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ENGINEERING
NOISE CONTROL
FIFTH EDITION
ENGINEERING
NOISE CONTROL
FIFTH EDITION

DAVID A. BIES
COLIN H. HANSEN
CARL Q. HOWARD
MATLAB• and Simulink• are trademarks of The Mathworks, Inc. and are used with permission. The MathWorks does
not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB• and Simulink•
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pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB• and Simulink• software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Version Date: 20170929

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bies, David A., 1925- author. | Hansen, Colin H., 1951- author. |
Howard, Carl Q., 1970- author.
Title: Engineering noise control / by David A. Bies, Colin H. Hansen and Carl
Q. Howard.
Description: Fifth edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group,
[2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017022634| ISBN 9781498724050 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN
9781498724067 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Noise control. | Soundproofing. | Machinery--Noise.
Classification: LCC TD892 .B54 2018 | DDC 620.2/3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017022634

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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 Dedication

This book is dedicated to our families.

The second and third authors would also like to dedicate this edition to the first author, David
Bies, who sadly passed away and was thus unable to contribute to this edition. His knowledge
and insights will be sorely missed.
 Contents

Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Preface to the Fourth Edition . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Preface to the Fifth Edition . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
1 Fundamentals and Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Noise Control Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Sound Source Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Control of the Transmission Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Modification of the Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Existing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Facilities in the Design Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.6 Airborne versus Structure-Borne Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Acoustic Field Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.1 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.2 Acoustic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.3 Magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.4 Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.5 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.6 Acoustic Potential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.1 Plane and Spherical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.2 Plane Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.3 Spherical Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.4 Wave Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.5 Plane Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.6 Spherical Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5 Mean Square Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6 Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.7 Sound Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.7.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.7.2 Plane Wave and Far Field Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.7.3 Spherical Wave Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8 Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.9 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.10 Combining Sound Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.10.1 Coherent and Incoherent Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.10.2 Addition of Coherent Sound Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.10.3 Addition of Incoherent Sounds (Logarithmic Addition) . . . . . . 34
1.10.4 Subtraction of Sound Pressure Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.10.5 Combining Level Reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.11 Beating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.12 Amplitude Modulation and Amplitude Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13 Basic Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.14 Doppler Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.15 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
viii Contents

1.15.1 Mechanical Impedance, ZM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

1.15.2 Specific Acoustic Impedance, Zs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15.3 Acoustic Impedance, ZA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.16 Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2 Human Hearing and Noise Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1 Brief Description of the Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.1 External Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.1.2 Middle Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.1.3 Inner Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.1.4 Cochlear Duct or Partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.5 Hair Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.1.6 Neural Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1.7 Linear Array of Uncoupled Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1.8 Mechanical Properties of the Central Partition . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.1.8.1 Basilar Membrane Travelling Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.1.8.2 Energy Transport and Group Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.8.3 Undamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.1.8.4 The Half-Octave Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.1.8.5 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1.8.6 Critical Frequency Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.1.8.7 Frequency Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.3 Subjective Response to Sound Pressure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.3.1 Masking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.3.2 Loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.3.3 Comparative Loudness and the Phon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.3.4 Low-Frequency Loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.3.5 Relative Loudness and the Sone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.3.6 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.4 Weighting Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.5 Noise Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.5.1 Equivalent Continuous Noise Level, Leq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.5.2 A-Weighted Equivalent Continuous Noise Level, LAeq . . . . . . . 84
2.5.2.1 Noise Exposure Level, LEX,8h or Lex or Lep′ d . . . . . . 85
2.5.2.2 A-Weighted Sound Exposure, EA,T . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.5.2.3 A-Weighted Sound Exposure Level, LAE or SEL . . . . 87
2.5.3 Day-Night Average Sound Level, Ldn or DNL . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.5.4 Community Noise Equivalent Level, Lden or CNEL . . . . . . . . 88
2.5.5 Effective Perceived Noise Level, LEPN or EPNL . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.5.6 Statistical Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.5.7 Other Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.6 Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.6.1 Threshold Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.6.2 Presbyacusis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.6.3 Hearing Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.7 Hearing Damage Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.7.1 Requirements for Speech Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.7.2 Quantifying Hearing Damage Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.7.3 International Standards Organisation Formulation . . . . . . . . . 94
2.7.4 Alternative Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.7.4.1 Bies and Hansen Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Contents ix

2.7.4.2 Dresden Group Formulation . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . 98
2.7.5 Observed Hearing Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 99
2.7.6 Some Alternative Interpretations . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 99
2.8 Hearing Damage Risk Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 103
2.8.1 Continuous Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 103
2.8.2 Impulse Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 103
2.8.3 Impact Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 104
2.9 Implementing a Hearing Conservation Program . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 106
2.10 Hearing Protection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 107
2.10.1 Noise Reduction Rating, NRR . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 108
2.10.2 Noise Reduction Rating Subjective Fit, NRR(SF) . . . . . . . . . 109
2.10.3 Noise Level Reduction Statistic, NRSAx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.10.4 Single Number Rating, SNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.10.5 Sound Level Conversion, SLC80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.10.6 Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.10.7 Degradation of Effectiveness from Short Lapses . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.10.8 Overprotection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.11 Speech Interference Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.11.1 Broadband Background Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.11.2 Intense Tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.12 Psychological Effects of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.12.1 Noise as a Cause of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.12.2 Effect on Behaviour and Work Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.13 Ambient Noise Level Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.13.1 Noise Weighting Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.13.1.1 NR Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.13.1.2 NC Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.13.1.3 RC Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.13.1.4 NCB Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.13.1.5 RNC Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.13.2 Comparison of Noise Weighting Curves with dBA Specifications . 126
2.13.3 Speech Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2.14 Environmental Noise Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.14.1 A-Weighting Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.15 Environmental Noise Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.15.1 Measurement Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.15.2 Duration of the Measurement Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.15.3 Measurement Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.15.4 Noise Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3 Instrumentation for Noise Measurement and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.1 Microphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.1.1 Condenser Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.1.2 Piezoelectric Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.1.3 Pressure Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.1.4 Microphone Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.1.5 Field Effects and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.1.6 Microphone Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.1.7 Infrasound Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.2 Sound Level Meters (SLMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.3 Classes of Sound Level Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.4 Sound Level Meter Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
x Contents

