Applied Physics- II (Page 1 )

Course title: Applied Physics II (Practical)

Course code: DPH271
Category: Basic Science Course
___________________________________________________________________________

List of Experiments
1. To draw I-D curve and to determine the refractive index of the material of a prism.
2. To find equivalent resistance using voltmeter with I. Three resistances connected in series II. Three
resistances connected in parallel
3. To determine the refractive index of the material of the glass slab by pin method.
4. To determine the focal length of a convex lens by U-V method.
5. To observe the variation of potential difference (V) across a given resistance(R) by
changing Current (I) through it. Hence draw I-V graph and verify Ohm's law.
6. Place a bar magnet in the magnetic Meridian and draw the lines of force with
(i)North-pole painting towards the north direction (ii) South-pole pointing towards the north
direction
7. To find resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence determine the resistivity (specific
resistance) of its material.
8. To study reflection and image formatting by a plane mirror using pin method.
9. To find the focal length of a convex lens by the plane mirror method.
10. To locate the poles of a bar magnet and measure its magnetic length.
Applied Physics- II (Page 2 )
 Applied Physics- II (Page 3 )

Experiment No.1
Aim. To draw I-D curve and to determine the refractive index (RI) of the material of a prism.
Apparatus: (i) Glass Prism, (ii) a large sheet of white paper (iii) Long Pin (iv) protractor and (v) Drawing Board
Description of the apparatus
Prism: Any transparent medium bounded by two plane
surfaces meeting at an angle is called prism.
The two plane surfaces are called the refracting surfaces and
angle between them, the angle of the prism.
It has five surfaces; but only two of them are used for
refraction. The portion over which the prism rests is called the
base.
Diagrammatically, it is represented by a triangle as shown in
the figure.
An equilateral prism has three sides of equal dimensions and
the angle each= 60o (<P = <Q = <R = 60o)

Theory:
Deviation: The angle between the incident ray OB,
and the emergent ray CE is called the deviation of the
corresponding ray.
It is obtained by producing the incident ray forward and the emergent ray backward straight line.
The deviation of a ray depends on the angles of incidence. This fact is utilised to draw an i-D curve for the
given prism, for different values of the incident angle.

Minimum deviation (Dm): when a ray of light passes through a prism in such a way that the angle of
incidence i= the angle of emergent, then the deviation produced is minimum (Dm).
The RI for the material of the prism is given by the formula.

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴+𝐷𝑚 )/2
µ= sin 𝐴/2
o
where A= angle of the prism= 60 in this case * and Dm angle of minimum deviation determined from the
I - D curve.
With A = 60o, the formula simply reduces to
µ= 2 sin (60o + Dm)/2
Procedure:
1. The sheet of paper is fixed on the drawing board and fixe outlines of the prism are draw, at different
places. Sufficient space is left between the subsequent outlines for drawing of the deferent rays and
angles etc.
2. At each line representing the left face of the prism, any point B is taken and normal to PQ at this
point is drawn on each outline.
Then by using the protractor, the angles of incidence, starting from 35o at the first and increasing to
40o, 45o, 50o, 55o and 60o respectively for the others are drawn.
3. Now place the prism at the first outline. It should exactly fit the outline.
4. Put one pin at B and one at O. identify them with small circles.
5. Look through the opposite face. The two images will be seen toward the base of the prism.
6. Keeping track of this line of the two images, put the third pin at C, so that there is no parallax
amongst the images of B and O, and the pin C.
7. Now, keep track of this line and put the fourth pin at E, so that this time, there is no parallax amongst
the images of the pins O and B and the pin at C and the pin at E. Identify the positions at C and E
through small circle. This completed observation for the first angle of incidence, 35o .
8. Remove the prism. Draw the rays, produce the incident and the emergent ray backward to obtain the
deviation. Measure this by a protractor. This completes one observation for the First Angle of
incidence.
 Applied Physics- II (Page 4 )

9. Repeat the process for the other five as well, one by one. Be sure to remove parallax for better result.
10. A graph is draw by plotting <i along X- axis and < D along Y axis. The value of Dm is found out
from the graph
Experimental data
1. A= 60o (given)
Table for i- D curve
No. of <i µ= 2 sin
D (o) Dm from graph
Obs. (o) (A+ Dm)/2
1. 35o
2. 40o
3. 45o
4. 50o
5. 55o
6. 60o

Refractive Index(µ) = 2sin (60+ Dm)/2

= …. ῁ (upto 2 decimal)

Precautions
1. The prism should be put on the exact outline.
2. Readings should be finalized only when parallax is
removed.
3. In order to get better graph, number of readings in
and around the minimum deviation should be more.
4. All points may not lie on the curve. A free- hand curve should be draw as per statistical method.

