BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

BMOL20060
Biomolecular Laboratory Skills 1
Practical Introduction & Practical Manual 1
Amount (mole) Mass (gramme) Volume (litre) Concentration
(molar)=(amount/volume)
mol g L 1 M = 1 mol/L
mmol mg mL 1 mM = 1 mmol/L
μmol μg μL 1 μM = μmol/L
nmol ng nL 1 nM = nmol/L
pmol pg pL 1 pM = pmol/L
fmol fg fL 1fM = 1fmol/L

Relative value of SI unit prefixes:

SI unit M/L/g 1 1
milli mM/mL/mg 0.001 1x10-3
micro μM/μL/μg 0.000001 1x10-6
nano nM/pL/ng 0.000000001 1x10-9
pico pM/pL/pg 0.000000000001 1x10-12
femto fM/fL/fg 0.000000000000001 1x1015
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Module Practical’s

Practical 1: Basic Liquid Handling Skills and Calculations ......................................

Practical 2: pH and pKa Measurements .........................................................................
Practical 3: Introduction to Spectrophotometry ..............................................................
Practical 4: Serum protein analysis and ELISA ..............................................................
Practical 5: Alcoholic Fermentation in Yeast .................................................................
Practical 6: Trypsin activity in earthworms ....................................................................
Practical 7: Extraction of DNA from Wheat Germ .........................................................
Practical 8: Bacterial Transformation, Fluorescent Proteins and Bioluminescence .........
Practical 9: Isolation and analysis of plasmid DNA .......................................................
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Safety in Undergraduate Practical Classes

It is the policy of the School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science to safeguard the
health and safety of its undergraduate students during their practical classes.

To achieve this goal it aims to develop and maintain a culture supportive of health and
safety in the undergraduate laboratories.

Before commencing their first practical session in the O’Brien Science Centre
undergraduate laboratories, every student must familiarise their self with the locations of
all relevant fire exits, first aid boxes and emergency showers.

Any student with a health effect that may be adversely affected by working in the
laboratory, or that may affect their ability to carry out their practical work, should
consult in confidence with their academic supervisor.

All practical’s are devised to minimise, as far as reasonably practicable, the risks to
which the students are exposed. This includes minimising exposure to hazardous
chemicals, ensuring that all equipment complies with the correct standards of safety,
segregating any hazardous procedures, providing safety control measures (such as fume
cupboards) and requiring that personal protection equipment be used as appropriate.

IMPORTANT

Students may not attend practical’s without the appropriate personal protective
equipment (PPE) – i.e. lab coat. You MUST bring everything you need to each practical.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

General Laboratory Safety

1. All students must wear a clean white lab coat at all times in the laboratory, to
protect themselves and their clothing from contamination and spillages.

2. Safety glasses or over-glasses with side protection must be worn while doing bench work.

3. No unnecessary items, such as coats and bags, may be left on lab benches or on the
floor where they may cause others to trip. There are designated storage spaces
provided for coats and bags.

4. Eating and drinking are strictly forbidden. Students must not place anything in their
mouths and touching the face or hair should also be avoided while in the laboratory.

5. Disposable gloves are provided and should be worn during the practical. Gloves
may become contaminated with potentially hazardous chemicals or biological
materials during routine practical procedures. If so, they should be disposed of
immediately in a yellow waste bag and replaced with clean gloves. This will
prevent spreading the contaminant to people and surfaces within the laboratory.

6. Use of mobile phones is not permitted during the practical. Phones should not be
handled when wearing gloves or left out on the lab bench due to contamination
with potentially hazardous chemicals or biological materials.

7. Cuts should be covered with waterproof dressings.

8. Students should make note of any hazardous substances they will be using in the
course of each practical.

9. Work should always be done in a safety-conscious manner. Work areas should be

kept as clean and tidy as is practicable. All containers should be kept covered when
not in use. Good housekeeping is a vital element of good laboratory practice. Work
areas should be left tidy at the end of each practical.

10. Students should never use an item of equipment before receiving instruction in its
use and being aware of the hazards involved. Any specific notices attached to
individual pieces of equipment must be observed.

