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Fake_News_Detection_Using_Deep_Learning_A_Systemat

This systematic literature review examines deep learning strategies for fake news detection, highlighting the challenges and effectiveness of various algorithms and datasets. The authors focus on the role of transfer learning and class imbalance in improving detection accuracy. Key contributions include a detailed discussion of algorithms, datasets, and open issues in the field of fake news detection.

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Fake_News_Detection_Using_Deep_Learning_A_Systemat

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This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access.

This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3435497

Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.DOI

Fake News Detection Using Deep

Learning: A Systematic Literature
Review
MOHAMMAD Q. ALNABHAN1 , PAULA BRANCO2 ,
1
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Ottawa, 800 King Edward Ave, Ottawa, K1N 6N5 Canada (e-mail: [email protected])
2
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Ottawa, 800 King Edward Ave, Ottawa, K1N 6N5 Canada (e-mail: [email protected])
Corresponding author: Mohammad Alnabhan (e-mail: [email protected]).

ABSTRACT Nowadays, we witness rapid technological advancements in online communication plat-

forms, with increasing volumes of people using a vast range of communication solutions. The fast flow
of information and the enormous number of users opens the door to the publication of non-truthful news,
which has the potential to reach many people. Disseminating this news through low- or no-cost channels
resulted in a flood of fake news that is difficult to detect by humans. Social media networks are one of these
channels that are used to quickly spread this fake news by manipulating it in ways that influence readers
in many aspects. That influence appears in a recent example amid the COVID-19 pandemic and various
political events such as the recent US presidential elections. Given how this phenomenon impacts society, it
is crucial to understand it well and study mechanisms that allow its timely detection.
Deep learning (DL) has proven its potential for multiple complex tasks in the last few years with outstanding
results. In particular, multiple specialized solutions have been put forward for natural language processing
(NLP) tasks. In this paper, we systematically review existing fake news detection (FND) strategies that use
DL techniques. We systematically surveyed the existing research articles by investigating the DL algorithms
used in the detection process. Our focus then shifts to the datasets utilized in previous research and the
effectiveness of the different DL solutions. Special attention was given to the application of strategies for
transfer learning and dealing with the class imbalance problem. The effect of these solutions on the detection
accuracy is also discussed. Finally, our survey provides an overview of key challenges that remain unsolved
in the context of FND.

INDEX TERMS Classification, Deep Learning, Fake News, Misinformation, Systematic literature review

I. INTRODUCTION Fake news greatly increased in 2016 in the time preceding

the United States (US) presidential election [4]. As such, fake
UE to a greater interest in the use of the internet, the
D spread of fake news has become more common than
ever before. Before the popularity of social media platforms,
news on social media networks has captured the attention of
many researchers. Recently, detecting fake news has become
an emerging area of interest for many researchers, such as
fake news was less common and much more difficult to [4] and [5]. However, fake news detection is a complicated
spread to a vast amount of people, as it was achieved either task requiring the use of complex models to compare related
through word of mouth or through printed media. Fake news or unrelated information with known truthful information
can be defined as the phenomenon that occurs when incorrect [6]. Furthermore, fake news is perceived in several ways
information is purposefully spread throughout social media by researchers, leading to multiple ways of addressing and
outlets with a significant ability to convince the reader of the solving this issue. Some terms related to misinformation are
content written [1]. Nowadays, anyone can publish content used interchangeably in multiple cases. These terms include
without regulation or scrutiny. Several social media plat- fake news, rumors, spam, and disinformation which usually
forms, such as Facebook and Twitter, are used as means to contain numerical, categorical, textual, and image contents
disseminate fake news, as people and influencers utilize them [7]–[9]. Unfortunately, many people have the urge to spread
to share their opinions, videos, and various activities [2], [3].