***
 Applied Physics- II (Page 5 )

Experiment No.2
Aim: To find equivalent resistance using voltmeter with I. Three resistances connected in series II. Three
resistances connected in parallel.

Materials Requirements: Three (unknown) resistors, a rheostat, a voltmeter, an ammeter,

Theory:

When two or more resistors are connected in such a way that one end of one resistance is connected
to the starting end of the other, then the circuit is called Series Circuit.
[Grab your reader’s attention with a great quote from the
document or use this space to emphasize a key point. To place this
text box anywhere on the page, just drag it.]
Similarly, if the starting ends of two resistors are joined to a
point, and the terminal ends of the two are combined and
given connection to a source of electricity, those circuits are
called Parallel Circuit.
Unlike in the series circuit, the current in each branch of a
parallel circuit will be different. If one branch is broken,
current will continue flowing to the other branches.
At our homes all the electronic appliances are connected in
parallel with each other. This means they all get the full mains
voltage, so that we can turn on the TV without having to turn
on the microwave as well. Figure 1. Series connection (R1, R2 & R3)
Electrical resistance shows how much energy we need when
you move the charges/current through your devices. If you need
lots of energy, then the resistance required is also high. That is,
property of a conductor to oppose the flow of charges through it is
called its resistance.
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑉)
𝑅=
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝐼)
𝑉
It is measured as resistance 𝑅=
𝐼
All metals are good conductors so all metal wires have a relatively low
resistance.Finally, resistance of a piece of wire depends on its
temperature also. The higher the temperature the higher is the
resistance.
Figure 2. Parallel connection (R1, R2 & R3)
PROCEDURE:

1. Select the voltmeter and the Ammeter of suitable range. Note the least count and zero error of the
voltmeter and the ammeter.
2. In the first step, connect the voltmeter across resistance R1. Put the plug in the key and adjust the
rheostat to obtain a desired current in the ammeter.
3. Obtain five sets of such readings for different currents.
4. Then repeat step (2) for R2 and R3.
5. Finally connect the voltmeter across the resistors R1, R2 and R3. Here also obtain five sets of reading
as above.

Calculating the effective equivalent e/total resistance of parallel circuits:

Given three resistors, R1 and R2 & R3 in parallel, the equivalent resistance,
1 1 1 1
Req. is:𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅
𝑒𝑞 1 2 3
That is, for a set of parallel resistors, the reciprocal of their equivalent resistance equals the sum of
 Applied Physics- II (Page 6 )

the reciprocals of their individual resistances. Thus, resistance decreases in parallel combination.
A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so the current has only one path
to take. The current is the same through each resistor. The total resistance of the circuit is found by
simply adding up the resistance values of the individual resistors:
Equivalent resistance of resistors in series : Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

Observation Table:

For series connection

Step Ammeter Reading(I) Voltmeter Reading(V) 𝑉

Set of obs. Ohms
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected 𝐼
1.
For R1
2.
3.
1.
For R2 2.
3.
1.
For R3 2.
3.
For R1,R2 1.
& R3
connected
2.
together in
3.
series(Req.)

Observation Table:

For parallel connection

Ammeter Reading(I) Voltmeter Reading(V) 𝑉

Step Set of obs. Ohms
𝐼
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
For R1,R2 & 1.
R3 connected
together in 2.
parallel(Req.) 3.

Calculation:

1. R1, R2 & R3 and Req. both for Series and Parallel connection.

***
 Applied Physics- II (Page 7 )

Experiment No- 3
Aim: To determine the refractive index of the material of the glass slab by pin method.
Apparatus: i) Glass Slab, ii) Fixing Pin, iii) Long Pins 4, iv) a sheet of white paper, v) scale and protractor.