11. Students should inform their demonstrator of any fault in electrical or electronic
equipment. No student should attempt to use or repair faulty equipment. A
competent person must carry out any repairs that are required.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

12. Students should familiarise themselves with the different types of waste bins
provided and segregate their waste accordingly:

a) Waste paper and paper towelling to a green sack

b) Solid biological and chemical waste to a yellow sack
c) Sharps waste to a designated container or solid yellow box
d) Liquid biological and chemical waste to designated containers
e) Note: Some labs may have slightly different systems for dealing
with waste, so please familiarise yourself with the waste streams
available before conducting a practical.

13. All students must always wash their hands immediately when finished working in
the laboratory, and if they are leaving for a coffee-break, etc. White coats must
never be worn outside the laboratory.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Accidents or breakages in the laboratory

1. Any personal accidents, damage to equipment, or spillage of reagents must be reported
immediately to the demonstrator in charge.

2. Contamination of instruments or of bench top surfaces should be avoided.

3. Chemical spills should be cleaned up immediately and appropriately.

4. Broken glassware must be disposed of immediately in the appropriate sharps containers

provided.

5. Any splashes of reagents onto a student’s skin must be thoroughly rinsed with water
under a running tap and must be reported immediately to a demonstrator.

6. If a student gets a splash of a chemical into the eye, it must be held under running water
for several minutes at least. The demonstrator must be informed, so that further
appropriate action can be taken.

7. All accidents involving injury, however minor, to persons, damage to property or any
near miss that almost resulted in either must be reported on the official UCD incident
report forms by the demonstrator. Incident report forms can be obtained from the Safety
Officer.

8. Any student with a history of an allergic condition should advise their demonstrator and
appropriate personal protective equipment will be provided where necessary.

9. If a bench fire occurs, it must be reported immediately to the nearest demonstrator or

member of staff. No attempt should be made to extinguish the fire with water – this may
only cause it to spread.

10. If a large fire occurs or the evacuation alarm sounds, students must follow the directions
of the demonstrators or staff members present. They must not delay to take personal
belongings with them.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Chemical classification and labelling

Each chemical has a set of Hazard (H) and Precautionary (P) statements associated with it.
These are typically given in the form of an H or P code e.g. H319, P261. The codes indicate
the type of hazards associated with and precautions necessary when working with that
chemical. A full list of the codes and their meaning are supplied in the appendix of this
manual. The H and P statements replace an older system of Risk (R) and Safety (S) codes,
also in the appendix.

The following warning pictograms are part of a Globally Harmonized System (GHS) of
safety labels found on chemical containers. You should know what they mean. They replace a
similar set of pictograms (see below) which you may also come across and should be familiar
with.

New Pictograms

Old Pictograms
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Units of Amount, Mass, Volume and Concentration

Amount (mole) Mass (gramme) Volume (litre) Concentration (molar) Relative value of
= (amount/volume) unit prefixes
mol g L 1 M = 1 mol/L 1
mmol mg mL 1 mM = 1 mmol/L milli (m) 10-3
μmol μg μL 1 μM = μmol/L micro (μ) 10-6
nmol ng nL 1 nM = nmol/L nano (n) 10-9
pmol pg pL 1 pM = pmol/L pico (p) 10-12
fmol fg fL 1fM = 1fmol/L femto (f) 10-15

You can easily see that:

1 mol = 1000 mmol 1 g = 1000 mg 1 L = 1000 mL 1 M = 1000 mM

1 mmol = 1000 μmol 1 mg = 1000 μg 1 mL = 1000 μL 1 mM = 1000 μM
1 μmol = 1000 nmol 1 μg = 1000 ng 1 μL = 1000 nL 1 μM = 1000 nM

Alternatively

SI unit M/L/g 1 1
milli mM/mL/mg 0.001 1x10-3
micro μM/μL/μg 0.000001 1x10-6
nano nM/pL/ng 0.000000001 1x10-9
pico pM/pL/pg 0.000000000001 1x10-12
femto fM/fL/fg 0.000000000000001 1x1015
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Notes on Amount of a Substance

1 mole is the amount of substance that contains 6.02214 x1023 units of that substance (e.g. 1
mole of H2O contains 6.02214 x1023 molecules of H2O). The number 6.02214 x1023 is
referred to as Avogadro’s number and is denoted by the symbol NA. The number is used to
define a mole because 6.02214 x1023 atoms of any element is equal to its atomic mass in
grams (e.g. 1 mole of 12C {the isotope of carbon with 6 protons and 6 neutrons} is equal to
12g, and 1 mole of 1H has a mass of 1.008g {and atomic mass of 1.008 u}).

