Vector and Matrix Algebra

In this lecture note, a quick revision on matrices and their properties is

made. First, we introduce the following notations and definitions.

Matrices

A matrix is a set of numbers (or functions) which are called elements

arranged in a rectangular array. We mean by 𝑚𝑛 matrix that an arrangement
of (𝑚𝑛) elements into 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns. The matrix takes the form

 a11 a12  a1n 

a  a2n 
A =  21
 
a22
  
( )
 = aij
 
am1 am 2  amn 

where 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the element in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴.

Square Matrix

If the number of rows equals to the number of columns (𝑚 = 𝑛), then the
matrix is called square matrix of order 𝑛. For example,

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

𝐴3×3 = [ 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

where the elements 𝑎11 , 𝑎22 and 𝑎33 form the principal (main) diagonal of the
square matrix 𝐴.

1
Row or Column Matrix

If the matrix contains one row or one column only, then it is called a vector.

 a11 
a 
A1 n = a11 a12  a1n  or An1 =  21  .
  
 
 an1 

Matrix Operations

1. Equality of Matrices

Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal if they have the same order 𝑚𝑛 and if

aij = bij for i = 1,2,, m and j = 1,2,, n

Example 1
𝑥−1 3 9 3
Find 𝑥 and 𝑦 if [ ]=[ ].
−4 2𝑦 −4 6
Solution
𝑥 − 1 = 9 and 2𝑦 = 6
∴ 𝑥 = 10 and 𝑦=3

2. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 𝑚𝑛 matrices, then their sum or difference is defined as

A  B = aij  bij for i = 1,2,, m and j = 1,2,, n

Note that: 𝐴 and 𝐵 must have the same order.

2
Example 2
1 0 2 2 1 1
Find 𝐴 + 𝐵 and 𝐴 − 𝐵 if A =   and B= .
3 2 1 2 0 3
Solution
1 0 2 2 1 1 3 1 3 − 1 − 1 1 
A+ B =  +
  =
   and A − B =  1 2 − 2
3 2 1 2 0 3 5 2 4  

3. Multiplication of Matrix by Number

If 𝐴 is an 𝑚 𝑛 matrix and  is a number, then the product of the matrix by

this number is defined as

  a11  a12   a1n 

 a  a22   a2n 
 A =  21
     
( )
 =  aij .
 
 am1  am 2   amn 

We can prove the following relations:

1)  (𝐴 + 𝐵) =  𝐴 +  𝐵
2) (1 + 2 ) 𝐴 = 1 𝐴 + 2 𝐴
3) (1 2 ) 𝐴 = 1 (2 ) 𝐴 = 1 2 𝐴
4) (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
5) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴

Example 3
Find 4𝐴 and 3𝐴 + 2𝐵 if
1 0 2 2 1 1
A=  and B= .
3 2 1  2 0 3
Solution

3
  4 0 8
4A =  
12 8 4
3 0 6 4 2 2  7 2 8
and 3 A + 2 B =  + = .
9 6 3 4 0 6 13 6 9

4. Transpose of Matrix

The transpose 𝐴𝑇 of matrix 𝐴 (𝑚𝑛) is the (𝑛𝑚) matrix obtained by

changing the rows and the columns in 𝐴.

T
 a11 a12  a1n   a11 a21  am1 
  a2 n  a  am 2 
T  a21 a22  =  12
a22
.
A =
         
   
am1 am2  amn   a1n a2 n  amn 

We can prove that:

1) (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴
2) (𝑘 𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑘 𝐴𝑇
3) (𝐴 ± 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 ± 𝐵𝑇

Example 4
1 0 2 2 1 1
Find 𝐴𝑇 and (𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑇 if A =   and B= .
3 2 1   2 0 3
Solution

T 1 3 
 
= 0 2
1 0 2
AT =  
3 2 1   
2 1

T − 1 1 
 − − 
= − 1 2  .
1 1 1
and ( A − B )T =  
 1 2 − 2  
 1 − 2

4
5. Matrix Multiplication

If 𝐴 is 𝑚𝑞 matrix and 𝐵 is 𝑞𝑛 matrix, then the product 𝐹 = 𝐴𝐵 exists

with order 𝑚𝑛. The element 𝑓𝑖𝑗 of the product is obtained by multiplying
term-by-term the elements of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row of 𝐴 and the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of 𝐵, and
summing these 𝑞 products.