Theory: The refractive index, µ of glass with respect to air is define as the ratio,
µ= sin-i/ sin-r
where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of reflection.
From above, it is seen that, µ can be determined from the slope of a graph with sin-I plotted y axis and sin-r
plotted among x- axis. The graph will be straight line passing through the origin.
Its slope will give µ

Procedure: -
1. The white paper is fixed on the drawing board
with the help of the fixing pins.
2. The glass slab is placed at the middle of the
paper and its outline is drawn.
3. Eye- estimate the normal and identify fie
different positions (A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 three on
one side of the normal and two on other) so that
5 different incident angle, varying almost regular
intervals, between around 15 to 70o may be
drawn.
4. Put a pin at the center (0) of the upper side of
the outline. This will indicate the point of
incidence for each of the five rays.
5. Put second pin A1. Look through the other
side of the glass slab. At one direction, the two
image (of the pin at 0 and that at A1) will appear
to be in the same line.
6. Keep trace of this line, and put the third pin at B1, just at the edge of the glass slab so that the images
of the first two pins and the third pin appear to be in the same straight line. Remove any parallax, through
eye- estimation. (the third pin will block the image of the first two pins, if there is no parallax. You can
be sure that way).
7. Now, keep trace of the same line and put the fourth pin at C1, removing parallax.
8. Identify the positions of the pin at A1, B1, C1 through small circles. One set observation is competing.
9. Exactly in the same way fix the at A2, B2, C2, A3, B3, C3, A4, B4, C4, A5, B5, C5, and identify these
points as well through small circles.
10. Now remove the glass slab and all long pins.
11. Draw N1 O normal at 0 to the upper outline. Joints A1 O, A2 O, A3 O, A4 O, A5 O; these are incident
rays. Joint OB1, OB2, OB3, OB4 and OB5 these are refracted rays. Joint B1C1, B2C2, B3C3, B4C4 and
B5C5 these are emergent rays.
12. The angles of incidences, <N1OA1, <N1OA2, <N1OA3, <N1OA4, and <N1OA5, are measured.
Similarly, the angles of refraction. <N2OB1, <N2OB2, <N2OB3, <N2OB4, and <N2OB5, are measured. Sine
of these angles are found out from long table.
13. A graph taking equal division on x and y axis values is plotted.
 Applied Physics- II (Page 8 )

Experimental data
Value of the lowest division of the protractor= ……o
Table for i and r
No. of Sin i Sin r Value of µ
< i (o) < r (o)
Obs. (y- axis) (x- axis) from graph
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The Graph Sinr is plotted along x-axis taking length of … divisions= … units
Sini is plotted along x axis taking the same units. The graph is a straight line
passing through the origin.

Calculation
A well- represented point P which lies exactly on the graph is taken and
marked with a small box. Its coordinates are noted.
X = sin r = …. y sin i = ……

⸫ Refractive Index(µ)= sin i /sin r = ……/ ………

= ……… (to first decimal only)
Precaution
1. Once the outline of the glass slab is drawn, the slab should not be removed till the completion of
experiment.
2. Pencil work for finding the rays and angles etc. for all the 5 observation should be done after
completing the experiment.
3. Parallax must be removed for each observation, while putting the third and the fourth pin.

***
 Applied Physics- II (Page 9 )

Experiment No- 4
Aim: To determine the focal length of a convex lens by U-V method.
Apparatus:
An optical bench with four upright

1. A convex lens with a lens focal length

2. A concave lens with a more focal length
3. Two lens holders
4. One thick and one thin optical needle
5. A knitting needle
6. A half-meter scale

Theory
We use the lens formula in this experiment to calculate the focal length of the concave lens:
𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢−𝑣
Where,

 f is the focal length of the concave lens L1

 u is the distance of I from the optical Centre of the lens L2
 v is the distance of I’ from the optical centre of the lens L2.
From sign convention, the f obtained from the above formula will be negative as v > u and u – v is negative.
Ray Diagram
 Applied Physics- II (Page 10 )

Procedure
To determine the rough focal length of the convex lens

1. Place the convex lens on the lens holder.

2. Now face the lens towards a distant tree or building.
3. Obtain the image either on the white wall or on a screen and keep moving the lens either forward or
backwards till a sharp image is formed.
4. To determine the rough focal length of the lens, measure the distance between the lens and the
screen.

To set the convex lens

1. Place the lens on the holder with fixed upright such that the upright is kept at 50 cm mark.
2. The lens should be placed in such a way that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of
the optical bench.
3. The upright should be kept in this position throughout.