3.4.1 Electrical Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

3.4.2 Acoustic Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.4.3 Measurement Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.5 Noise Measurements Using Sound Level Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.5.1 Microphone Mishandling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.5.2 Sound Level Meter Amplifier Mishandling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.5.3 Microphone and Sound Level Meter Response Characteristics . . 146
3.5.4 Background Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.5.5 Wind Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.5.6 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.5.7 Humidity and Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.5.8 Reflections from Nearby Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.6 Time-Varying Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.7 Noise Level Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.8 Data Loggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.9 Personal Sound Exposure Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.10 Recording of Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.11 Spectrum Analysers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.12 Sound Intensity Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.12.1 Sound Intensity by the p − u Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.12.1.1 Accuracy of the p − u Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.12.2 Sound Intensity by the p − p Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.12.2.1 Accuracy of the p − p Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.12.3 Frequency Decomposition of the Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.12.3.1 Direct Frequency Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.12.3.2 Indirect Frequency Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.13 Energy Density Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.14 Sound Source Localisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.14.1 Near–field Acoustic Holography (NAH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.14.1.1 Summary of the Underlying Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.14.2 Statistically Optimised Near–field Acoustic Holography (SONAH) 165
3.14.3 Helmholtz Equation Least Squares Method (HELS) . . . . . . . . 167
3.14.4 Beamforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.14.4.1 Summary of the Underlying Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.14.5 Direct Sound Intensity Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4 Sound Sources and Sound Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.2 Simple Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.2.1 Pulsating Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.2.2 Fluid Mechanical Monopole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.3 Dipole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.3.1 Pulsating Doublet or Dipole (Far–Field Approximation) . . . . . 176
4.3.2 Pulsating Doublet or Dipole (Near Field) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.3.3 Oscillating Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.3.4 Fluid Mechanical Dipole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.4 Quadrupole Source (Far–Field Approximation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.4.1 Lateral Quadrupole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.4.2 Longitudinal Quadrupole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.4.3 Fluid Mechanical Quadrupole Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.5 Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.5.1 Infinite Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Contents xi

4.5.2 Finite Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

4.6 Piston in an Infinite Baffle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.6.1 Far Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.6.2 Near Field On-Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.6.3 Radiation Load of the Near Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.7 Incoherent Plane Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.7.1 Single Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.7.2 Several Walls of a Building or Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.8 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.9 Reflection Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.9.1 Simple Source Near a Reflecting Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.9.2 Observer Near a Reflecting Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.9.3 Observer and Source Both Close to a Reflecting Surface . . . . . . 201
4.10 Radiation Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.11 Relation between Sound Power and Sound Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.12 Radiation Field of a Sound Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.12.1 Sound Field Produced in an Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.13 Determination of Sound Power Using Sound Intensity Measurements . . . 207
4.14 Determination of Sound Power Using Sound Pressure Measurements . . . 208
4.14.1 Measurement in Free or Semi-free Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.14.1.1 Measurement of Gas Turbine Exhaust Sound Power . . . 212
4.14.2 Measurement in a Diffuse Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.14.2.1 Substitution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.14.2.2 Absolute Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.14.3 Field Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.14.3.1 Semi-reverberant Field Measurements by Method One . 215
4.14.3.2 Semi-reverberant Field Measurements by Method Two . 216
4.14.3.3 Semi-reverberant Field Measurements by Method Three 217
4.14.3.4 Near–Field Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.15 Determination of Sound Power Using Surface Vibration Measurements . . 221
4.16 Some Uses of Sound Power Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.16.1 Far Free Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.16.2 Near Free Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5 Sound Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.2 Reflection and Transmission: Plane Interface between Two Different Media 225
5.2.1 Porous Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.2.2 Plane Wave Reflection and Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.2.3 Spherical Wave Reflection at a Plane Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.2.4 Effects of Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.3 Sound Propagation Outdoors – General Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.3.1 Geometrical Spreading, Adiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.3.2 Atmospheric Absorption, Aa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.3.3 Ground Effect, Ag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.3.4 Meteorological Effects, Amet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.3.4.1 Direct Calculation of the Sonic Gradient . . . . . . . . . 246
5.3.4.2 Indirect Calculation of the Sonic Gradient . . . . . . . . 249
5.3.4.3 Calculation of Ray Path Lengths and Propagation Times 255
5.3.4.4 Ground-Reflected Rays – Single Ground Reflection . . . 259
5.3.4.5 Ground-Reflected Rays – Multiple Ground Reflections . 259
5.3.4.6 Low-Level Jets (LLJs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
xii Contents