VOLUME 4, 2016 1

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4
This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3435497

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

false information on social media, backed with professionally Section IV describes the publicly available datasets that exist
written, long, and referenced comments that allow the reader in the fake news domain and the associated challenges. In
to more easily agree with the misinformation provided (e.g., Section V, we discuss the transfer learning strategies and
[10], [11]). Researchers aim to eliminate the increased spread open challenges in the FND context. Section VI analyses the
of misinformation by detecting the varied manners in which class imbalance problem for fake news detection. Section VII
misinformation can be spread. As such, researchers have provides a summary of the data collected in this SLR and the
resorted to the use of deep learning (DL) algorithms to detect answers to our research questions. Section VIII provides the
fake news before it spreads (e.g., [12]). This is accomplished research threats to validity and Section IX discusses the main
by collecting or creating a dataset containing both true and gaps and open issues that still exist for fake news detection.
false information within articles. Then, a pattern is deter- Lastly, Section X concludes our paper.
mined, creating a model that can predict whether a given
article contains true or false information. II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
There are noticeable gaps in the existing studies that were A. SEARCH STRATEGY OVERVIEW
conducted on fake news detection and that our research high- Our SLR is generated based on a set of detailed steps de-
lights. This includes (i) a lack of clear distinction between scribed in [13]. We begin by defining our research questions,
the definitions of misinformation, disinformation, and false after which we build the keywords for the search query to
information; (ii) a lack of DL-based systematic reviews on obtain the relevant papers for our study. Then, we select the
varying types of misinformation problems; (iii) a lack of gen- most relevant databases to query and establish the inclusion
eralizable DL models that allow achieving a base acceptable and exclusion criteria. Finally, we define the fields to be
detection accuracy on different datasets, which introduces the extracted from the retrieved documents.
scarce use of transfer learning in this context; and (iv) a lack
of models that deal with different levels of imbalance datasets B. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
in a fake news detection environment. The key focus of our SLR is on understanding how the DL
As technology progresses, the ability to detect misinfor- techniques have been used to address the FND problem. We
mation becomes more complicated and thus more difficult are also interested in knowing how TL has been used in this
to detect using standard machine learning (ML) techniques. field and how the class imbalance problem has been tackled.
This motivates our focus on DL techniques for the problem
• RQ1: Which deep learning algorithms have been used
of fake news detection.
for fake news detection throughout time?
In this systematic literature review (SLR), we investi-
• RQ2: Which datasets are used in the fake news detec-
gate the existing fake news detection (FND) strategies that
tion domain?
use deep learning. We then focus on the publicly available
• RQ3: How effective are deep learning methods for fake
datasets that are used in FND and their NLP approaches.
news detection?
We intended to gather information about the transfer learning
• RQ4: Which solutions are considering transfer learning
techniques applied as well as the techniques used for dealing
mechanisms (if any)?
with the class imbalance, as this will allow us to examine
• RQ5: Which solutions deal with different levels of
their effect on the detection accuracy. Our survey will help in
imbalanced datasets (if any)?
understanding the open issues and research gaps that persist
in the current research studies. As far as we know, we are the
C. SOURCE DATABASES AND SEARCH QUERY
first to provide a complete SLR that investigates the effect of
transfer learning and dealing with imbalance in the fake news We selected the following four different digital databases for
detection domain. collecting the research articles:
Key Contributions • Google Scholar (we selected the articles that appeared
The main contributions of this paper are as follows: in the first thirteen retrieved pages);
• We provide a detailed discussion of the main deep • Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Digital

learning-based algorithms used to detect fake news, Library database;

including their effectiveness. • IEEE Xplore database; and

• We discuss the main datasets available for fake news • Scopus.