To set the object needle

1. Place the thin optical needle which is the object needle O near-zero end of the upright which is
moveable.
2. Place the object needle upright at a distance nearly 1.5 times the focal length of the lens.
3. The tip of the needle should be horizontal to the optical Centre of the lens.
4. Note the position of the index mark below the object needle upright.
5. To see an inverted and enlarged image of the object needle which is in the middle of the lens, close
the left eye and see with a right eye open.
6. On the other end of the optical bench, place the image needle on the fourth upright.
7. The tip of the image needle should be in line with the image that is seen with the right eye.
8. To see the parallax, move the eye towards the right. The image needle and object needle are no
longer in line.
9. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
10. Note the position of the index mark at the base of the image needle upright.
11. Record the position of the index marks.
12. Now place the concave lens holder on the I side of the convex lens.
13. The upright and convex lens should be placed at a distance from each other.
14. The concave lens should be placed such that it coincides with the principal axes.

To set the image needle at I’

Repeat steps 4 and 5.
To get more observations

1. Repeat the experiment by moving the object needle towards the lens by 2cm.
2. Repeat the experiment by moving the object needle away from the lens by 2cm.
3. Record all the observations.

Observations
The rough focal length of a convex lens = ……….
The actual length of the knitting needle, x = ………
Observed distance between the concave lens and image = …….
Needle when knitting needle is placed between them, y = …….
Index correction for u as well as v, x – y = …….
 Applied Physics- II (Page 11 )

Table for u, v and f

Position of Observed Corrected
𝑓
Sl. 𝑢𝑣
O L1 at L2 at I’ u= v= =
no I in u in v in 𝑢−𝑣
in O1 in O2 in in IO2 in I’O2 in in cm
cm cm cm
cm cm cm cm cm cm

1. f1=

2. f2=

3. f3=

Calculations

1. To find observed u by finding the difference of position of L2 and I.

2. To find observed v by finding the difference of position of L2 and I’.
3. Corrected values of u and v are obtained by applying index correction.

Calculate
𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢−𝑣

Finding the mean of f

Mean f=f1+f2+f3

Result
The focal length of the given concave lens = ……. cm

Precautions
1. The lens must be clean.
2. The focal length of the convex lens should be lesser than the concave lens.
3. For u and v index correction should be applied.
4. To obtain a real and inverted image, the needle should be kept at a certain distance.
5. To avoid parallax, a distance of at least 30 cm should be maintained between the tip of the needle
and eye.

Sources of Error

1. Vertical uprights might not be used.

2. The removal of parallax might not be perfect.

***
 Applied Physics- II (Page 12 )

Experiment No- 5
Aim:
To observe the variation of potential difference (V) across a given resistance(R) by
changing Current (I) through it. Hence draw I-V graph and verify Ohm's law.
Apparatus required :
Given unknown resistance, Ammeter, Vol meter, Rheostat, Battery. Joining wires and sand paper
Theory:
Ohm's law: Temperature remaining constant, the amount of Current (l) passing through a resistance(R)
is proportional to the potential difference (V) across the resistance: i.e.

IαV
I
=> I = V
R
=> V= IR
Hence. if V is plotted along Y-axis and I along X-
axis. the graph will be straight line passing
through the origin.
The slope of the graph will give the value of the
unknown resistance.
Procedure:
1. The ends of all the joining wires are leaned
by rubbing with sand paper. The wires are
coiled around a pencil. These are now ready
for connection.
2. The ammeter and the voltmeter are
checked. The positive terminal of the
ammeter is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and the negative one
to the negative terminal of the battery
3. The points on the circuits are identified properly and connections are made
accordingly.
4. The rheostat is adjusted to give zero current. the voltmeters should also then
read zero.
5. Adjust the rheostat in small bits, so that small increase in current and voltage are recorded by the
ammeter and the voltmeter.
6. Take such 5 to 6 readings, adjusting the rheostat in small steps.
7. Repeat the process from this last reading by decreasing current in equal steps,
as was done in case of increasing.
8. Calculate the average value of I and V from readings of increasing and decreasing.

EXPERIMENTAL DATA:

Least count of ammeter used = ……………

Least count of voltmeter used =…………….
 Applied Physics- II (Page 13 )

Table for Current and Voltage

Sl Current(l) Voltage (V)

no. Mean(V)
Mean(l)
in Volts
Increasin2 Decreasing Increasing Decreasing

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Drawing of graph:

The values of Current (I) is plotted along abscissa and

voltage (V) along ordinate; we obtain a straight line passing
through the origin. Hence Ohm’s law verify.
Any point P is taken on the straight line (other than
obtained from table) and the corresponding value of' current
and voltage are noted for this point (P).

