6.

1 Responding to Change:

Why do you need a nervous system?

●​ Your nervous system helps you sense what is happening around you and
react quickly.​

●​ It allows you to avoid danger, find food, and eventually find a mate.​

●​ Electrical signals called impulses travel very fast through your body (at
speeds between 1 metre and 120 metres per second), so you can react in
seconds.​

How do receptors help you respond to changes?

●​ Stimulus = any change around you (like light, sound, temperature).​

●​ Receptors are special cells that detect stimuli.​

○​ Light receptors in your eyes detect light.​

○​ Skin receptors detect touch and temperature.​

●​ Receptors are found in sense organs like the eyes, ears, skin, nose, and
tongue.​

How does your nervous system work?

1.​ Stimulus is detected by receptors.​

2.​ Sensory neurones carry the electrical impulse to the central nervous
system (CNS) — brain and spinal cord.​

3.​ The CNS processes the information and decides what to do.​

4.​ Motor neurones carry the impulse from the CNS to the effector organs
(muscles or glands).​
 5.​ The effectors respond:​

○​ Muscles contract (move).​

○​ Glands release chemicals (like saliva).​

In short:​
➔ Receptor ➔ Sensory neurone ➔ CNS ➔ Motor neurone ➔ Effector

Important Tips:

●​ Say "impulse travels along a neurone" (not "message").​

●​ Neurone = a single nerve cell.​

●​ Nerve = a bundle of many neurones.​

Key points to remember:

●​ Nervous system = Fast reactions using electrical impulses.​

●​ Receptors detect changes.​

●​ The brain coordinates a quick response through muscles or glands.​

6.2 Reflex Actions:

What are reflexes?

●​ Reflexes are automatic, fast responses to stimuli.​

●​ You don’t have to think about them — they happen without you realizing
immediately.​

●​ Examples:​
 ○​ Pulling your hand back from something hot.​

○​ Blinking if something flies toward your eyes.​

Why are reflexes important?

●​ They protect you from danger and injury by reacting very quickly.​

●​ They also control basic life functions like breathing, heart rate, and moving
food through your gut.​

●​ Reflexes happen without involving the conscious brain, saving time and
making them super fast.​

How do reflexes work? (Reflex Arc)

Reflex actions involve:

1.​ Stimulus (e.g., touching something hot).​

2.​ Receptor (detects the stimulus, e.g., skin cells).​

3.​ Sensory neurone (carries impulse to the CNS).​

4.​ Relay neurone (connects sensory to motor neurone inside CNS).​

5.​ Motor neurone (carries impulse to effector).​

6.​ Effector (muscle or gland that responds — muscle contracts or gland secretes
something).​

👉 This whole journey is called a "reflex arc."

●​ Neurones don’t touch each other — there are tiny gaps called synapses.​

●​ When the impulse reaches a synapse:​

2.​ These chemicals cross the gap and start a new impulse in the next
neurone.​

●​ This chemical crossing is slower than the electrical impulse but necessary for
signals to continue.​

Study Tip:

Memorize the reflex pathway:​

Key points:

●​ Reflexes = fast, automatic responses.​

●​ Reflexes help in protection and basic survival.​

●​ Reflex arcs involve sensory neurones, relay neurones, and motor

●​ Reflex actions bypass the conscious brain.

1. Nervous System

The nervous system allows living organisms to detect stimuli (changes in the
environment) and respond to them. It helps coordinate bodily functions and
ensures that the organism reacts appropriately to its surroundings.

The nervous system consists of:

●​ Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprising the brain and spinal cord, it
processes the information received from the sensory organs and decides how
to respond.​

●​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): This includes all the nerves that extend
from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. It connects the CNS to
the limbs and organs.​
The nervous system works through electrical signals called impulses that travel
along neurons (nerve cells).

2. Reflex Arc

A reflex arc is the pathway followed by an electrical impulse during a reflex action.
Reflexes are automatic, rapid, and often protective actions that do not involve
conscious thought.

A typical reflex arc involves the following steps:

1.​ Stimulus: A change in the environment (e.g., touching a hot object).​

2.​ Receptor: Special sensory cells (like in the skin) detect the stimulus.​

3.​ Sensory Neurone: Transmits the electrical impulse to the spinal cord or
brain.​

4.​ Relay Neurone: In the spinal cord, the sensory neurone communicates with a
relay neurone, which passes the impulse to a motor neurone.​

5.​ Motor Neurone: Carries the impulse from the CNS to the muscles or glands
(effectors).​

6.​ Effector: The muscle contracts (e.g., pulling your hand away from the hot
object), or a gland releases a substance.​

Key Feature of Reflex Arcs: The impulse often bypasses the brain, which makes
reflexes faster.

3. Knee Jerk Reflex

The knee jerk reflex (or patellar reflex) is a simple reflex that helps maintain
posture and balance.

Steps in the knee jerk reflex:

1.​ Stimulus: A gentle tap on the patellar tendon just below the kneecap
stretches the quadriceps muscle in the thigh.​

2.​ Receptor: Stretch receptors (muscle spindles) in the quadriceps detect the
sudden stretch.​
 3.​ Sensory Neurone: The sensory neurone carries the impulse to the spinal
cord.​

4.​ Relay Neurone: In the spinal cord, the sensory neurone directly connects to
the motor neurone.​

5.​ Motor Neurone: The motor neurone carries the impulse back to the
quadriceps muscle.​

6.​ Effector: The quadriceps contracts, causing the lower leg to kick forward.​

This reflex helps you maintain balance and prevents you from falling when standing
or sitting with your legs dangling. It’s an example of a monosynaptic reflex,
meaning there’s no relay neurone involved in the pathway.

4. Synapse

A synapse is the junction between two neurones (or between a neurone and a
muscle or gland). Since neurones don't physically touch each other, a synapse
allows them to communicate through a chemical signal.

Steps in synapse communication:

1.​ The electrical impulse travels along the axon of the first neurone (presynaptic
neurone) until it reaches the axon terminal.​

2.​ At the axon terminal, the electrical impulse triggers the release of
neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) into the synapse.​

3.​ The neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on
the membrane of the next neurone (postsynaptic neurone).​

4.​ This binding generates a new electrical impulse in the second neurone, which
continues the signal.​

Key Point: The electrical impulse in the neurones is slower at the synapse because
it relies on chemical transmission.

5. Reaction Time

Reaction time refers to the time it takes for a person to respond to a stimulus. It is
often measured by timing how quickly someone can react to an external signal, such
as catching a falling ruler or pressing a button after hearing a sound.

Several factors can affect reaction time:

●​ Stimulus type: Simple stimuli (e.g., a flashing light) are reacted to faster than
complex stimuli.​

●​ Age: Younger people generally have faster reaction times than older people.​

●​ Practice: Familiarity with the task can improve reaction times.​

●​ Concentration: Being more focused results in faster responses.​

●​ Fatigue: Tiredness or lack of sleep can slow reaction times.​

Measurement: A common way to measure reaction time is through the ruler drop
test. The time it takes for the person to catch a falling ruler after it’s dropped is
measured to estimate their reaction time.

Summary of Key Points:

●​ Nervous system: Detects stimuli and coordinates responses through neurons

●​ Reflex arc: The pathway that a stimulus follows in a reflex action, bypassing
the brain for faster responses.​

●​ Knee jerk reflex: A rapid, automatic reflex that helps maintain balance and
posture.​

●​ Synapse: The junction between two neurones where chemical signals are
used to transmit impulses.​

●​ Reaction time: The time it takes to respond to a stimulus, influenced by