detection as well as their respective characteristics, ad- Based on the research questions established in Sec-
vantages, and disadvantages. tion II-B, we collected a set of precise concepts that can
• We study the use of transfer learning techniques and cover the topic we are studying. We, therefore, formulated
strategies for dealing with the class imbalance in this the search query as follows:
application domain. The above search statement addresses the research ques-
Paper Organization tions by focusing on the 4 key concepts in the studied topic:
This paper is organized as follows. In Section II we present “fake", “information", “detect", and “deep learning".
the research methodology. In Section III, we investigate the We searched both the title and the abstract for articles pub-
DL algorithms that are being used for detecting fake news. lished between January 2018 and December 2023 inclusive.
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((fake OR misinformation OR false OR unverified OR E. DATA EXTRACTION

inaccurate OR rumor* OR misleading) We used Covidence [15], a special web-based software for
AND supporting the data aggregation and extraction of SLRs.
(information OR news OR article* OR media) The extracted data was organized in a spreadsheet that was
AND exported from Covidence. The data that was extracted from
(detect* OR classification) the retrieved and selected articles is the following:
AND • Date: date of the publication;
(“deep learning” OR “machine learning” OR “neural” • Publication Type: where the article has been published
OR “artificial intelligence”)) (conference/journal).
• Classifier/Model: algorithms used for FND in the arti-
FIGURE 1: Search query used in our SLR.
cle.
• Network Structure: the architecture of the network (de-
tails including the number/types of layers and any spe-
Limiting the search on this date range is motivated by the
cial setup in the network.
fact that FND has become more popular throughout the last
• Dataset: name of the fake news corpus or dataset(s)
years, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic that started
used.
around the beginning of 2020.
• TL Techniques: the TL mechanism(s) used in the pro-
We defined the following set of restrictions on the results
posed solution.
that limit the selection among the returned articles.
• Imbalance Techniques: shows whether the imbalanced
• The selected articles must be published in peer-reviewed issue was treated in the proposed solution and how they
journals or conferences. Thus, we excluded patents and dealt with it.
any articles that did not conform to this condition. • Effectiveness: depicts the performance of the model
• The language of the surveyed papers must be English. in terms of accuracy, precision, recall, F-measure, and
Any papers retrieved that were not written in English other evaluation metrics.
were excluded.
• Articles containing classification models that do not F. DATA COLLECTION SUMMARY
clearly mention the performance evaluation of the meth- Overall, our search query retrieved 1642 articles. We found
ods (e.g., accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, etc.) 436 duplicate articles that were removed. After the first
were excluded. screening of the titles and abstracts, we ended up with 393
• We excluded the articles that have not mentioned the research papers, which matched our research keywords along
classifier/model used in the detection task in their with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. After a second
methodology. screening of the full text, we excluded 215 articles obtain-
• We excluded the articles that only applied standard ML ing 178 research papers for analysis. Figure 2 shows the
algorithms instead of DL ones. PRISMA chart which demonstrates the selection strategy for
• We excluded older articles when extensions and more the retrieved papers.
recent editions were found.
• We excluded articles that were published in domains
outside of Computer Science such as art, business, or
other domains.

D. INCLUSION CRITERIA
We considered the following inclusion criteria for our sys-
tematic literature review:
• Peer-reviewed journals and conference articles retrieved
from the search query defined in Figure 1.
• Articles from the Computer Science domain.
• Research articles that focus on detecting or classifying
fake news.
We applied the backward snowballing technique [14] to
gather relevant articles that might have been missed in our
search by inspecting the reference sections of the retrieved
papers. We identified two articles that were not picked up
through our search query and were added to the set of
manuscripts to analyze. FIGURE 2: PRISMA Chart of selecting and retrieving the
articles