Calculation

The value of unknown resistance is calculated by the formula

𝐕 𝐏𝐐
R= 𝐈 = ( From the graph)= …………… ohm.
𝐎𝐐

Precautions and Discussions:

All precautions in case of' electrical experiments as enumerated are to be followed.
Key should be closed only when readings are taken.
If the key is closed for long time, the resistance changes due to heating.
4. If the temperature is not constant; Ohm's law will be invalid.

***
 Applied Physics- II (Page 14 )

Experiment No- 6
Aim: Place a bar magnet in the magnetic Meridian and draw the lines of force with
(i)North-pole painting towards the north direction (ii) South-pole pointing towards the north direction
Apparatus: l) bar Magnet ii) a sheet white paper iii) drawing board and four fixing pin iv) compass
needle

Working Formula:
the magnetic mapping is done by means of magnetic lines of force. A magnetic lines of force is the
path of an isolated unit N-pole in a magnetic field, the tangent at any point of which given the direction of
the resultant magnetic fields.
The two fields concerned here are: one, the field of the bar magnet and the other, the earth’s memetic
field.
The lines of force of earth's magnetic field are assumed to run from geographic south to geographic
north. Those due to the bar magnet run from magnetic north to magnetic south i.e. just opposite in direction
to those of the lines of force.
Hence. there is a possibility of these two fields neutralising each other. Such a point, where the two
fields are neutralised is called a neutral point.
For any position of the magnet, there are two such neutral points, symmetrically on both the Sides of
the magnet.
For N-poles o l' the magnet pointing the geographic north, the neutral point lies on the perpendicular
bisector to the length of the magnet pointing the geographic south, the
neutral point lie along the extended axis of the magnet at that position

Procedure
1. Place the drawing board on the table.
2. Fix a white paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins.
3. Draw a straight line in the middle of the paper and place the compass needle on the line.
4. adjust position of the drawing board on the table till ends of the magnetic needle coincide with the

line
5. Mark N on the line on the side of the north pole of the needle and S on the side of South pole.
6. Place the bar magnet along the line with its north pole on the side of N and its south pole on the
side of S.
7. Mark boundary of the drawing board with the help of chalk and that of bar magnet with help of
pencil.
8. Place the compass needle near the North Pole (N) of the bar magnet and mark its two ends,
9. Move the compass away from its position in such away that its south pole comes over the mark
representing position of north pole of the needle.

.
 Applied Physics- II (Page 15 )

Experimental data/ Result

1. The neutral point is on the perpendicular bisector of the magnetic axis at a distance = ………cm.
from the centre.
2. The natural point is on the extended magnetic axis at a distance of ………. cm. from the centre of
the magnet.
3. The pattern of magnetic lines of force is obtained on the piece of paper.

***
 Applied Physics- II (Page 16 )

Experiment No- 7
Aim :- To find resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence determine the resistivity (specific
resistance) of its material.

Apparatus
1. A meter bridge
2. A Leclanche cell (battery eliminator)
3. A galvanometer
4. A resistance box
5. A jockey
6. A one-way key
7. A resistance wire
8. A screw gauge
9. A meter scale
10. A set square
11. Connecting wires
12. A piece of sandpaper
Theory
Meter bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the wooden block and consists of a
long wire with a uniform cross-sectional area. It has two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make
the Wheatstone’s bridge.
Then according to Wheatstone’s principle, we have:
XR=l(100−l)
The unknown resistance can be calculated as:
X=Rl(100−l)
Then the specific resistance of the material of the is calculated as:
ρ=πr2XL
Where,
 L is the length of the wire
 r is the radius of the wire
Circuit Diagram