( A)mq (B)qn = (F )mn

For example, if 𝐴 is 2 3 matrix and 𝐵 is 34 matrix, then 𝐹 = 𝐴𝐵 is 24

matrix.
𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑏14
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑓 𝑓12 𝑓13 𝑓14
[𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] [ 𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 𝑏24 ] = [ 11 ]
21 𝑓21 𝑓22 𝑓23 𝑓24
𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑏34
such that

𝑓13 = 𝑎11 𝑏13 + 𝑎12 𝑏23 + 𝑎13 𝑏33

Properties of Matrix Multiplication:

1) ( A)B = A( B) =  (AB) ,  is a scalar number

2) ABC = A(BC) = (AB)C
3) C( A ± B) = CA ± CB
4) (A ± B)D = AD ± BD
5) A B ≠ B A
6) If AB = AC , it does not imply B=C
7) (AB)T = BT AT, (ABC)T = CT BT AT

Note that: The main condition of matrix multiplication is that the number of
columns of the 1st matrix must equal to the number of rows of the 2nd one.

5
Example 5
3
Find 𝐴𝐵 if A = 2 − 5 4 and B =  1  .
 
− 2
Solution
3
AB = 2 − 5 4  1  = row 1  column 1
 
− 2

= 2  3 + (− 5)  1 + 4  (− 2) = − 7 .

Example 6
 2 − 5 4 3
Find 𝐴𝐵 if A = 1 2 3 and B =  1  .
   
0 2 0 − 2

Solution
2 − 5 4  3  row 1 column 1 
AB = 1 2 3  1  =  row 2  column 1 
     
0 2 0 − 2  row 3  column 1 

2  3 + (−5)  1 + 4  (− 2) − 7
= 1  3 + 2  1 + 3  (− 2) =  − 1 .
   
0  3 + 2  1 + 0  (− 2)  2 

Example 7
 2 3  3 − 1 0
Find 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 if A =   and B =  2 4 5 .
1 0   
Solution

2 3 3 − 1 0 12 10 15
AB =    2 4 5 =  3 − 1 0 
1 0    

6
  3 2 12 3 
 
BT AT = − 1 4  = 10 − 1 = ( AB )T
2 1
  3 0  
 0 5 15 0 

Example 8
 1 2 2 1
Find 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 if A =   and B = 0 1 .
 − 1 3  
Solution
 1 2 2 1  2 3 2 1  1 2  1 7
AB =   0 1 = − 2 2 and BA =    − 1 3 =  − 1 3  .
 − 1 3      0 1   

Example 9
1 2  2 1  − 2 7 
Find 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 if A =   , B =  3 2 and C =  5 − 1 .
 2 4    
Solution
8 5
AB = AC =   and B  C .
16 10

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6. Matrix Power

The matrix power is obtained by multiplication matrix by itself n times. The

matrix must be square in order to raise it to a power.

Example 10
1 3 1 2
Find 𝐴2 and 𝐵3 if 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ].
1 4 −1 3
Solution

1 3 1 3 4 15
𝐴2 = 𝐴. 𝐴 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
1 4 1 4 5 19

1 2 1 2 −1 8
𝐵2 = 𝐵. 𝐵 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
−1 3 −1 3 −4 7

−1 8 1 2 −9 22
∴ 𝐵3 = 𝐵2 . 𝐵 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
−4 7 −1 3 −11 13

Note that: If the matrix is not square, it can’t be multiplied by itself. Therefore,
it can’t be raised to any power.

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7. Determinant of Matrix

The determinant is a value that can be computed from the elements of

a square matrix. The determinant of a square matrix 𝐴 is denoted by det(𝐴),
det 𝐴 or |𝐴|.

➢ Determinant of first order (having one element only)

− 11 = −11 10 = 10 .

➢ Determinant of second order

3 5
= 3(1) − 5(2) = −7 .
2 1

Minor and Cofactor

A minor of a matrix 𝐴 is the determinant of some smaller square matrix,

cut down from 𝐴 by removing one or more of its rows or columns. Minors
obtained by removing just one row and one column from square matrices (first
minors) are required for calculating matrix cofactors, which in turn are useful
for computing both the determinant and inverse of square matrices.

The minor of the element in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column is the determinant
of the submatrix formed by deleting the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column. This number
is often denoted 𝑀𝑖,𝑗 . The (𝑖, 𝑗) cofactor is obtained by multiplying the minor
by (−1)𝑖+𝑗 .

9
To illustrate the preceding definitions, consider the following 3 × 3 matrix

1 4 7
[ 3 0 5 ]
−1 9 11

To compute the minor 𝑀2,3 and the cofactor 𝐶2,3 , we find the determinant of
the above matrix with row 2 and column 3 removed.