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III. DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS USED FOR FAKE process data with a grid-like topology, such as images. They
NEWS DETECTION include traditional convolutional neural networks, residual
The thorough examination of various models and techniques networks, and dense networks.
pointed out the significant role that DL plays in different Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are designed to handle
classification tasks including detecting fake news. Building sequential data, such as time series or language, and include
and improving such algorithms became a pressing necessity, basic recurrent neural networks and bi-directional RNNs,
especially during the COVID-19 pandemic when a large long short-term memory networks (LSTM), gated recurrent
volume of fake news and rumours were being disseminated units (GRUs) and bi-directional GRUs, and bi-directional
widely. Figure 3 demonstrates a clear increase in the use of long short-term memory networks (BiLSTM). we will refer
DL models over the years. to the model and its bi-directional version collectively as
(Bi)X, where X is the model. Graph neural networks (GNNs),
a newer type of neural network, are designed to operate
on graph-structured data, such as social networks, chemical
molecules, or protein structures.
Recently, attention-based models have gained popularity
due to their ability to focus on certain parts of the input data
selectively. They include self-attention networks and multi-
head attention networks. Hybrid models, which combine
different types of neural networks, have also become pop-
ular. For example, convolutional recurrent neural networks
combine the spatial processing capabilities of convolutional
neural networks with the temporal modeling capabilities of
recurrent neural networks. Transformer networks, like BERT,
combine self-attention mechanisms with feedforward neural
networks to process sequences of data. Figure 5 shows a
FIGURE 3: DL Models used for FND between the years of taxonomy of the various types of neural networks that are
2018 and 2023. used for FND.
Based on the data that we gathered from the surveyed
The data extracted shows that the FND task usually follows articles, it is evident that researchers extensively explored
a generic framework as is shown in Figure 4. Initially, the several DL algorithms for the detection task. Figure 6 shows
process involved acquiring or generating a dataset. The ma- the usage of different DL detection models for fake news.
jority of studies have utilized news articles that were gathered More precisely, this figure displays the percentage of papers
from openly accessible datasets. After collecting the dataset, where a particular model was used. We observe that the
pre-processing techniques were employed to prepare the data (Bi)LSTM was the most frequently included model used in
for input into a neural network. Prior investigations have 73% of papers and the CNN model was the second most used
mainly employed Word2vec and GloVe word embedding model utilized in 61% of the papers reviewed. Since multiple
methods to transform words into vectors [16]. Finally, the models may be used in the same research paper, summing
neural network model is trained and the predictions are up the percentages in Figure 6 exceeds a total of 100%. The
obtained. following sections provide a detailed discussion of the main
architecture used for FND.

A. ARCHITECTURES BASED ON CONVOLUTIONAL

NEURAL NETWORKS
Our findings also show that 61% of the previous works
used Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to handle the
detection issues, attempting to boost the performance of the
FND process through the use of this DL algorithm [12], [17]–
[106].
The detection effectiveness is the result of CNN’s ability
FIGURE 4: The General DL Framework that Used for FND to carry out feature extraction [107]. It is worth noting here
that CNNs were trained on different fake news datasets. CNN
Neural networks for FND can be categorized into different had reached noticeable effectiveness between 95% and 98%
types based on their architecture and how they process data. depending on if it was used individually [79] or when it was
The first type is feedforward neural networks, including adopted along with another model such as Gated Recurrent
single-layer and multi-layer perceptrons. Convolutional neu- Unit (GRU) [42], respectively. It is also worth mentioning
ral networks (CNNs) are another type, which are designed to that the CNN has fallen in some cases to about 47% de-
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FIGURE 5: Taxonomy of the main neural network categories used for FND.

layer, each of which consists of 128 filters with a kernel size

of 5 and a ReLU activation function. Additionally, the fully
connected network includes both a flat and a dense layer.
Lastly, the feature maps are classified using a dense layer
with a softmax activation function.