5.3.4.7 Meteorological Attenuation: Parkin and Scholes (1965) . 261

5.3.4.8 Attenuation in the Shadow Zone (Negative Sonic Gradient) 262
5.3.5 Barrier Effects, Ab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5.3.6 Diffraction at the Edge of a Thin Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5.3.7 Outdoor Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
5.3.7.1 Thick Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5.3.7.2 Shielding by Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
5.3.7.3 Effects of Wind and Temperature Gradients . . . . . . . 273
5.3.8 Miscellaneous Effects, Amisc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
5.3.9 Low-Frequency Noise and Infrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
5.4 Propagation Modelling Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
5.5 CONCAWE Noise Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.5.1 Geometrical Spreading, K1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.5.2 Atmospheric Absorption, K2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.5.3 Ground Effects, K3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.5.4 Meteorological Effects, K4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.5.5 Source Height Effects, K5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.5.6 Barrier Attenuation, K6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.5.7 In-Plant Screening, K7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.5.8 Vegetation Screening, Kv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.5.9 Limitations of the CONCAWE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.6 ISO 9613-2 (1996) Noise Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5.6.1 Ground Effects, Ag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.6.2 Meteorological Effects, Amet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.6.3 Barrier Attenuation, Ab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.6.4 Vegetation Screening, Af . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5.6.5 Effect of Reflections Other than Ground Reflections . . . . . . . . 286
5.6.6 Limitations of the ISO9613-2 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
5.7 NMPB-2008 Noise Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.7.1 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Ag+b . . . . . . 289
5.7.1.1 Mean Ground Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.7.1.2 Ground Effect with No Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
5.7.1.3 Ground Effect: Homogeneous Atmosphere, No Diffraction 291
5.7.1.4 Ground Effect: Downward Refraction, No Diffraction . . 291
5.7.1.5 Diffraction with No Ground Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
5.7.1.6 Diffraction with Ground Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.7.1.7 Vertical Edge Diffraction with Ground Effect . . . . . . 297
5.7.2 Reflections from Vertical Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.7.3 Limitations of the NMPB-2008 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
5.8 Harmonoise (2002) Noise Propagation Engineering Model . . . . . . . . . 298
5.8.1 Combination of Sound Waves from the Same Source . . . . . . . . 300
5.8.2 Coordinate Transformation for the Ground Profile . . . . . . . . . 302
5.8.3 Approximating Terrain Profiles by Straight Line Segments . . . . 303
5.8.4 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Ag+b . . . . . . 305
5.8.5 Excess Attenuation, Asc , Due to Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.8.5.1 Excess Attenuation, Asc,f , Due to Scattering through Trees 305
5.8.5.2 Excess Attenuation, Asc,t , Due to Atmospheric Turbulence 306
5.8.6 Excess Attenuation, Ar , Due to Reflection from a Façade or Building 306
5.8.7 Limitations of the Harmonoise Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
5.9 Required Input Data for the Various Propagation Models . . . . . . . . . 310
5.9.1 CONCAWE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Contents xiii

5.9.2 ISO9613-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

5.9.3 NMPB-2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
5.9.4 Harmonoise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
5.10 Propagation Model Prediction Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
5.10.1 Type A Standard Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
5.10.2 Type B Standard Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
5.10.3 Combining Standard Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
5.10.4 Expanded Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6 Sound in Enclosed Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.1.1 Wall-Interior Modal Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.1.2 Sabine Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.1.3 Flat and Long Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.2 Low Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.2.1 Rectangular Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.2.2 Cylindrical Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
6.3 Boundary between Low-Frequency and High-Frequency Behaviour . . . . 322
6.3.1 Modal Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
6.3.2 Modal Damping and Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.3.3 Modal Overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.3.4 Crossover Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.4 High Frequencies, Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.4.1 Effective Intensity in a Diffuse Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.4.2 Energy Absorption at Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
6.4.3 Air Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
6.4.4 Steady-State Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.5 Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
6.5.1 Classical Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
6.5.2 Modal Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
6.5.3 Empirical Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
6.5.4 Mean Free Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.6 Measurement of the Room Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.6.1 Reference Sound Source Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
6.6.2 Reverberation Time Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
6.7 Porous Sound Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
6.7.1 Measurement of Absorption Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
6.7.2 Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.7.3 Porous Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.7.4 Porous Liners with Perforated Panel Facings . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.7.5 Sound Absorption Coefficients of Materials in Combination . . . . 342
6.8 Panel Sound Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
6.8.1 Empirical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
6.8.2 Analytical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6.9 Flat and Long Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.9.1 Flat Room with Specularly Reflecting Floor and Ceiling . . . . . 348
6.9.2 Flat Room with Diffusely Reflecting Floor and Ceiling . . . . . . 350
6.9.3 Flat Room with Specularly and Diffusely Reflecting Boundaries . 353
6.9.4 Long Room with Specularly Reflecting Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.9.5 Long Room: Circular Cross Section, Diffusely Reflecting Wall . . 357
6.9.6 Long Room with Rectangular Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.10 Applications of Sound Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
xiv Contents

6.10.1 Relative Importance of the Reverberant Field . . . . . . . . . . . 359

6.10.2 Reverberation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
7 Partitions, Enclosures and Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.2 Sound Transmission through Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
7.2.1 Bending Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
7.2.2 Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
7.2.2.1 Single Number Ratings for Transmission Loss of Partitions 370
7.2.3 Impact Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
7.2.3.1 Additional Impact Sound Isolation Rating Procedure . . 375
7.2.4 Panel Transmission Loss (or Sound Reduction Index) Estimates . 375
7.2.4.1 Sharp’s Prediction Scheme for Isotropic Panels . . . . . 379
7.2.4.2 Davy’s Prediction Scheme for Isotropic Panels . . . . . . 382
7.2.4.3 EN12354-1 (2000) Prediction Scheme for Isotropic Panels 383
7.2.4.4 Thickness Correction for Isotropic Panels . . . . . . . . . 383
7.2.4.5 Orthotropic Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
7.2.5 Sandwich Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
7.2.6 Double Wall Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
7.2.6.1 Sharp Model for Double Wall TL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
7.2.6.2 Davy Model for Double Wall TL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
7.2.6.3 Model from EN12354-1 (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
7.2.6.4 Stud Spacing Effect in Walls with Wooden Studs . . . . 394
7.2.6.5 Staggered Studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
7.2.6.6 Panel Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
7.2.6.7 Effect of Cavity Material Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . 395
7.2.6.8 Multi-leaf and Composite Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
7.2.6.9 TL Properties of Some Common Stud Wall Constructions 396
7.2.7 Triple Wall Sound Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
7.2.8 Common Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
7.2.9 Sound-Absorptive Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
7.3 Noise Reduction vs Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
7.3.1 Combined Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
7.3.2 Flanking Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
7.4 Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
7.4.1 Noise Inside Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
7.4.2 Noise Outside Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
7.4.3 Personnel Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
7.4.4 Enclosure Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
7.4.5 Enclosure Leakages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
7.4.6 Enclosure Access and Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
7.4.7 Enclosure Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
7.4.8 Enclosure Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
7.4.9 Close-Fitting Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
7.4.10 Partial Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
7.4.11 Indoor Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
7.5 Pipe Lagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
7.5.1 Porous Material Lagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
7.5.2 Impermeable Jacket and Porous Blanket Lagging . . . . . . . . . 420
8 Muffling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
8.2 Measures of Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Contents xv