We don’t need to go into a detailed definition of atomic mass here, except to say that it is
very close to the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.

• Note: the unit symbol for mole is ‘mol’

The terms ‘molecular mass’, ‘molecular weight (MW)’ or ‘formula weight (FW)’ are all
used to describe the mass of a chemical, in grams, that gives 1 mole of that chemical (e.g. the
MW of H2O is 18.015). As another example, the formula weight of NaCl is 58.44, which is
equal to the mass of 1 mole of NaCl ‘molecules’ (strictly speaking NaCl crystals are not made
up of individual molecules but we can treat them as if they are when measuring amounts).

To add to the confusion, another term is sometimes also used; ‘relative molecular mass’
(Mr). This gives the mass of an individual molecule (as opposed to a mol of molecules) and
is usually given in atomic mass units (u) or Daltons (Da). The Mr of H2O is 18.015 Da.

• Note that the Mr of a substance is equal to the sum of the atomic masses of its
constituent atoms, in this case H = 1.008; O=15.999.

You can see that the Mr and MW of H2O have the same value but different units. This is
because of how the unit ‘mol’ is defined. The important point to remember is:

• Note: Mr, MW, or FW of a substance is equivalent to the mass in grams of 1 mol of

the substance (g/mol).

Notes on Concentration – Molarity (Amount/Volume)

Concentrations are usually given as amount per volume e.g. 1 M (pronounced ‘1 molar’) or as
mass per volume e.g. 1 g/L (litre can be represented by the upper case ‘L’ or the lower case
‘l’, the latter is generally used with a prefix e.g. ‘ml’ or ‘µl’).

The concentration of smaller molecules like buffers and salts are usually given in Molar
concentrations (M). So for example a 1 M solution of NaCl contains 1 mol of NaCl per litre
of solution. Unless stated otherwise the solution is assumed to be aqueous, i.e. the liquid
(solvent) used to dissolve the NaCl (solute) is water.

• Note: Solution = Solute + Solvent

If a solution contains several solutes at different concentrations the concentration of each

must be stated explicitly e.g. a 100mM Tris 50mM NaCl solution.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Another point to note is the use of square brackets to indicate Molar (M) concentration in
equations

e.g. [A] = molar concentration of A

or pH = -log10 [H+] (in this case [H+] = the molar concentration of hydrogen ions)

Note on Concentration – Mass/Volume

The concentration of larger macromolecules, like proteins and DNA, are frequently given in
units of mass per volume (e.g. 1 mg/mL or 5 ng/µL). This is because when working with
protein or DNA, you may have a mixture of molecules of different MW, or the exact MW
may be unknown. Also, these molecules have large MW values so, at the concentrations
typically used, their molar concentrations would be inconveniently small. However, you will
find situations where molar concentrations of protein or DNA solutions are more appropriate
to use.

• Note: a concentration of 1 g/L = 1 mg/mL = 1µg/1µL = 1ng/nL etc.

This is because you are changing the numerator and the denominator by the same amount.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Notes on Concentration – Percentage (%)

Solutions are homogenous mixtures containing one or more solutes in a solvent. The solvent
that makes up most of the solution, whereas a solute is the substance that is dissolved in the
solvent.

Concentrations are often expresses in terms of relative unites (e.g. percentages).

This is best explained through example:

1% (w/v) NaCl solution = 1 g NaCl per 100 mL solution

15% (w/v) NaCl solution = 15 g NaCl per 100 mL solution

• Note: the ‘(w/v)’ symbol indicates ‘weight per volume’ (i.e. weight of solute per
volume of solution).

You can also have a % ‘volume of solute/volume of solution (v/v) concentration or a %

‘weight of solute/weight of solution (w/w) concentration e.g.