B. ARCHITECTURES BASED ON RECURRENT NEURAL

NETWORKS
Another popular FND algorithm examined in the previous
studies is the Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) and its
variations. Authors have investigated various RNN models to
detect fake news in sequential data. They have proposed Long
FIGURE 6: Deep Learning Models for FND Short-Term Memory (LSTM), GRU, unidirectional LSTM-
RNN, vanilla RNN, and Bi-directional LSTM ((Bi)LSTM).
Our findings show that researchers’ focus is highly shifted
toward RNNs and their variations in fake news detection.
tection accuracy [31] which leads to the conclusion that Figure 8 shows the utilization of RNNs in the previous
some key points may affect the effectiveness of the CNNs studies.
in FND tasks. The first point is the degree of the deepness It is noticeable from our findings that researchers exam-
of the network being used. A deeper CNN is considered ined FND using classic RNNs in only 12% of the total
an advantage for solving the overfitting issue [63]. This is number of the surveyed articles [16], [32], [47], [51], [60],
what we discovered using the data collected which contains [68], [73], [86], [90], [96], [99], [108]–[115]. Despite the
a case of building a deeper CNN, called FNDNet, which importance of the RNN in such domains, research authors
solved the overfitting problem by learning the discriminatory discussed the RNN vanishing problem [116]. One solution to
features for FND using multiple hidden layers [12]. The solve vanishing in RNNs is to use other architectures such
second point affecting the CNNs’ effectiveness concerns as LSTM and (Bi)LSTM. The percentage of the articles that
the selected dataset that will be used in the detection task examined both LSTM and (Bi)LSTM was around 73% of the
and its readability and cleanness before being fed into the total articles [16]–[21], [23]–[27], [29]–[37], [44], [45], [50],
model [28]. Finally, the overall architecture that will be used [51], [53], [54], [57], [58], [60], [61], [63]–[65], [68], [70],
for the detection task may adopt either the CNN itself or a [71], [73], [74], [77], [78], [80], [81], [83], [84], [86]–[88],
CNN in a hybrid approach as we can see in our extracted [90]–[92], [96], [97], [100], [101], [103]–[105], [108]–[113],
results [42]. [117]–[161].
Figure 7 illustrates an example of a CNN architecture used Other solutions were also adopted in the previous studies
for FND as proposed in [101]. The CNN architecture used which include using (Bi)GRU as a detection architecture.
in this study is composed of an input layer, an embedding (Bi)GRU has been examined in 15% of the total surveyed
layer, and three sets of convolutional and max pooling layers. articles [16], [24], [25], [32], [42], [57], [73], [76], [80], [85],
The input layer resizes the input data to a uniform size of [90], [94], [101], [110], [120], [122], [124], [138], [145],
1000, while the embedding layer reduces the size to 100 [155], [162]–[165].
by embedding the data. The convolutional and max pooling Figure 9 shows the RNN GRU-based architecture for FND
pairs are responsible for extracting features from the input. that was presented in [101]. In this proposed solution, the use
To perform this task, filters are applied to each convolutional of GRU RNNs for FND is explored. The model proposed
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FIGURE 7: An example of CNN architecture used in FND

includes an input layer and an embedding layer with data

sizes of 1000 and 100, respectively. The GRU layer is then
implemented with identical hyperparameters as the LSTM
layer to facilitate a reliable comparison between the two.
Finally, fully connected networks are used, along with a
batch normalization layer, and a dense layer with a softmax
activation function is applied for classification.
The findings from our survey also show that RNNs and
their variations had a remarkable detection accuracy in the
fake news domain when compared against other detection
models and taking into consideration the usage of differ-
ent datasets. The RNN detection effectiveness ranged from
48% [51] to around 92% [110] to around 99% [97] detection
accuracy.
Using another architecture with the RNN does not seem
FIGURE 8: RNNs utilization in FND.
to increase the accuracy of the detection results as shown
in the works of Ilie et al. [32] and Nasir et al. [47]. It is
also noticeable in our findings that the GRU model had also
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FIGURE 9: An example of GRU architecture used in FND.