1 4 ∎
1 4
𝑀2,3 = det [ ∎ ∎ ∎ ] = | | = 1 × 9 − 4 × (−1) = 13.
−1 9
−1 9 ∎

So the cofactor of the (2,3) element is

𝐶2,3 = (−1)2+3 𝑀2,3 = −13.

In general, the value of the determinant is obtained by expanding it

as the sum of the cofactors of any row or column of the matrix
multiplied by the elements that generated them.

➢ Determinant of third order (using the elements of the first row)

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

|𝐴| = det(𝐴) = | 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎13 𝐶13 .
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

Example 11

a) Determinant of third order (using the elements of the first row)

2 1 3
4 2 2 2 2 4
2 4 2 =2 −1 +3
6 0 7 0 7 6
7 6 0

= 2(−12) − 1(−14) + 3(12 − 28) = −58 .

10
b) Determinant of fourth order (using the elements of the third column)
2 1 −3 2
0 4 1 2 1 2
0 4 2 1
= (− 3) − 1 5 3 − (2) − 1 5 3
−1 5 0 3
1 2 4 1 2 4
1 2 0 4

= −3(21) − 2(21) = −105 .

Properties of Determinants

1 If 𝐴 is a square matrix, then |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 |. For example,

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐
| |=| | = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐.
𝑐 𝑑 𝑏 𝑑

2 If the matrix 𝐵 is obtained by interchanging with any two rows or two

columns of the matrix 𝐴, then |𝐴| = −|𝐵|. For example,

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
| | = −| |.
𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏

3 If any two rows (or columns) of the matrix 𝐴 are identical, then |𝐴| = 0. For
example,
𝑎 𝑏
| | = 0.
𝑎 𝑏

Also, if the matrix 𝐴 has a zero row (or column), then |𝐴| = 0. For example,
𝑎 𝑏
| | = 0.
0 0

4 If the matrix 𝐵 is obtained by multiplying every element in the row or the

column of the matrix 𝐴 with a scalar 𝑘, then |𝐵| = 𝑘|𝐴|.

11
For example,
𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑘𝑎 𝑏
| | = 𝑘| |=| | = 𝑘𝑎𝑑 − 𝑘𝑏𝑐 = 𝑘(𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐).
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑 𝑘𝑐 𝑑

Hence, for a square matrix 𝐴 with size 𝑛 × 𝑛 and a scalar 𝛼

|𝜶 𝑨| = 𝜶𝒏 |𝑨|

5 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are square matrices, then |𝐴 𝐵| = |𝐴| |𝐵|. Hence, |𝐴2 | = |𝐴|2 .

Example 12

Find the value of the following determinant

1 2 3 4 5
1 3 9 0 6
|3 0 5 7 1 ||
|
5 −2 1 −4 0
3 0 5 7 1
Solution
The third and fifth rows are identical, so the value of the determinant is zero.

1 2 3 4 5
1 3 9 0 6
|3 0 5 7 1 || = 0
|
5 −2 1 −4 0
3 0 5 7 1

Example 13

Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 4 × 4 matrices with det(𝐴) = 4 and det(𝐵) = 3. What are
the values of det(2 𝐵𝑇 ) and det(𝐴𝑇 𝐵2 ) ?
Solution
det(2 𝐵𝑇 ) = 24 det(𝐵𝑇 ) = 16 det(𝐵) = 48.

det(𝐴𝑇 𝐵2 ) = det(𝐴𝑇 ) det(𝐵2 ) = det(𝐴) {det(𝐵)}2 = 36.

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8. Inverse of Matrix

−1
The inverse of a n  n matrix A , if it exists, is denoted by A , and is
defined to be the n  n matrix such that

A A−1 = A−1 A = I

where I is the n  n identity matrix. Note, the inverse only exists for square
matrices if det( A)  0 (nonsingular matrix).

1
𝐴−1 = adj(𝐴)
det(𝐴)

where 𝐚𝐝𝐣(𝑨) is the transpose of the cofactor matrix (the matrix formed by all
of the cofactors of the square matrix 𝐴). For 3 × 3 matrix

𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 𝑇

adj(𝐴) = [ 𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 ] .
𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33

We can prove that:

1) (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
1
2) (𝑘 𝐴)−1 = 𝐴−1
𝑘

3) (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1

4) det(𝐴−1 ) = 1⁄det(𝐴)