8.3 Design for a Required Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

8.4 Diffusers as Muffling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
8.5 Classification of Muffling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
8.6 Acoustic Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
8.7 Lumped Element Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
8.7.1 Impedance of an Orifice or a Short Narrow Duct . . . . . . . . . . 430
8.7.1.1 End Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
8.7.1.2 Acoustic Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
8.7.2 Impedance of a Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
8.8 Reactive Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
8.8.1 Acoustical Analogues of Kirchhoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
8.8.2 Side Branch Resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
8.8.2.1 End Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
8.8.2.2 Quality Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
8.8.2.3 Insertion Loss Due to Side Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
8.8.2.4 Transmission Loss Due to Side Branch . . . . . . . . . . 443
8.8.3 Resonator Mufflers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
8.8.4 Expansion Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
8.8.4.1 Insertion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
8.8.4.2 Transmission Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
8.8.5 Small Engine Exhaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
8.8.6 Low-pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
8.9 4-Pole Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
8.9.1 Acoustic Performance Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
8.9.2 4-Pole Matrices of Various Acoustic Elements . . . . . . . . . . . 462
8.9.3 Straight Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
8.9.4 Quarter-Wavelength Tube (QWT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
8.9.5 Helmholtz Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
8.9.6 Sudden Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
8.9.7 Simple Expansion Chamber (SEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
8.9.8 Double-Tuned Expansion Chamber (DTEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
8.9.9 Concentric Tube Resonator (CTR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
8.9.10 Exhaust Gas Temperature Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
8.9.11 Source and Termination Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
8.10 Lined Duct Attenuation of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
8.10.1 Locally-Reacting and Bulk-Reacting Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
8.10.2 Liner Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
8.10.3 Lined Duct Mufflers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
8.10.3.1 Flow Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
8.10.3.2 Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
8.10.3.3 Higher Order Mode Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
8.10.4 Cross-Sectional Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
8.10.5 Splitter Mufflers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
8.11 Insertion Loss of Duct Bends or Elbows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
8.12 Insertion Loss of Unlined Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
8.13 Effect of Duct End Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
8.14 Pressure Loss Calculations for Muffling Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
8.14.1 Pressure Losses Due to Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
8.14.2 Dynamic Pressure Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
8.14.3 Splitter Muffler Pressure Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
8.14.4 Circular Muffler Pressure Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
xvi Contents

8.14.5 Staggered Splitter Pressure Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

8.15 Flow-Generated Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
8.15.1 Straight, Unlined Air Duct Noise Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
8.15.2 Mitred Bend Noise Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
8.15.3 Splitter Muffler Self-Noise Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
8.15.4 Exhaust Stack Pin Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
8.15.5 Self-Noise Generation of Air Conditioning System Elements . . . 512
8.16 Duct Break-Out Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
8.16.1 Break-Out Sound Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
8.16.2 Break-In Sound Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
8.17 Lined Plenum Attenuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
8.17.1 Wells’ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
8.17.2 ASHRAE (2015) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
8.17.3 More Complex Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
8.18 Water Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
8.19 Directivity of Exhaust Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
8.19.1 Effect of Exhaust Gas Temperature on Directivity . . . . . . . . . 525
8.19.2 Effect of Wind on Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
9 Vibration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
9.2 Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
9.2.1 Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
9.2.1.1 Surging in Coil Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
9.2.2 Four-Isolator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
9.2.3 Two-Stage Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
9.2.4 Practical Considerations for Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
9.2.4.1 Effect of Stiffness of Equipment Mounted on Isolators . . 542
9.2.4.2 Effect of Stiffness of Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
9.2.4.3 Superimposed Loads on Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
9.3 Types of Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
9.3.1 Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
9.3.2 Metal Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
9.3.3 Cork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
9.3.4 Felt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
9.3.5 Air Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
9.4 Vibration Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
9.5 Vibration Neutralisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
9.6 Vibration Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
9.6.1 Acceleration Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
9.6.1.1 Sources of Measurement Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
9.6.1.2 Sources of Error in the Measurement of Transients . . . 553
9.6.1.3 Accelerometer Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
9.6.1.4 Accelerometer Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
9.6.1.5 Piezoresistive Accelerometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
9.6.2 Velocity Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
9.6.3 Laser Vibrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
9.6.4 Instrumentation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
9.6.5 Units of Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
9.7 Damping of Vibrating Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
9.7.1 Damping Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
9.7.2 When Damping is Effective and Ineffective . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Contents xvii