Procedure
1. The arrangement of the apparatus
should be as shown in the circuit
diagram.
2. The wire whose resistance is to be
determined should be connected in the
right gap between C and B without any
formation of loops.
3. The resistance box should be connected
in the left gap between A and B.
4. All the other connections should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Plug the key K in place of 2-ohm resistance in the resistance box.
6. The jockey should be first touched gently to the left end and then to the right end of the bridge.
7. The deflections in the galvanometer should be in opposite directions and if it is in one direction then
the circuit connections are not correct. Note the galvanometer deflection.
8. Let D be the null point where the jockey is touching the wire. The movement of the jokey should be
gentle from left to the right of the galvanometer.
9. Take a 12 value from the resistance box should be taken such that when the jockey is nearly in the
middle of the wire, there shouldn’t be any deflection.
10. Note the position of D to know the length of AD = l.
 Applied Physics- II (Page 17 )

11. Four sets of observations should be taken by changing the value of 12.
12. Record the observations in a tabular form.
13. Stretch the resistance wire to find its length using a meter scale.
14. Using screw gauge measure the diameter of the wire at four different places keeping it in a mutually
perpendicular direction.
15. Record the observations in the table.

Observations
Length of given wire L =…….cm
Table for unknown resistance (X)

No. Known resistance Balance Point Unknown Resistance Mean Resistance

𝑋 +𝑋 +𝑋
Obs. R(Ohm) l(cm) 100-l(cm) 𝑋 = 𝑅𝑙 (ohm) 𝑋 = 1 2 3 Ohm
3
(100−𝑙)
1
2
3

Least count of the screw gauge

Pitch of screw gauge = …….mm
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale = ………...
∴ L.C of the given screw gauge = pitch no. of division the circular scale = ……mm
Zero error e = ……mm
Zero correction c = -e = ……mm

Table for diameter (D) of the wire

Sl.no Linear scale Circular scale reading Total reading N +

division N (cm) n × (L.C)
No. of divisions on Value n × d (cm)
reference line (n) (L.C) (cm)

1. d1=
d2=
2. d3=
d4=
3. d5=
d6=

Calculations
Calculation for X:
The value of l is determined from the position of D and recorded in column 3 of table 1.
Find length (100 – l) cm and write in column 4.
Calculate X and write in column 5,
Mean X=X1+X2+X3+X4=……ohm
Calculation for D:
Mean corrected diameter = ……mm=….cm
 Applied Physics- II (Page 18 )

Calculation for specific resistance:

Specific resistance of the material of the given wire,
𝑥𝜋𝐷 2
ρ= 4𝐿 =…...ohm cm=……ohm m
Standard value of the specific resistance of the material of the given wire,
ρ0 = …...ohm. m
Percentage error = ………%

Result
1. The value of unknown resistance X = …….
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = ………
3. Percentage error = …….

Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.
2. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
3. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn’t be rubbed.
4. The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. The null point should be between 45cm and 55cm.
6. To avoid the error of parallax, the set square should be used to note the null point.
7. There shouldn’t be any loops in the wire.
8. The diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions that are mutual.
Sources of Error
1. The screws of the instrument might be loose.
2. The wire might be of non-uniform diameter.
3. There might be backlash error in the screw gauge.

****
 Applied Physics- II (Page 19 )

Experiment No- 8
Aim: - To study reflection and image formatting by a plane mirror using pin method.

Alternative aim: - Trace the reflection rays for 5 different incident rays using a plane mirror. Measure the
angle of incidence and corresponding angles of reflection and locate the position of the virtual image formed
by the mirror.
Apparatus: i) Drawing Board, ii) plane mirror mounted), iii) a large sheet of white paper, iv) fixing pins
v) long pins and vi) scale and protractor.

Theory:
A vertical image, equal in size to the object is formed by a plane mirror as per the following laws of
reflections.

Laws of reflection. Note the reflecting surface.