Example 14
2 1
Find 𝐴−1 for 𝐴 = [ ].
4 3
Solution

13
 +(3) −(4) 𝑇 3 −1
det(𝐴) = 6 − 4 = 2 and adj(𝐴) = [ ] =[ ]
−(1) +(2) −4 2

1 3 −1 3⁄2 − 1⁄2
∴ 𝐴−1 = [ ]=[ ].
2 −4 2 −2 1
Check answer:

2 1 3⁄2 − 1⁄2 3⁄2 − 1⁄2 2 1 1 0

[ ][ ]=[ ][ ]=[ ].
4 3 −2 1 −2 1 4 3 0 1

Note that: For 2 × 2 matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎22 − 𝑎12

if 𝐴 = [ 𝑎 𝑎22 ], then adj(𝐴) = [ − 𝑎21 𝑎11 ].
21

Example 15
1 2 4 
Find 𝐴−1 for A = − 1 0 3  .
 
 3 1 − 2

Solution
det(𝐴) = 7 and

T
 0 3 −1 3 −1 0
+ − + 
 1 −2 3 −2 3 1
− 3 8 6 
 2 2
=  7 − 14 − 7 
4 1 4 1
adj ( A) = − + − 
1 −2 3 −2 3 1  
   − 1 5 2 
 2 4 1 4 1 2
+ 0 −
−1 3
+
−1 0 
 3

− 3 8 6 
 A−1 =
1  7 − 14 − 7.
7  
 − 1 5 2 

14
Example 16

Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 3 × 3 matrices with det(𝐴) = 2 and det(𝐵) = 10. What are
the values of det(𝐴−1 𝐵𝑇 ) and det(adj𝐴) ?
Solution
1
det(𝐴−1 𝐵𝑇 ) = det(𝐴−1 ) det(𝐵𝑇 ) = det(𝐵) = 5.
det(𝐴)

Note that: 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = (det 𝐴) 𝐴−1

1
∴ det(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = det(2 𝐴−1 ) = 23 det(𝐴−1 ) = 8 = 4.
det(𝐴)

Properties of Inverse

1 If 𝐴 is a nonsingular matrix, then (𝐴−1 )𝑇 = (𝐴𝑇 )−1 .

2 If 𝐴 is a nonsingular matrix, then (𝐴−1 )𝑛 = (𝐴𝑛 )−1 where 𝑛 is positive

integer.

3 If 𝐴 and B are nonsingular matrices, then (𝐴 ± 𝐵)−1 ≠ 𝐴−1 ± 𝐵−1 . For

example,

1 2 −1 −2 0 0
If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] , then 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ].
3 4 1 3 4 7

Note that: 𝐴 and B are nonsingular matrices, but 𝐴 + 𝐵 is singular matrix.

15
 Special Matrices

Zero Matrix 𝑶

It is 𝑚𝑛 matrix with all elements equal zero and it is denoted by (𝑂)

0 0 0
O= .
0 0 0 
Such that 𝐴 + 𝑂 = 𝐴 and 𝐴 – 𝐴 = 𝑂.

Note that: If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂, it does not imply 𝐴 = 𝑂 or 𝐵 = 𝑂.

Example 17
1 2   4 − 6
Find 𝐴𝐵 if A =   and B =  .
 2 4   − 2 3 
Solution
0 0
AB =   and neither 𝐴 nor 𝐵 is zero matrix.
0 0

Triangular Matrix

It is a square matrix whose elements above (or below) the principal

diagonal are all equal zero. We have two types of triangular matrix

 a11 0  0  a11 a12  a1n 

a a22  0   0 a22  a2 n 
L =  21  and U = 
         
   
 an1 an 2  ann   0 0  ann 

𝑳 is lower triangular (or left) matrix of order 𝑛,

𝑼 is upper triangular (or right) matrix of order 𝑛.

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Diagonal Matrix 𝑫

It is a square matrix whose all elements are equal zero except the principal
diagonal. The diagonal matrix takes the form

a11 0  0 
 0 a22  0 
D= .
    
 
 0 0  ann 
Note that:

1) det(𝐿) = det(𝑈) = det(𝐷) = 𝑎11 × 𝑎22 × ⋯ ⋯ × 𝑎𝑛𝑛

(a )k 0  0 
 11 
2) D k = 
0 (a22 )k  0 
     
 
 0 0  (ann )k 

𝑎11 0 0
3) For the diagonal matrix 𝐷 = [ 0 𝑎22 0 ],
0 0 𝑎33

1⁄𝑎11 0 0
𝐷 −1
=[ 0 1⁄𝑎22 0 ] provided that 𝑎11 × 𝑎22 × 𝑎33 ≠ 0.
0 0 1⁄𝑎33

Example 18
3 0 
Find det(𝐴) and 𝐴2 for A =  .
0 4 
Solution
3 0 3 0 9 0 
det(𝐴) = 3 × 4 = 12 and A2 =   = .
0 4 0 4 0 16

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Example 19

Find the value of the following determinants:

(a) (b)
3 0 0 0
0 4 −1
9 2 0 0
| | |2 3 5 |
−2 1 −4 0
0 0 1
0 5 7 1
Solution
(a) This is a lower triangular matrix, so the determinant value is the product of
the main diagonal elements.