9.8 Measurement of Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

10 Sound Power and Sound Pressure Level Estimation Procedures . . . 563
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
10.2 Fan Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
10.3 Air Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
10.3.1 Small Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
10.3.2 Large Compressors (Noise Levels within the Inlet and Exit Piping) 568
10.3.2.1 Centrifugal Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
10.3.2.2 Rotary or Axial Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
10.3.2.3 Reciprocating Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
10.3.3 Large Compressors (Exterior Noise Levels) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
10.3.3.1 Rotary and Reciprocating Compressors . . . . . . . . . . 571
10.3.3.2 Centrifugal Compressors (Casing Noise) . . . . . . . . . 571
10.3.3.3 Centrifugal Compressors (Unmuffled Air Inlet Noise) . . 571
10.4 Compressors for Chillers and Refrigeration Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
10.5 Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
10.6 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
10.7 Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
10.7.1 General Estimation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
10.7.2 Gas and Steam Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
10.7.3 General Jet Noise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
10.8 Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
10.8.1 Internal Sound Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
10.8.2 Internal Sound Pressure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
10.8.3 External Sound Pressure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
10.8.4 High Exit Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
10.8.5 Control Valve Noise Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
10.8.6 Control Valves for Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
10.8.7 Control Valves for Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
10.9 Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
10.10 Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
10.11 Gas and Steam Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
10.12 Reciprocating Piston Engines (Diesel or Gas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
10.12.1 Exhaust Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
10.12.2 Casing Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
10.12.3 Inlet Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
10.13 Furnace Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
10.14 Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
10.14.1 Small Electric Motors (below 300 kW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
10.14.2 Large Electric Motors (above 300 kW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
10.15 Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
10.16 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
10.17 Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
10.18 Large Wind Turbines (Rated Power Greater than or Equal to 2 MW) . . 601
10.19 Transportation Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
10.19.1 Road Traffic Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
10.19.1.1 CNOSSOS Model (European Commission) . . . . . . . . 602
10.19.1.2 UK DoT model (CoRTN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
10.19.1.3 United States FHWA Traffic Noise Model (TNM) . . . . 611
10.19.1.4 Other Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
10.19.1.5 Accuracy of Traffic Noise Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
xviii Contents

10.19.2 Rail Traffic Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

10.19.2.1 Nordic Prediction Model (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
10.19.2.2 European Commission Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
10.19.2.3 UK Department of Transport Model . . . . . . . . . . . 626
10.19.3 Aircraft Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
11 Practical Numerical Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
11.2 Low-Frequency Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
11.2.1 Helmholtz Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
11.2.2 Boundary element method (BEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
11.2.2.1 Direct Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
11.2.2.2 Indirect Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
11.2.2.3 Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
11.2.2.4 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
11.2.3 Rayleigh Integral Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
11.2.4 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
11.2.4.1 Pressure Formulated Acoustic Elements . . . . . . . . . 649
11.2.4.2 Practical Aspects of Modelling Acoustic Systems with FEA 651
11.2.5 Numerical Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
11.2.6 Modal Coupling Using MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
11.2.6.1 Acoustic Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
11.3 High-Frequency Region: Statistical Energy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
11.3.1 Coupling Loss Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
11.3.2 Amplitude Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
12 Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
12.2 Digital Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
12.2.1 Octave and 1/3-Octave Filter Rise Times and Settling Times . . . 671
12.3 Advanced Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
12.3.1 Auto Power Spectrum and Power Spectral Density . . . . . . . . 675
12.3.2 Linear Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
12.3.3 Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
12.3.4 Windowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
12.3.4.1 Amplitude Scaling to Compensate for Window Effects . 682
12.3.4.2 Window Function Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
12.3.4.3 Power Correction and RMS Calculation . . . . . . . . . 686
12.3.5 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
12.3.6 Overlap Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
12.3.7 Zero Padding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
12.3.8 Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
12.3.9 Time Synchronous Averaging and Synchronous Sampling . . . . . 689
12.3.10 Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
12.3.11 Cross-Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
12.3.12 Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
12.3.13 Coherent Output Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
12.3.14 Frequency Response (or Transfer) Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
12.3.15 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
12.3.16 Auto-Correlation and Cross-Correlation Functions . . . . . . . . . 698
12.3.17 Maximum Length Sequence (MLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
A Review of Relevant Linear Matrix Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
A.1 Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication by a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Contents xix

A.2 Multiplication of Matrices . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
A.3 Matrix Transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
A.4 Matrix Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
A.5 Rank of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
A.6 Positive and Nonnegative Definite Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
A.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
A.8 Orthogonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
A.9 Matrix Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
A.10 Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
B Wave Equation Derivation . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
B.1 Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
B.2 Euler’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
B.3 Equation of State . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
B.4 Wave Equation (Linearised) . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
C Properties of Materials and Gases . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
D Acoustical Properties of Porous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
D.1 Flow Resistance and Flow Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
D.2 Parameters for Characterising Sound Propagation in Porous Media . . . . 726
D.3 Sound Reduction Due to Propagation through a Porous Material . . . . . 727
D.4 Measurement of Absorption Coefficients of Porous Materials . . . . . . . . 729
D.4.1 Measurement Using the Moving Microphone Method . . . . . . . 729
D.4.2 Measurement Using the 2-Microphone Method . . . . . . . . . . . 736
D.4.3 Measurement Using the 4-Microphone Method . . . . . . . . . . . 738
D.5 Calculation of Absorption Coefficients of Porous Materials . . . . . . . . . 743
D.5.1 Porous Materials with a Backing Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
D.5.2 Multiple Layers of Porous Liner Backed by an Impedance . . . . . 744
D.5.3 Porous Liner Covered with a Limp Impervious Layer . . . . . . . 744
D.5.4 Porous Liner Covered with a Perforated Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . 745
D.5.5 Porous Liner with a Limp Impervious Layer and a Perforated Sheet 745
E Calculation of Diffraction and Ground Effects for the Harmonoise
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
E.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
E.2 Diffraction Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
E.3 Ground Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
E.3.1 Concave Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
E.3.2 Transition Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
E.4 Fresnel Zone for Reflection from a Ground Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
F Files Available for Use with This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
F.1 Table of Files for Use with This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
 Preface to the First Edition