I. The incident ray, the reflection ray and the normal drawn at the point of incidence to the reflecting
surface lie on the same plane.
II. The angle of incidence, < i is equal to the angle of reflecton, < r.
Thus the virtual image formed is as far behind the mirror as it is in front of it, i.e. an object
distance = image distance.
For thick mirror, the actual plane mirror of reflection is neither at the front face nor at the back
face; it is at about 1/3rd of the thickness from the back surface.
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Procedure:
1. The sheet of paper is fixed on the drawing board by help of the fixing pins.
2. The mirror with the stand is put vertically on the middle of paper and its outline is sharply drawn.
The outline should exactly conform to the exact thickness of the mirror.
3. A large pin is put at A in front of the mirror. The position is noted carefully through a small circle.
4. Another pin is fixed at B1, so that the line joining AB1 is inclined to the plane mirror.
AB1 now represent the incident ray.
5. Through eye- estimation, determine the angle of incidence and the probable angle of reflection. This
can be done by looking for combined images of A and B1, among O1 B1, along O1 B2. At this
position, the two images of A and B1 will appear to be the same.
6. Now place the pin B2 in such a position so that the combined images of A and B1, and the pin B2 lie
on the same straight line.
7. Now put the another pin B3 on the same line as above. This time, the pin B3 should block the
combined images A and B1 and pin B2. If all these (i.e. the two images, pin B2 and B3) lie in one
line, then the pin B3 will block all the other three.
8. Identify the position of B1, B2, B3 through the small circles and remove these three pins (Don’t
remove A).
Here AB1 is the incident ray and B2 B3 the reflected ray.
9. Imagine a line through B1 parallel to the mirror front. Now, at certain distances from B1, put another
pin at C1 and repeat the process 6 with similar precautions.
10. Imagine a line through B2 parallel to the mirror front, and place another pin C2 along this following
procedure 7.
11. Identify the pins through small circle. Here AC1 is the incident ray and C2 C3 the reflected ray.
12. Exactly in the same way, and with the same precautions, locate D1, E1, F1 and D2, E2, F2 (E, F points
are not shown in the diagram). Identify them with small circle on each occasion.
13. Now remove the pin A and plane mirror with stand.
14. Joint and extend the rays in pairs.

AB1 B2 B3
AC1 C2 C3
AD1 D2 D3
AE1 E2 E3
AF1 F2 F3
These pairs will intersect consequently at five different points (O1, O2, O3, O4, O5) and these points
will lie on straight line. Draw the line. This represents the reflecting plane of the mirror, and it is
about 1/3rd of the thickness from the back.
Extend the reflected rays backwards with dotted line. They meet at the point I. This is the image
of A.
Place arrow marks on the rays as shown.
Measure u and v as shown in the figure.
Angle measurement:
Draw normal at O1, O2, O3, O4, O5. Measure the incident angles (AO1N1) and the reflected angles
(N1O1B3) and tabulate them. Similar measurements for the other four incident and reflected angles
are also made.
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Experimental Data
1. Minimum angles that can be measured by the protractor = ……o
2. Minimum distance that can be measured by the scale = ……. cm.

No. Angle of Angle of Object Image

of incidence reflection Remarks distance distance Remarks
Obs. <io <ro u cm v cm
1.

2.
<io=<ro
Object distance =
3. Law II is
Image distance
verify
4.

5.

Precautions:
1. Parallax must be removed for each observation. While putting the third and fourth pin.
2. Rays draw should be fine; thick rays may not produce points of intersections lying on the same
straight line.
3. For thin mirror, the plane of reflection cannot be obtained as indicated here. The points of
intersection may then, appear to lie on the back surface only.
4. Light used here is the daylight (white).

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 Applied Physics- II (Page 22 )

Experiment No- 9
AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by the plane mirror method.

APPARATUS: Optical bench, plane mirror, object pin, meter scale and holders

Background knowledge:
When an object is placed at the focus F of a convex lens, the emerging light would be
parallel to the principal axis. If a plane mirror placed on the other side of the lens as shown
in Fig. A, the rays reflected by the plane mirror would follow the original path and the final
image would occur at the same position as the object. The distance between the object
and the lens gives the focal length of the convex lens. An object placed beyond F from the
lens would produce a real image. In the experiment, you will capture the real image of an
illuminated object on a screen. Suppose the object distance is u and the image distance is
v. They are related by the lens formula:
1 1 1
= + ....... (1), all the quantities being positive.
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
A plot of 1/v against 1/u will give a straight line which has a slope of –1 as shown in
Fig. C. The intercepts on the horizontal and vertical axes are the same. By taking the
reciprocal of the intercept, the focal length can be determined

Fig. D

PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the plane mirror, convex lens and object pin with help of holder on the optical bench as
shown in the figure and align them properly with the help of a meter scale.
2. Fix the position of the plane mirror at one end of the optical bench. Now put the convex lens at
20cm distance from the plane mirror and locate the position of image behind the convex lens in a
way to have no parallax between the image and object pin.
3. Record the position of the plane mirror, convex lens and the object pin. Keep the distance
between the plane mirror and convex lens as 30cm, 40cm… for other set of the readings
4. The distance between the convex lens and object pin is the focal length of the convex lens.
 Applied Physics- II (Page 23 )

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Range of meter scale ____________cm
2. Least count of meter scale ________cm

Sr. Position of mirror Position of convex Position of Focal length Mean focal length
No. (cm) lens object pin (cm) (cm)
(cm) ( cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

RESULT:
Focal length of the given Convex lens ___________ cm.