4% (v/v) ethanol solution = 4 mL ethanol per 100 mL solution

25% (w/w) glycerol solution = 25 g glycerol per 100 g solution

• Note: Solution = Solute + Solvent

There are 3 different types of percentage concentrations commonly used.

1. Mass Percent: the mass percent is used to express the concentration of a solution
when the mass of a solute and the mass of a solution is given:

2. Volume Percent: the volume percent is used to express the concentration of a

solution when the volume of a solute and the volume of a solution is given:

3. Mass/Volume Percent: another version of a percentage concentration is mass/volume

percent, which measures the mass or weight of solute in grams (e.g., in grams) vs. the
volume of solution (e.g., in mL). The mass/volume percent is used to express the
concentration of a solution when the mass of the solute and volume of the solution is
given.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Practical 1: Basic Liquid Handling Skills

Objective of the Practical
In this practical you will learn how to:

1. Prepare a solution of a given molarity

a. Calculate the amount of reagent (solute) required
b. Use a volumetric flask correctly
2. Use and validate micropipettes
3. Do a serial dilution

Introduction
Preparation of tools and reagents are critical components of all laboratory experiments. For
any experiment to succeed, it is essential that you know how to use the basic tools (e.g.
micropipettes), how to make buffers and solutions and how to perform basic statistical
analysis of the results.

Preparing a solution of a given molarity

When making a solution containing a desired molar concentration of a substance, the first
thing you need to know is the molecular weight (MW) or formula weight (FW) of the
substance. Generally, this is supplied by the manufacturer and may be obtained from the
reagent bottle label. It may also be obtained from the Merck index or online chemistry
dictionaries.

You can also determine the MW from the periodic table (e.g. the atomic mass of Na is
22.98 and Cl is 35.45, so the molecular weight of NaCl is 58.44).

Use the following formula to calculate the mass of substance required per volume required:
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

• Note: because M=mol/L and MW (or FW) has units of g/mol, we can see that the
final value us in grams (g).
• Write out every calculation step and ALWAYS include the correct units beside
EACH value. Mixing up units is the most common source of error with these
calculations.

The following examples are for guidance and practice only…

Example 1.
Using the formula above, calculate how much NaCl is needed to make a 300 mL solution of
0.5 M NaCl.

• Required molarity (concentration) is 0.5M

• MW of NaCl is 58.44 g/mol
• Required volume (in litres) is 0.3 L (same as 300 mL)
• Therefore: 0.5 M x 58.44 g/mol x 0.3 L = 8.766 g of NaCl required

Check Units:
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Example 2.
Calculate how much of each reagent is needed to make 1 L of the following buffer:

Reagent Final conc. (mM) MW (g/mol) g/L?

NaCl 150 58.44
KCl 5 74.55
HEPES 10 238.30
Glucose 12 180.16
CaCl2 2 110.98
MgCl2 1 95.21

1. For NaCl:
a. Required molarity is 150 mM = 0.150 M
b. MW of NaCl is 58.44 g/mol
c. Required volume is 1L
d. Therefore: 0.150 M x 58.44 g/mol x 1 L = 8.766 g of NaCl required

For practice, try calculating the mass of the remaining reagents.

Example 3.
You are given a recipe (see below) to male an 800 mL buffer solution. Using the formula
above, calculate the final concentration of each of the reagents.

Reagent MW (g.mol) g/800 mL Final concertation?

NaCl 58.44 6.405
KCl 74.55 0.161
Na2HPO4 141.96 1.136
Glucose 180.16 1.730

1. For NaCl:

a. Rearrange the formula: Mass ÷ (MWxVolume) = Molarity

b. Required mass of NaCl is 6.405 g
c. MW of NaCl is 58.44 g/mol
d. Required volume is 0.8 L
e. Therefore: 6.405 g ÷ (58.44 g/mol x 0.8 L) = 0.137 M (or 137 mM)

For practice, try calculating the mass of the remaining reagents.

BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Micropipettes
Micropipettes (also referred to as pipettes or pipettors) are probably the most frequently used
piece of equipment in any biochemical or biomolecular laboratory. They are used for
transferring small amounts of liquid accurately, and can be set to any volume of liquid within
the range covered by the pipette. Different sizes of pipette cover different ranges of volumes:

• The P20 for transferring volumes in the range 2-20 μL

• The P200 for transferring volumes in the range 20-200 μL
• The P1000 for transferring volumes in the range 100-1000 μL
• The P5000 for transferring volumes in the range 500-5000 μL

Note: Pipettes are most accurate at pipetting volumes in the upper half of their range, so you
should always keep this in mind when selecting a pipette to use.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

When adjusting the volume, it is extremely important to not go above the maximum or below
the minimum volume. This can damage the inner mechanism, which at best makes the pipette
inaccurate, and at worst breaks the pipette (brand new pipettes are expensive!).

• Note: In the teaching labs there are several brands of pipettes, which means that the
method of adjusting the volume may be different.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

When setting the volume, all pipettes have a display window that allows you to see what
value the volume is set to. For most pipettes there are 3 digits visible in the display window,
but for others there are 4 digits instead.

All pipettes have a system that will allow you to distinguish between units of thousands,
hundreds, tens, single units and smaller.

For some pipettes, there is a dot or line to denote where the decimal point is:

For other pipettes, there is a single number that is a different colour to denote the decimal
point or a change in magnitude (i.e. thousands).
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Important pipetting don’ts

Micropipettes are some of the most valuable pieces of equipment in any laboratory. The
MUST be handled with care to ensure their longevity. Here are some actions you must
NEVER do with a micropipette.

1. Never rotate the volume adjuster beyond the upper or lower limit.

2. Never use a micropipette without an appropriate tip. Also, make sure the correct tip
match the corresponding pipette.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

3. Never lay a micropipette down or turn upside down when fitted with a tip containing a
liquid.

4. Never let the plunger snap back after withdrawing or ejecting a liquid.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Calculating average and standard deviation of results

In this practical you will validate micropipettes by determining how accurate and precise
they are at measuring volumes of distilled water.

In science, accuracy and precision mean different things:

Accuracy: Closeness to target

Precision: Closeness of your attempts to each other i.e. ‘’grouping’’

When it comes to validating micropipettes, to ensure that they are working properly and
fit for purpose, each micropipette is tested at its maximum and minimum volume:

• For each volume, the average and standard deviation is calculated.

• Accuracy is demonstrated by how close the average weight of the pipetted water is to
the expected weight (i.e. 1000 μL = 1 g).

• Precision is estimated by how closely similar the five weights are for the same volume
(i.e. how small is the standard deviation for the 5 replicate values).

• For good accuracy and precision, the margin of error should not exceed 2% for the
maximum volume and 20% for the minimum volume.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Look at the following example:

Results: 3, 7, 7, 19

Step 1. Find the mean (the μ from the formula):

(3+7+7+19) ÷ 4 = 9

Step 2. Subtract the mean from each of your results value ( χi in the formula):

3-9 = -6
7-9 = -2
7-9 = -2
19-9 = 10

Step 3. Square each individual deviation:

(-6)2 = 36
(-2)2 = 4
(-2)2 = 4
(10)2 = 100

Step 4: Find the mean of those squared values:

(36 + 4 + 4 +100) ÷ 4 = 36

Step 5: Find the square root:

√36 = 6

Whether you realise it or not you have just calculated the standard deviation.
This tells us that the 4 samples above (3, 7, 7, 19) have an average (or mean) value of 9,
but that the samples deviate from this mean by an average of ± 6.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

In Microsoft Excel, the average of a group of numbers can be calculates by the formula:

=AVERAGE()

Likewise, the standard deviation (SD) of a group of numbers can be calculated by the
formula:

=STDEV.S( )
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Procedure

1. Prepare a solution of a given molarity

a. On your bench you will find:

i. A container of solute, on which will be stated its name and molecular

weight (MW or FW)
ii. A 200 mL beaker
iii. A 100 mL volumetric flask
iv. A balance, with weigh boats and spoons
v. Distilled water
vi. Labels

b. Calculate how much solute you will need to make 100 ml of a given
concentration. Show this to your demonstrator and record on the sheet
provided.

c. Place a weigh boat on the balance and press the tare button (i.e. set the weight to
zero). Then weigh out the required amount of solute (correct to two decimal
places).

