KGS 2022-2023 Maham Jamal

Research Methods: Handout 1

Types of Experiments
An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an experiment, an independent variable
(the cause) is manipulated, and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured; any extraneous variables are controlled.

Definition Strengths Weaknesses

Lab These take place in • It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) • The artificiality of the setting may
controlled environment or a a laboratory experiment. This is produce unnatural behavior that does not
situation which is artificial to because a standardized procedure reflect real life, i.e. low ecological
the participants in the study is used. Researchers can be sure validity. This means it would not be
i.e conducted under highly that it is the IV effecting the DV. possible to generalize the findings to a
controlled conditions (not real-life setting.
necessarily a laboratory), • They allow for precise control of • Demand characteristics or experimenter
where accurate extraneous and independent effects may bias the results and become
measurements are possible. variables. This allows a cause and confounding variables.
Sometimes participants may effect relationship to be • More likely to lack mundane realism
not know the aim of the established. because most experiments ask
experiment participants to carry out tasks that have
nothing to do with real life situations.

Field Field experiments are done in Behavior in a field experiment is more There is less control over extraneous variables that
the everyday (i.e. real life) likely to reflect real life because of its might bias the results. This makes it difficult for
environment of the natural setting, i.e. higher ecological another researcher to replicate the study in exactly
participants. The validity than a lab experiment. the same way.
experimenter still There is less likelihood of demand
manipulates the independent characteristics affecting the results, as They are conducted in a less controlled setting,
variable and measures the participants may not know they are being implying the risk of low internal validity and
DV but in a real-life setting. studied. This occurs when the study is reliability and potential ethical issues.
covert.

Natural Natural experiments are Behavior in a natural experiment is more They may be more expensive and time consuming
(Quasi) conducted in the everyday likely to reflect real life because of its than lab experiments.
(i.e. real life) environment of natural setting, i.e. very high ecological There is no control over extraneous variables that
the participants, but here the validity. might bias the results. This makes it difficult for
experimenter has no control There is less likelihood of demand another researcher to replicate the study in exactly
over the independent variable characteristics affecting the results, as the same way.
as it occurs naturally in real participants may not know they are being
life. studied.
Can be used in situations in which it would
be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the
independent variable, e.g. researching
stress.

Activity 1:

The participants may be aware of the experiment’s aims and how the researcher expects them to act, which may influence their behaviours. This
is called _____________________

A _______experiment does not necessarily need to be conducted in a laboratory. Any well-setting is fine.

Extraneous and confounding variables are well-controlled in lab experiments compared to field experiments. Lab experiments are in an
____________ setting and field experiments in a ________________ setting.

What is the advantage of conducting lab experiments in a controlled setting? Can prevent _________________/ _________________ variables
from influencing the results.

Standardised procedures make it easier for other researchers to research.

Why may other researchers replicate a previous study? To establish ___________

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Lab experiments are used to establish relationships.

The aim of lab experiments is to identify if observed changes in the are caused by the .

Is it difficult to generalise results from lab experiments to real-life settings? YES/NO

In lab experiments, participants are aware they are being investigated; this can lead to ______________________

Demand characteristics lower the ___________ of the research.

True or false: there is more likelihood of demand characteristics influencing lab experiments than field experiments.

A researcher wanted to explore how driving conditions affected speeding. ____________ would be the most effective type of experiment to
conduct.

A researcher wanted to explore if sleep deprivation affected cognitive abilities. _____________experiment is most likely to be used.

____________________________is the extent to which materials in a lab experiments are similar to events in real life.

Replication: is a term referring to the repetition of a research study, generally with different situations and different
subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be applied to other participants and circumstances.

Standardisation: Implies keeping everything the same for all participants so that investigation is fair. For example, consider
the instructions that are given to the participants. In order to ensure that all the participants get precisely the same
instructions, the experimenter should write them down.

Ecological Validity: How true the experiment is to real life. Ecological validity is the degree to which the behaviours
observed and recorded in a study reflect the behaviours that occur in natural settings.

Generalisability: In addition, ecological validity is associated with “generalisability”. Essentially this is the extent to which
findings (from a study) can be generalised (or extended) to the real “real world”/different set of participants or different
situations.

Informed consent: Informed consent is the permission human participants give prior to taking part in a research study or
treatment program. When participants provide informed consent, they indicate that they understand participation is voluntary
and they accept the possible risks, benefits and outcomes of participating. (Ethical issue)

Deception: In psychological research studies deception refers to misleading or tricking participants about the purpose or
direction of the study. This is an important component of research in that if participants know what the experiment is about
then the results can possibly be influenced such as when participant bias occurs therefore deception is necessary in some
cases but must be followed by “debriefing”. (Ethical issue)

Participant bias: Occurs when individuals involved in an experiment act or respond in a biased manner or in ways they
believe correspond with what the researchers desire.The participant is not behaving how they normally would but are
responding the way they think would please the researcher. This is closely tied with the social desirability bias.