PRECAUTIONS: -
a. The plane mirror, convex lens and object should be aligned properly.
b. Parallax has to be removed between object and image before taking the reading.
c. Midpoint of the mirror, optical centre of the convex lens and the top of the object pin should
be at the same vertical height.

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 Applied Physics- II (Page 24 )

Experiment No 10
Aim: To locate the poles of a bar magnet and measure its magnetic length.
Alternative aim: to locate the poles of a bar magnet and measure its magnet length. Calculate the ratio of
the magnetic length to its geometrically length.
Apparatus: i) A long bar magnet, ii) compass needle, iii) Drawing Board, iv) Four fixing pins v) A large
sheet of white paper vi) Thread
Theory:
Magnetic meridian: It is an infinite plane, containing the magnetic north pole and magnetic south pole
of the earth and place of observation.
A freely suspended magnet always lies on this plane.
The thread tied to the two tops of the pins on stands is used to represent the magnetic meridian at the place
of observation.
Poles: These are the two region (point) where the force of attraction or repulsion of a magnet is the
ma..imum. They lie inside the magnet around the two ends.
The distance between the poles is called the magnetic length.
The geometric length is the actual length of the magnet measure end to end.
Lines of forces: Magnetic mapping is done with the help of lines of force.
A line of force in a magnetic field is the path traversed by an isolated unit N-pole, the tangent at any point
of which given the direction of the resultant magnetic field.
Since an isolated unit n- pole can’t be obtained in reality, a small compass needle is used to draw the lines
of force.
For good magnets the ratio of magnetic length to geometric length is about 0.85. This means that for a
magnet of geometric length 100 cm., the distance between the poles is 85 cm. Thus each pole is at about 7.5
cm. from the end inside the magnet.
Required ratio= Distance the pole/ Distance between two ends of the magnet.

Procedure:
1. The white paper is fixed on the drawing board. All magnet and magnetic substance are remove
from working table.
2. The thread is tied on the pins. It is ready to represent the magnetic meridian at the laboratory.
3. The compass needle is placed on the sheet of paper. It will point to the magnetic north and south of
the earth. It will be lie on the magnetic meridian of the place.
The thread is placed over the compass needle, the two stands put the sufficient distance from the
board.
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The thread is now adjusted is such a way as to make it lie in line with the compass needle direction.
Looking from above, the thread should lie on the same vertical plane as that of the needle.
4. The needle is removed and the bar magnet is placed on the sheet of paper. Its outline is drawn.
5. Near one of the end of the bar magnet, the compass needle is placed (position 1). The needle shows
a particular direction.
Now rotate the board, without displacing the stand of the thread., so that the small magnet of the
compass needle lies on the same vertical plane of the thread.
The two end of the needle is marked with pencil dots and the outline of the compass is drawn.
Joining these dots, we will get a line of force.
6. The above process is repeated for four more points around the end of the bar magnet.
7. Similar operation is carried out for five positions around the other end.
8. Lines of forces are drawn by joining the pair of dots for each of the ten positions.
9. Five of them will intersect at one point, the other five at another.
These points of intersection are the poles.
The poles are identified and marked.
This completed one set of observation.
Thus with similar procedure one more set is obtained.
Experimental Data
No. of Magnetic length Mean magnetic
Obs. NS cm. length
1.
2.

Experimental Data (for alternative aim)

No. of Magnetic length Geometric Ratio Mean

Remark
Obs. NS cm. length L cm. NS/ L Ratio
1.
2.

Precaution
1. The bar magnet should be above 12 cm. For smaller magnets, the result may be different.
2. Number of lines of force for each pole should not be less than five.
3. All lines of force should intersect at one point. If any of these do not pass through it, the same should
be repeated. The defect might be such that during rotation of the board, the meridian position might
have been changed.
4. Sometime, marking the two end of the compass needle may also be defective. A sharp pencil should
be used for making.
5. Magnetic meridian should be determining accurately. Presence of any magnet on magnetic substance
nearby, during this process, will affect the result

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