d. Transfer the solute to a 200 mL beaker and add approximately 70-80mls of

distilled water (dH2O). Stir gently until fully dissolved.

e. Carefully pour the solution into a 100 mL volumetric flask, taking care not to spill
it.

f. Using the same beaker, top up the flask with more distilled water, until the bottom
of the miniscus is level with the line on the neck of the flask.

g. Label the flask with the name and concentration of the chemical. It’s best practice
to also include the date and your initials.

h. Your demonstrator will check (and correct) your calculations and how you
prepared your solution.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

2. Use and validate micropipettes

General Instructions on how to operate a micropipette

a. Preparation: Hold the pipette in a vertical position. Depress the plunger smoothly
to the first stop position.

b. Aspiration: Immerse the end of the pipette tip in the liquid. Allow the plunger to
move up smoothly to the rest position. Wait one second so that all the liquid has time
to move up into the tip.

c. Distribution: Place the pipette tip at an angle (10-450) against the side wall of the
receiving vessel. Depress the plunger smoothly to the first stop position.

d. Purge: Wait one second, and then depress the plunger to the second stop position.
This blow-out stroke removes any remaining sample from the tip. Keep the plunger
depressed as you carefully move the pipette tip away.

e. Home: Allow the plunger to move up to the rest position.

f. Eject the used tip and store the pipette in an upright position: To avoid touching
contaminated tips, hold the pipette over the waste container and press the tip ejector
button.

g. During the practical demonstrators will ask each student to show that they can transfer
a specific volume of liquid using a pipette.
BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

Measure the accuracy and precision of your micropipette

a. On your bench you will find:

i. Weigh boats
ii. Balance
iii. Selection of micropipettes of different volumes
iv. Selection of micropipette tips
v. Distilled water
b. Place a weigh boat on the balance and tare.

c. Measure the weights of the maximum and minimum volumes of three different
micropipettes (P5000, P1000 and P200) using distilled water. Record the results in the
sheet provided. Do this 5 times for each volume.

d. Post practical: Before you leave you must submit your completed the Report
Assessment sheet and hand it to your demonstrator. Calculate the average and
standard deviation and recoded it in the sheet provided.

Vol.
Pipette 1 2 3 4 5 Average St.Dev.
(μL)
P5000

P1000

P200

e. Calculate the threshold at which the margin of error is deemed acceptable. Record
this in your practical assessment sheet. You will be asked to do this for one of the
pipettes.

f. E.g. For 5000 µL, which is the maximum volume for a P5000 pipette, the margin of
error should not exceed 2%. 2% of 5000 is 100 µL, so the threshold would be 4900
µL.

g. Do the micropipettes you tested pass validation?

BMOL20060 Practical 1 2023

3. Do a serial dilution
a) On your bench you will find:
i. A test tube rack containing 6 test tubes
ii. One test tube will contain water with orange dye
iii. Distilled water
iv. Vortex mixer

b) Conduct a 1:3 serial dilution of the orange dye:

i. Pipette 2 ml of distilled water into each of the empty test tubes.

ii. Take 1 ml of orange dye and add to the first test tube that contains only water

iii. Mix carefully using the vortex mixer (slow-medium speed setting).

iv. Take 1 mL of this solution and add to the next tube that contains only water

v. Continue until all 6 tubes contain orange dye.

c) If the concentration of orange dye started at 100 µM, calculate what the concentration
should be in tube #6.

d) Your demonstrator will check (and correct) your calculations and how you prepared
your serial dilution.

Practical Assessment (30 Marks)

There will be no written lab report for this practical. Instead, the practical will be assessed by
short answer questions related to the practical. You will be provided with a Practical
Assessment sheet. You must record your results from each of the 3 procedures and then
complete some post-practical assessment questions. You will complete this in the practical
and hand it to your demonstration before you leave.

References

Practical Skills in Biomolecular Sciences 6th Ed (Reed, Hommes, et al).

Chapter 19 & 20 – Preparing for practical work & Working safely in the lab

Chapter 21 – Basic Laboratory Skills

Chapter 22 – Measuring and Dispensing Liquids

Chapter 23 – Preparing Solutions: Principles and Practice