This book grew out of a perceived need for a textbook on engineering noise control suitable for
use in an undergraduate or postgraduate course in Engineering or Applied Physics and which, at
the same time, would be useful as a practical yet rigorous and up-to-date reference for practising
engineers, architects and acoustical consultants.
Preliminary versions of this volume have been used for the past eight years as a basis of an
engineering noise control course for final year Mechanical Engineering students at the University
of Adelaide, and also for short courses on industrial noise control for practising engineers and
industrial design personnel.
The book begins with an introduction to terminology and basic concepts of acoustic wave
description and propagation. Included is a discussion of acoustical flow resistance, a simple but
fundamental property of porous materials which is basic to the understanding of a variety of
acoustical phenomena. Use is made of previously unpublished algorithms and flow resistance
information to calculate accurately properties of porous sound absorbing materials.
A discussion of the ear, the subject of Chapter 2, is used as a basis for the understanding
of such matters as acoustical masking and hearing damage due to excessive noise exposure. A
practical guide to instrumentation follows in Chapter 3. Microphone calibration is considered
in some detail and similarities between the microphone and the ear, in the perception of the
aural field, are pointed out. Criteria which always form the basis for a noise control solution
are considered in Chapter 4. Particular care has been given to the discussion of ambient level
specification for spaces where a number of different methods of specification are commonly
encountered in practice. A review of long accepted data is used to show that hearing loss due
to noise exposure is related to the integral of pressure, which is expressed in this book in terms
of a hearing deterioration index (HDI), and not the integral of energy (pressure squared), as
universally assumed and implemented in legislation throughout Europe and Australia.
In Chapter 5 a variety of commonly used idealised sources are briefly but comprehensively
considered. This information provides the basis for source identification; it also provides the
basis for understanding active (that is, noise-cancelling) control techniques. Also included is a
comprehensive discussion of outdoor sound propagation. The concept of flow resistance as applied
to ground reflection has only recently been recognised in the literature and is incorporated in
the discussion.
The importance of the internal impedance of sound sources is emphasised and discussed in
the first part of Chapter 6. This is followed by a consideration of the radiation field of sources,
its significance, and criteria for identification of the field. In particular, source directivity as
a far field phenomenon is emphasised and carefully defined. The remainder of this chapter is
concerned with the many methods of laboratory and field measurement of source sound power
and the uses of such information.
In Chapter 7 the elements of sound fields in enclosed spaces are considered. Some effort is
expended in establishing that rooms of any shape will exhibit modal response; use of splayed
walls or odd shaped rooms will not change the basic room behaviour. The point is also made
that the traditional description of the sound field in terms of sound absorption, being a property
of the wall treatment, is a gross simplification which makes tractable an otherwise very difficult
problem, but at the expense of precision. Within the limitations of the analysis the optimisation
of reverberation control is discussed.
In the discussion of barriers and enclosures of Chapter 8, new procedures are provided for
estimating sound transmission loss of single and double panel wall constructions. Similarly new
procedures are provided for investigating diffraction around barriers located either out-of-doors
xxii Preface

or indoors where wall and ceiling reflections must be taken into account. While these discussions
are based upon published literature, such sources are generally not understandable except to the
specialist, so that the authors have made a special effort to put the information into simple and
usable textbook form.
Muffling devices are considered in Chapter 9. Simple new procedures for estimating expected
attenuation of lined ducts of both rectangular and circular cross section are presented. These
procedures are based upon exact analyses and make use of the algorithms introduced in Chapter
1 and presented in an appendix for describing accurately the acoustical properties of porous
materials in terms of flow resistance. The analysis of insertion loss for the commonly used side
branch resonator, low pass filter and small engine exhaust muffler has been prepared especially for
this book. Results are given in terms of insertion loss for various types of source and termination,
thus providing an estimate of the expected difference in noise level obtained before and after
insertion of the muffler. This analysis is much more useful than the commonly used transmission
loss analysis which gives no indication of insertion loss. Consideration is also given to both flow
noise generation and pressure drop. Exhaust duct directivity information is new and is based
upon previously unreported model studies.
Chapter 10 is concerned with vibration control from the point of view of noise suppression.
Vibration isolation and the use of vibration absorbers are discussed in detail. The concepts of
resonant and nonresonant vibration modes, and how they contribute to sound radiation, are
discussed with reference to the appropriate use of vibration damping material. Semi-empirical
prediction schemes for estimating the sound power radiated by a number of commonly encoun-
tered industrial noise sources are presented in Chapter 11.
The book concludes with Chapter 12 in which several recently developed analytical techniques
for the estimation of radiated sound power of complex structures are reviewed.
Problems suitable for students using the text are included in Appendix A. Appendix B lists
important properties of a number of materials. The final three appendices are concerned with
the measurement and prediction of the statistical absorption coefficients and normal acoustic
impedances of constructions commonly used for sound absorption.
Where possible, references are given within the text to books, reports and technical papers
which may provide the reader with a more detailed treatment of their subject matter than is
possible here. The reference list at the end of the book is intended as a first source for further
reading and is by no means claimed to be comprehensive; thus, omission of a reference is not
intended as a reflection on its value.
We have spent considerable effort in the elimination of errors in the text but in the event
that more are found we will be grateful for notification from our readers.