Extraneous Variables: variables other than the IV that may effect the DV. These must be controlled as much as possible.
Once they have acted on the DV, they are called confounding variables which make results less valid. The four types are:

• Situational Variables: Variables (other than the IV) from the setting which may affect the DV.
• Participant variables: variables (other than the IV) about the participants (e.g. IQ levels) which may have an
effect on the DV.
• Demand Characteristics: Sometimes during an experiment, a participant might pick up on some clue from the
researcher, the situation, or something about the experiment that gives the participant an idea of what type of
response the researcher is looking for. This doesn't mean that the participant is right, just that something makes
them act in a way that they think is what the researcher wants and not necessarily in their normal manner. Demand
characteristics can change the outcome of an experiment because participants will often alter their behaviour to
conform to expectations.

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• Experimenter bias: the experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave (through his
actions/dressing/mannerisms etc)

Experimental Design

Definition Strengths Weaknesses

Independent This is when the participant takes part in Avoids order effects (such as More people are needed than with the
Measures Design only one level of the IV. If the IV is practice or fatigue) as people repeated measures design (i.e., more
naturally occurring, then the researcher participate in one condition only. time consuming).
must use this type of design. In a true IMD, If a person is involved in several
participants are allocated randomly so that conditions, they may become Differences between participants in the
each participant has an equal chance of bored, tired and fed up by the time groups may affect results, for example,
being allocated to any level of the IV. they come to the second condition, variations in age, gender or social
or become wise to the background. These differences are
requirements of the experiment! known as participant variables (i.e., a
type of extraneous variable)

Repeated This is when the participant takes part in all Fewer people are needed as they There may be order effects.
Measures Design levels of the IV. This cannot be used if the take part in all conditions (i.e. Performance in the second condition
IV is naturally occurring (e.g. the same saves time). As the same may be better because the participants
participant could not have been a tsunami participants are used in each know what to do (i.e. practice effect).
victim in one trial and a non-tsunami victim condition, participant variables Or their performance might be worse in
in the next trial) (i.e., individual differences) are the second condition because they are
reduced. tired (i.e. fatigue effect). This limitation
can be controlled using
counterbalancing.

Repeated Each condition uses different but similar Reduces participant variables Very time-consuming trying to find
Measures Design participants. An effort is made to match the because the researcher has tried to closely matched pairs.
participants in each condition in terms of pair up the participants so that
any important characteristics which might each condition has people with Impossible to match people exactly,
affect performance, e.g. gender, age, similar abilities and characteristics. unless identical twins!
intelligence etc.
Avoids order effects, and so If one participant drops (subject
One member of each matched pair must be counterbalancing is not necessary. attrition) you lose two participants’
randomly assigned to the experimental data.
group and the other to the control group.

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Order effects: refer to the order of the conditions having an effect on the participants' behavior. Placing conditions in a
different order may change results. (practice effect and fatigue effects)

Counterbalancing: Suppose we used a repeated measures design in which all the participants first learned words in 'loud
noise' and then learned it in 'no noise'. We would expect the participants to show better learning in 'no noise’ simply because
of order effects, such as practice. However, a researcher can control for order effects using counterbalancing. The sample
would split into two groups, experimental (A)and control(B). For example, group 1 does ‘A’ then ‘B’, group 2 does ‘B’ then
‘A’ this is to eliminate order effects. Order effects occur for each participant, but because they occur equally in both groups,
they balance each other out in the results.

Hypothesis: Predicts the findings of a study and is also written before it is run. An experimental hypothesis always contains
both the IV and the DV. There are typically three types of hypotheses:

1. Directional (one-tailed): predicts a significant difference as well as the direction of the correlational findings. E.g
there will be a positive correlation between the amount of hours spent revising for A-levels and the final grade.
2. Non-directional (two-tailed): predicts that there will be a correlation but does not predict the direction it will take.
E.g. "There will be a difference in the number of words spelt correctly by males and females"
3. Null hypothesis: A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that says there is no statistical significance between the two
variables. This is usually what the researchers set out to disprove. E.g "any correlation between the amount of
hours spent studying for A-levels and the final grade is by chance and a coincidence.”

How to approach a study: What to look for?

1) Background: Previous research, what sparked this new research?

2) _________________is written before a study is run. It is a statement which tells what the purpose of the study is. It does
not predict the outcome of the study but rather states what the study is about.

3) : predicts the findings of a study and is also written before it is run. An experimental hypothesis
always contains both the IV and the DV.

4) Other variables eg. __________________________________________________________________

5) Procedure: (i) Methods: how it all unfolds (ii) Sample size/participant allocation methods (iii) Experimental design (iv)
Controls

6) Tasks: What were they assigned? Does that lead us to any ethical issues?

7) Results: Looking at results encourages learners to see how they relate to the aims of the study

8) Conclusion

9) Strengths and weaknesses according to each factor

10) Other things: types of data, data analysis, research tools and so on.

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