = 138.4 d; Eα=
5.304 MeV
• Typically for A>150; Z > 83
(144Nd, 147Sm)

• Geiger-Nuttall rule:
1
log t1/ 2  216Rn; 8.05 MeV, 45μs
log E 144Nd; 1.83 MeV, 2.1 x 1015 y

Conservation of Energy
for Alpha Decay
Etrans= Eα+ Erecoil
E = ½ mv2
2mE = m2v2 = (mv)2
p = mv; p2 = m2v2 = (mv)2 = 2mE
pα= precoil
2m αE α= 2mrecoilErecoil
Erecoil = (m α/mrecoil)E α

Alpha Spectrum
A
Z X N ZA24X N 2  24He  
A
Z XN
Parent
α1(20%)

α2(40%)

γ1
α3(40%)

γ3
γ2 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Daughter
A 4
Y
Z 2 N 2

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Alpha Decay
A
Z X N ZA24X N 2  24He  
238U  234Th + 4He2+
A
Z XN 238U  234Th + 4He
Parent
α1(20%)

α2(40%)
Counts
γ1
α3(40%)

γ3
γ2
Daughter
A 4
Y
Z 2 N 2
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Eα (MeV)

Beta Decay
Unlike alpha decay, which occurs primarily among nuclei in specific areas
The periodic table, beta decay is possible for certain isotopes of all elements

b : change a neutron to a proton (negatron decay)


A
Z XN Y A
Z 1 N 1  b  

b is an electron

b : change a proton to a neutron

A
Z X N Z A1YN 1  b  
β+ is an anti-electron or positron
EC: electron capture, change a proton to a neutron
A
Z X N  e  Z A1YN 1 

Negatron (β-) Decay


A
Z X N Z A1YN 1  b    
A
Z XN
Parent
A
Z X

Neutron rich nuclei;

β1 Large N/Z ratio
t1/2

β2
γ

Daughter
A
Y
Z 1

A
Y
Z 1 N 1

39Y  b   t1/ 2  29.1 y


90
38 Sr 90
32
15 P16
32
S  b    t1/ 2  14.3 d

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Beta decay – Energy spectrum

β-
Number of beta particles

• Emax
β+

• Antineutrino in β-
• No charge
• No magnetic moment
• Near zero rest mass
• Spin ½
Beta-particle energy • Conservation of lepton
Etrans = Enegatron + Eantineutrino + Erecoil number

Antineutrino discovery
  p nb

1953 by F. Reines and C.L. Cowan Jr.

Positron (β+) Decay

b : change a proton to a neutron
A
Z X N Z A1YN 1  b  
β+ is an anti-electron, or positron

22
11 Na10
22
Ne  b    t1/ 2  2.605 y
11
6 C 115B   b    t1/ 2  20.3 min
• Proton rich nuclei
• Similar spectrum as in negatron decay
• Change a proton to a neutron  positive electron is emitted by the nucleus
and an orbital electron originally present in the parent atom is lost
to form a neutral daughter atom.
• equivalent to the creation of a positron-electron pair from the available transition energy
• 2 x 0.511 MeV = 1.02 MeV necessary to create 2 electrons
• β+ decay is possible only when the energy of the transition is greater than 1.02 MeV

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The fate of the positron

• Conversion to pure energy by positron
annihilation
• After the positron slows down to
energies comparable to that of
surroundings
• Formation of 1, 3, or 0 annihilation
photons, depending on the spin
orientation of the electron-positron
pair
• If the spins are parallel  triple state
• If the spins are anti-parallel  a single
state
• Positronium “atom”  light “isotope”
of hydrogen, with the positron
substituting for the nuclear proton • Ortho positronium; paralell spins
10-7 s
• Para positronium; anti-parallel spins
10-10 s

Electron Capture (EC orε)

EC: electron capture, change a proton to a neutron

Z
A
X  e  Z A1YN 1 
N + x-rays or Auger electrons
excited + inner bremsstrahlung
nucleus

70Yb  x rays  Auger electrons   ; t1/ 2  6.70 d

Lu172
172
71

77 Ir  x rays  Auger electrons   ; t1/ 2  10.2 d

Pt 188
188
78

Gamma Decay
A
Z X *  ZAX  
47 Ag   t1 / 2  249.8 d
Ag 110
110m
47

49 In   t1 / 2  4.5 h
In115
115m
49

• Pure γ decay
• Internal conversion (IC)
• Pair production (PP)

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Pure Gamma-Ray Emission

234mPa

γ
99.8%
234gPa β1, t1/2 = 1.17 m

0.2%
β2, t1/2 = 6.70 h
234U

91Pa 92U

2 keV < E < 7 MeV; monoenergetic

Internal Conversion

The excited nucleus transfers the energy to an orbital electron, which is then ejected from the atom
(monoenergetic).

EIC electron = Etrans – BEatomic electron

IC and gamma decay are competing processes

Internal conversion coefficient (α)

α= Fraction of decays occurring by gamma emission/Fraction of decays occurring by IC

Pair Production
• E > 1.02 MeV
A
Z X * ZAX  e  e

16mO  16O
Etrans = 6.05 MeV
t1/2 = 7 x 10-11 s

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Radioactivity
• Several decay processes:
 decay: ZA X  ZA42Y  24He Electron capture:

84 Po  82 Pb  2 He
e.g., 210 206 4 A
Z X  e   Z A1Y 

e.g.,127N  e  126C 
b decay:
~
A
X  Z A1Y  e   
Z
 decay:
~
43Tc 44 Rb  e  

e.g .,99 99

A
Z X * ZAX  

43Tc  43Tc   (140keV )

b decay: e.g.,99 * 99

A
Z X  Z A1Y  e  

e.g.,127N 126C  e  

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