participated in detecting fake news with an accuracy ranging

between about 76% [163] and 97% [24]. These satisfactory
results are not the case when using the BiGRU instead of the
standard GRU architecture. In the latter case, the detection
accuracy decreases to a range from 28% and 71% [138].
Finally, it was clear that the detection was more accurate
when it was done by a second model besides GRU in a hybrid
mechanism. This was obvious when the researchers used the
GRU with a CNN in [42] and [163] and when a GRU was
used with (Bi)LSTM in [120].
Despite the effectiveness of the above-mentioned architec-
tures in fake news detection, previous studies showed that
the LSTM and the (Bi)LSTM are the future key players
in enhancing fake news detection. The average accuracy of
detecting fake news using LSTM architectures was ranging
between 79.03% and 81.21%. These models also reported
a maximum of 99.9% detection accuracy in [25] and a
minimum of 11% in [44].
In addition, the findings show that LSTM was used in
a hybrid fashion with one or more architectures to deter-
mine the optimal FND system among the proposed sys-
tems. Figure 10 shows the architecture of the CNNs-LSTM
model proposed in [101]. This model utilizes both hybrid
and recurrent models on collected news data. The proposed
hybrid model incorporates both CNNs and LSTM models.
The algorithm includes an input layer that resizes the input
data frames to 1000 and an embedding layer that embeds the
input tensor size from 1000 to 100. The embedded tensors
are then processed through two sets of convolutional and
FIGURE 10: An example of CLSTM architecture used in
max-pooling layers for feature extraction. The convolutional
FND
layers have 32 and 64 filters, respectively, and a kernel
size of 3. The feature extraction process is then performed
by the LSTM layer with 100 units, a dropout rate of 0.2,
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and a recurrent dropout rate of 0.2. Additionally, the fully propagate information across the graph and learn representa-
connected network is designed with a batch normalization tions of the nodes and edges that capture their relationships
layer, followed by three dense layers with a ReLU activation and interactions. These learned representations can then be
function and several filters of 256, 128, and 64, respectively. used to classify the news articles as fake or real based on
The classification task is carried out using a dense layer with their similarity to other articles and the overall structure of
a softmax activation function. the graph.
Researchers focus more on testing the effects of develop- Our findings show that only 4% of the selected research
ing hybrid models that adopt LSTM in the detection process. articles adopted GNN architectures for fake news detec-
They tested the importance of (Bi)LSTMs over LSTM and tion [94], [171]–[177]. The claimed detection accuracy was
reported that the (Bi)LSTM+CNN achieved considerably incredibly low compared to the other deep-learning models
higher accuracy than when they attempted to use the LSTM on different datasets used. The highest detection accuracy
with the CNNs. They reported a detection accuracy of about obtained when using the GraphSAGE was 89.7% accuracy
99% detection accuracy when they attempted to use the without mentioning whether this was on the training or
(Bi)LSTM instead of the LSTM [97]. the testing dataset [173]. The accuracy went deeply down
When LSTM is combined with CNN, studies also reported to 61.5% when they adopted the GNN. It also recorded a
an accuracy ranging between 97.8% in [131] and 47.06% 73.12% [171] with GCN with a maximum of 88.6% [173].
in [31], with an average accuracy of 82.3%. In the case where The other variants such as SGT, GCN, and GAT had reached
LSTM is combined with a DNN architecture, we observed an an average accuracy of about 83.1%.
accuracy of 91.16% [135], while when it is combined with
BERT the accuracy achieved was 84.10% [136]. D. ATTENTION-BASED AND BERT-BASED
Bi(LSTM) is also getting popular in fake news detection ARCHITECTURES
as our survey findings show. It recorded the highest detection Another notable advancement happened in fake news de-
accuracy of 99.52% [128] and the lowest of 28% [138] with tection with the use of attention-based approaches using
an average of 75.22%. It also appeared connected to other different datasets. Our findings show that their use has been
detection architectures such as CNN and GRU. Bi(LSTM) increasing since the year of 2018 and has reached the maxi-
with CNN recorded the highest accuracy of 98.65% in [134] mum in the year of 2022. In addition, this approach appeared
and the lowest accuracy of 35.13% in [57]. The average de- in 15% of the surveyed articles mostly in the year 2022.
tection accuracy in such cases was about 77.6%. Bi(LSTM) Authors have applied it to the other detection models includ-
with GRU reached 89.8% detection accuracy [120]. ing RNNs [32], GRU [32], [76], [124], [162], [165], [178],
LSTM, and (Bi)LSTM [19], [50], [58], [78], [125], [134],
C. ARCHITECTURES BASED ON GRAPH NEURAL [142], [156], [176], [179], BERT [58], and CNN alone [50],
NETWORKS [78] or with other models [19], [50], [142]. The detection
Another popular model in fake news detection is the Graph accuracy ranged between 54% [50] and 98.65% [134].
Neural Network (GNN) and its variants such as Sequence Another deep learning model present in our surveyed
Graph Transform (SGT) [166], Graph Attention Networks works that shows cutting-edge detection is the BERT [180]
(GAT) [167], GraphSAGE [168], and Graph Convolutional model. It is a sophisticated pre-trained word-embedding
Networks(GCN) [169]. GNN is a neural network that di- model built on a transformer-encoded architecture. The find-
rectly operates on the graph structure. One of its popular ings show that 16% of the surveyed studies adopted the
applications is node classification in which every node in the BERT as a detection mechanism [44], [52], [58], [67], [75],
network has a label. This network predicts the label of the [80], [82], [84], [89], [90], [92], [100], [111], [112], [136],
node without the ground truth [170]. In FND using GNNs, [146], [158], [159], [181]–[185], [185], [186]. The findings
news articles, and related information are represented as a also show that authors started using the BERT as a detection
graph. The nodes of the graph represent the individual enti- model for fake news in 2021 which makes it still a novel
ties, such as news articles, users, or social media posts, and tool for the detection model and a future direction in the
the edges represent the relationships or interactions between fake news detection field. Our findings show that this model
them. To create the graph, the news articles are typically has reached a remarkable detection accuracy with the highest
preprocessed to extract features such as the article content, recorded accuracy of 98.5% [183] and an average accuracy of
metadata, and social media interactions. These features are around 90%. It is also clear in our findings that researchers
used to construct the nodes and edges of the graph, with the experimented with the effectiveness of applying the BERT
nodes representing the articles and the edges representing the with other models such as LSTM [136] and CNN [52] for the
relationships between articles, users, or other entities. For detection of fake news using different datasets. An example
example, edges could represent similarities between articles of using BERT in the fake news detection process, FakeBERT
or social media interactions such as retweets or mentions. has been proposed in [187] which outperforms all other
Once the graph is constructed, Graph Neural Networks are models with an accuracy of 98.9%. Figure 11 illustrates the
used to analyze the graph structure and extract useful features proposed FakeBERT.
for fake news detection. The GNNs use graph algorithms to As Figure 11 shows, this design employs three parallel
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FIGURE 11: An example of BERT architecture used in FND