David A. Bies
Colin H. Hansen
 Preface to the Fourth Edition

Although this fourth edition follows the same basic style and format as the first, second and third
editions, the content has been considerably updated and expanded, yet again. This is partly in
response to significant advances in the practice of acoustics and in the associated technology
during the six years since the third edition and partly in response to improvements, corrections,
suggestions and queries raised by various practitioners and students. The major additions are
outlined below. However, there are many other minor additions and corrections that have been
made to the text but which are not specifically identified here.
The emphasis of this edition is purely on passive means of noise control and the chapter
on active noise control that appeared in the second and third editions has been replaced with
a chapter on practical numerical acoustics, where it is shown how free, open source software
can be used to solve some difficult acoustics problems, which are too complex for theoretical
analysis. The removal of Chapter 12 on active noise control is partly due to lack of space and
partly because a more comprehensive and a more useful treatment is available in the book,
Understanding Active Noise Cancellation by Colin H. Hansen.
Chapter 1 includes updated material on the speed of sound in compliant ducts and the entire
section on speed of sound has been rewritten with a more unified treatment of solids, liquids and
gases.
Chapter 2 has been updated to include some recent discoveries regarding the mechanism of
hearing damage.
Chapter 3 has been considerably updated and expanded to include a discussion of expected
measurement precision and errors using the various forms of instrumentation, as well as a dis-
cussion of more advanced instrumentation for noise source localisation using near field acoustic
holography and beamforming. The discussion on spectrum analysers and recording equipment
has been completely rewritten to reflect more modern instrumentation.
In Chapter 4, the section on evaluation of environmental noise has been updated and rewrit-
ten.
Additions in Chapter 5 include a better definition of incoming solar radiation for enabling the
excess attenuation due to meteorological influences to be determined. Many parts of Section 5.11
on outdoor sound propagation have been rewritten in an attempt to clarify some ambiguities in
the third edition. The treatment of a vibrating sphere dipole source has also been considerably
expanded.
In Chapter 7, the section on speech intelligibility in auditoria has been considerably expanded
and includes some guidance on the design of sound reinforcement systems. In the low frequency
analysis of sound fields, cylindrical rooms are now included in addition to rectangular rooms.
The section on the measurement of the room constant has been expanded and explained more
clearly. In the section on auditoria, a discussion of the optimum reverberation time in classrooms
has now been included.
In Chapter 8, the discussion on STC and weighted sound reduction index has been revised.
The prediction scheme for estimating the transmission loss of single isotropic panels has been
extended to low frequencies in the resonance and stiffness controlled ranges and the Davy method
for estimating the Transmission Loss of double panel walls has been completely revised and
corrected. The discussion now explains how to calculate the TL of multi-leaf and composite
panels. Multi-leaf panels are described as those made up of different layers (or leaves) of the same
material connected together in various ways whereas composite panels are described as those
made up of two leaves of different materials bonded rigidly together. A procedure to calculate
the transmission loss of very narrow slits such as found around doors with weather seals has
xxiv Preface

also been added. A section on the calculation of flanking transmission has now been included
with details provided for the calculation of flanking transmission via suspended ceilings. The
section on calculating the Insertion Loss of barriers according to ISO9613-2 has been rewritten
to more clearly reflect the intention of the standard. In addition, expressions are now provided
for calculating the path lengths for sound diffracted around the ends of a barrier.
Chapter 9 has had a number of additions: Transmission Loss calculations (in addition to
Insertion Loss calculations) for side branch resonators and expansion chambers; a much more
detailed and accurate analysis of Helmholtz resonators, including better estimates for the effective
length of the neck; an expanded discussion of higher order mode propagation, with expressions
for modal cut-on frequencies of circular section ducts; a number of new models for calculating the
Transmission Loss of plenum chambers; and a more detailed treatment of directivity of exhaust
stacks.
In Chapter 10, the effect of the mass of the spring on the resonance frequency of isolated
systems has been included in addition to the inclusion of a discussion of the surge phenomenon
in coil springs. The treatment of vibration absorbers has been revised and expanded to include a
discussion of vibration neutralisers, and plots of performance of various configurations are pro-
vided. The treatment of two-stage vibration isolation has been expanded and non-dimensional
plots provided to allow estimation of the effect of various parameters on the isolation perfor-
mance.
Chapter 11 remains unchanged and Chapter 12 has been replaced with Chapter 13, where
the previous content of Chapter 13 now serves as an introduction to a much expanded chapter
on practical numerical acoustics written by Dr Carl Howard. This chapter covers the analysis
of complex acoustics problems using boundary element analysis, finite element analysis and
MATLAB R . Emphasis is not on the theoretical aspects of these analyses but rather on the
practical application of various software packages including a free open source boundary element
package.
Appendix A, which in the first edition contained example problems, has been replaced
with a simple derivation of the wave equation. A comprehensive selection of example prob-
lems tailored especially for the book are now available on the internet for no charge at:
http://www.causalsystems.com.
Appendix B has been updated and considerably expanded with many more materials and
their properties covered.
In Appendix C, the discussion of flow resistance measurement using an impedance tube
has been expanded and clarified. Expressions for the acoustic impedance of porous fibreglass
and rockwool materials have been extended to include polyester fibrous materials and plastic
foams. The impedance expressions towards the end of Appendix C now include a discussion of
multi-layered materials.
 Preface to the Fifth Edition