3 0 0 0
9 2 0 0
| | = (3)(2)(−4)(1) = −24
−2 1 −4 0
0 5 7 1

(b) Interchanging the first and second rows results in an upper triangular
matrix. So,

0 4 −1 2 3 5
| 2 3 5 | = −|0 4 −1 | = − (2)(4)(1) = −8
0 0 1 0 0 1

Unit (Identity) Matrix 𝑰

It is diagonal matrix, whose all elements (principal diagonal) are equal one.

1 0  0 
0 1  0 
I = .
    
 
0 0  1 

If 𝐴 is a 𝑚𝑛 matrix, then

𝐼𝑚 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐴

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For example,

1 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 1 2 3   = 1 2 3  .
=
0 1   4 5 6   4 5 6    4 5 6
0 1 0
    
0 0 1

Scalar Matrix 𝑺

It is a diagonal matrix with all elements are equal 𝑘 and takes the form

k 0  0 
0 k  0 
S= =k I.
    
 
0 0  k 

Symmetric Matrix

Any square matrix is said to be symmetric if 𝑨 = 𝑨𝑻 (𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 ) and if

𝑨 = − 𝑨𝑻 ( 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = − 𝑎𝑗𝑖 ), then 𝐴 is said to be skew symmetric. For skew
symmetric, the element in the principal diagonal 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0.

0 3 −6 5
−3 4 −1
−3 0 4 −1
[ 4 0 9 ] [ ]
6 −4 0 9
−1 9 11
−5 1 −9 0
Symmetric matrix Skew symmetric matrix

Example 20
If 𝐴 is a 𝑚𝑛 matrix, prove that 𝐴 𝐴𝑇 is a symmetic matrix.
Solution
(𝐴 𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 (𝐴)𝑇 = 𝐴 𝐴𝑇 .

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Orthogonal Matrix 𝑸

An orthogonal matrix is a real square matrix whose columns and rows are
orthonormal vectors (orthogonal unit vectors). One way to express this is

𝑸𝑻 𝑸 = 𝑸 𝑸𝑻 = 𝑰,

where 𝑄𝑇 is the transpose of 𝑄 and 𝐼 is the identity matrix. This leads to the equivalent
characterization: a matrix 𝑄 is orthogonal if its transpose is equal to its inverse:

𝑸𝑻 = 𝑸−𝟏 ,

where 𝑄−1 is the inverse of 𝑄. For example,

(a) (b) (c)

3 −2 2 −2 2
3⁄5 − 4⁄5 1 1 2 −2 1 2 2 3 2 −2
[ ] [ 2 −2 −1 ] 2 2 −2 2 3
4⁄5 3⁄5 3 5
2 1 2 2 2 −2 −3 −2
[2 −3 −2 2 −2 ]

Example 21
Prove that if the matrix 𝑨 is orthogonal, then 𝐝𝐞𝐭(𝑨) = ±𝟏.
Solution
𝑨 𝑨𝑻 = 𝑰

∴ det(𝐴 𝐴𝑇 ) = det(𝐼) ⇒ det(𝐴) det(𝐴𝑇 ) = 1 ⇒ det(𝐴) det(𝐴) = 1

{det(𝐴)}2 = 1 ⇒ det(𝐴) = ±1

Example 22
Prove that if 𝑨 and 𝑩 are orthogonal matrices, then 𝑨𝑩 is orthogonal matrix.
Solution
𝑨 𝑨𝑻 = 𝑰 and 𝑩 𝑩𝑻 = 𝑰

(𝐴 𝐵)(𝐴 𝐵)𝑇 = (𝐴 𝐵)(𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 ) = 𝐴 (𝐵 𝐵𝑇 ) 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴 (𝐼) 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼

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Note that: If 𝐴 is an orthogonal and symmetric matrix, then

𝑨−𝟏 = 𝑨𝑻 = 𝑨.

For example,

1 2 3 6
𝐴 = [ 3 −6 2 ]
7
6 2 −3

We leave to the students getting the transpose and inverse of 𝐴 to validate this
notice.

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