blocks of 1D-CNN with 128 filters, with each block having under simple neural networks (NN; ANN, DNN, and FNN).
one convolutional layer. The first layer has a kernel size Although these models are referred to as simple detection
of 3 and 128 filters, reducing the input embedding vector techniques and were used in 7% of the total surveyed articles,
from 1000 to 998. The second layer has a kernel size of they still reached a noticeable accuracy in detecting fake
4 and 128 filters, reducing the input vector from 1000 to news. Our findings show that FFN has reached a detection
997. The third layer has a kernel size of 5 and 128 filters, accuracy of 89.8% [45] to about 95% when it was provided
decreasing the input vector from 1000 to 996. Max-pooling by solid support from a strong embedding technique [150]
layers are also included after each convolutional layer to and a lower accuracy of 83.35% [108]. On the other hand,
further reduce the dimension. A max-pooling layer with a DNN reached an accuracy of 94.68% [189] while it was less
kernel size of 5 reduces the vector to 1/5th of 996, which accurate when applying it with an LSTM by 2.8% [135]. The
is 199. After concatenating the three convolutional layers, findings also show that using a multichannel ANN [189] has
another convolution layer with a kernel size of 5 and 128 increased the detection accuracy by approximately 13% of
filters is applied. This is followed by two hidden layers with the basic ANN which was 80.9% accurate in detecting fake
384 and 128 nodes respectively. The number of trainable news [190].
parameters for each layer is also provided in the "Param In conclusion, we observe a clear growing trend in
number" column for further details. the solutions proposed using (Bi)LSTM, CNN, BERT, etc.
A recent study has conducted a thorough comparison be- throughout the years, as Figure 12 shows.
tween different deep learning models in fake news detection
using various datasets [188]. The authors studied the effect F. CHALLENGES RELATED TO DEEP LEARNING
of deploying (Bi)LSTM, CNN-RNN, C-LSTM, CNN, and METHODS FOR FAKE NEWS DETECTION
BERT in the detection of fake news. They used seven fake
Despite the promising results of deep learning methods for
news detection datasets with each model to be able to draw a
fake news detection, several challenges remain to be ad-
generalized conclusion. They figured out that the (Bi)LSTM
dressed. These include issues related to dataset quality, model
and BERT detection models achieved the best detection ac-
performance on imbalanced datasets, and the generalizability
curacies and F-scores. The authors have also concluded that
of models across different datasets. In this article, we will
BERT performs better than the (Bi)LSTM when the model
explore these challenges in more detail and discuss potential
aims at detecting fake news in different contexts from the one
solutions.
it was trained on [188].
It is important to recognize that there are several chal-
lenges when it comes to achieving effective fake news de-
E. ARCHITECTURE BASED ON FEEDFORWARD tection using deep learning methods. One major issue is the
NEURAL NETWORKS potential for overfitting, where models achieve high accuracy
Finally, other deep learning models have been used in the on the training data but perform poorly on new, unseen
fake news detection field with basic and standard feedforward data [61]. Some previous research has reported extremely
neural network (FFN) settings. Authors categorized these high accuracy results, but these were obtained by evaluating
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FIGURE 12: DL models in fake news detection throughout the time.