The fifth edition of the book has been thoroughly updated and reorganised. It also contains a
considerable amount of new material. We have tried to keep the book as a suitable text for later
undergraduate and graduate students, while at the same time extending content that will make
the book more useful to acoustical consultants and noise control engineers.
Chapter 1 now has a section on the Doppler shift caused by moving sources and receivers as
well as a section on amplitude modulation and amplitude variation to complement the section
on beating.
Chapter 2 is now a combination of Chapters 2 and 4 of the earlier editions. It made sense
to us to combine the description of the ear, hearing response and loudness with criteria. New
measures for quantifying noise have been included as well as a section on low-frequency loudness
and the response of the hearing mechanism to infrasound. The discussion on weighting networks
has been extended to the G-weighting and Z-weighting networks and the frequency range covered
by weighting networks has been extended at the low end to 0.25 Hz.
Chapter 3 is now an updated version of what was in Chapter 3 in earlier editions. It has
been updated to reflect current digital instrumentation and current methods of data acquisition
and recording.
Chapter 4 has been rearranged so that it only includes the sound source descriptions that
were in Chapter 5 of earlier editions and it now includes sound power estimation schemes for
various sources that were previously considered in a separate Chapter 6 of the previous editions.
The new Chapter 5 is entirely devoted to outdoor sound propagation. The chapter has
been rearranged to first discuss principles underlying outdoor sound propagation calculations
(including infrasound propagation) and second to discuss the various sound propagation models
that are currently in use, with particular emphasis on the new model to be used by the European
Union and the detailed Harmonoise model. The required input data for each model and the
limitations of each model are also discussed. Finally a section is dedicated to uncertainty analysis
as we believe that it is very important that any noise level predictions are presented with an
associated uncertainty.
Chapter 6 on room acoustics and sound absorption is similar in content to Chapter 7 in
previous editions except that auditorium acoustics has been excluded, as there was insufficient
space available to do justice to such a complex topic that has been the sole subject of a number
of other excellent books.
Chapter 7 (Chapter 8 in previous editions) on sound transmission loss calculations and
enclosure design has been updated to reflect recent advances in Davy’s prediction model for
double panel walls and a more accurate model on the inclusion of the flexibility of connecting
studs. In addition, the European model (EN12354-1) for sound transmission loss calculations
has been included as well as a section on the effects of various stud spacings on the sound
transmission loss of double panel walls.
Chapter 8, which was Chapter 9 in previous editions, has been extended to include an
expanded treatment of the calculation of the insertion loss for splitter silencers in both circular
and rectangular section ducts, as well as an expanded treatment of pressure loss due to flow
through lined ducts and splitter silencers. The self-noise produced by silencers is now discussed in
more detail and procedures are now provided for its estimation. Noise generated by flow through
silencers is now discussed in more detail, including a discussion of pin noise in gas turbine
exhausts. Calculation procedures are provided for the estimation of noise generated by flow
through silencers and past pins holding on heat insulating material. The treatment of exhaust
stack directivity in previous editions did not mention the effects of exhaust stack temperature.
xxvi Preface

In this edition, a qualitative description is provided of how exhaust stack temperature may be
taken into account. Finally a section, with a number of examples, has been added on 4-pole
analysis, which is an excellent technique for the analysis of sound propagation through duct and
muffler systems.
In Chapter 9, which was Chapter 10 in previous editions, the treatment of vibration absorbers
has been expanded; otherwise, not much else has changed from the fourth edition.
The Chapter 10 (Chapter 11 in previous editions) sections on fan noise and transportation
noise have been updated. In particular, the sections on the calculation of train noise and road
traffic noise have been extended and a number of models in current use have been described in
detail.
Chapter 11, which was Chapter 12 in the fourth edition, has been updated, but the content
has not changed much from the fourth edition.
Chapter 12 is a new chapter concerned entirely with frequency analysis. It is a very much
expanded version of Appendix D in previous editions. This material, which was partly covered
in an Appendix in previous editions, is an important part of understanding noise and vibration
problems and, as such, it deserves a chapter of its own.
Appendix A is new and has been included to provide the background material on matrix
algebra needed to fully appreciate the 4-pole material in Chapter 8 and the acoustic material
property measurement procedures in Appendix D.
Appendices A and B of the fourth edition are now Appendices B and C in this edition.
Appendix D (which was Appendix C in the fourth edition) has been updated with a description
of the two-microphone method for measuring the normal incidence absorption coefficient and
the normal impedance over a wide frequency range in a very short measurement time.
Appendix E is new and includes background material needed to appreciate the material
on the Harmonoise propagation model in Chapter 5. This appendix includes explanations of
how the Fresnel weighting coefficient for ground reflected waves, as well as the effects of ground
reflections and barriers on sound propagation, may be calculated.

Colin H. Hansen
Carl Q. Howard

May, 2017
 Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all of those who took the time to offer constructive criticisms of the first,
second, third and fourth editions, our graduate students and the many final year mechanical
engineering students at the University of Adelaide who have used the first, second, third and
fourth editions as texts in their engineering acoustics course. The second and third authors would
like to sincerely thank the first author’s daughter Carrie for her support in enabling this fifth
edition to be completed without her father who sadly passed away on April 6, 2015.
The second author would like to express his deep appreciation to his family, particularly his
wife Susan and daughters Kristy and Laura for the patience and support which was freely given
during the many years of nights and weekends that were needed to complete this edition.
The third author would particularly like to thank his family, Nicole, Natalie, and Sarah,
for their unwavering support and encouragement with the writing of this edition of the book.
He would also like to thank Kurt Heutschi, Mats Åbom, Hans Bodén, Sheryl Grace, George
Johnson, Michael Todd, See Yenn Chong, and Murray Hodgson, for hosting the third author at
their universities whilst writing this book.
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