the model on the same data that was used for training. The A. MAIN DATASETS USED FOR FAKE NEWS
performance of their models achieved a high accuracy of DETECTION
99.9% [25], [54], [121], [126], [128], [133], [134], and [61]. Researchers have used several datasets in the context of fake
This raises questions about the model’s ability to generalize news detection. However, we found that only a small part of
to new data. Another challenge is the use of accuracy as the these datasets is publicly available, while a considerable per-
sole evaluation measure for imbalanced datasets, where the centage is created by the researchers and/or is not disclosed
number of fake news samples vastly outweighs the number publicly. A pie chart of the used datasets in the surveyed
of real news samples [17]–[20], [37], [58], [61]–[63], [118], studies is presented in Figure 13.
[121], [125], [133], [139]–[141]. Accuracy can be misleading
in these cases, as it can be skewed by the dominance of
the majority class. A more appropriate measure, such as
precision or recall, would provide a better understanding
of the model’s performance. Additionally, different datasets
can have varying characteristics and biases, and models that
perform well on one dataset may not generalize to other
datasets. This is noted from our findings in [44], [127],
[137], [138], and [51]. This was also proved by the thorough
experiments that were made in a recent study of cross-domain
fake news detection [188]. Finally, the quality and diversity
of the training data can greatly impact the performance of the
model [191], [192]. In some cases, models have been trained
on datasets that are not representative of the full range of fake
news content, leading to poor detection performance [192],
[193]. FIGURE 13: Datasets used in the surveyed studies

IV. DATASETS USED FOR FAKE NEWS DETECTION We observe that ISOT [194], PHEME [195], Liar [196],
In this section, we first discuss the main characteristics of and FakeNewsNet [197], with its three sub-datasets, Gossip-
the datasets used in the surveyed works. Then, we discuss Cop, PolitiFact, and BuzzFeedNews, are examples of pub-
some of the open challenges related to the datasets in this licly available fake news datasets. These are among the most
application domain. popular and frequently used datasets.
The LIAR dataset includes short statements obtained from
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the Politifact fact-checking website. This dataset includes a B. CHALLENGES RELATED TO THE DATASETS USED
total of 12.8 K labelled short statements. The annotation task FOR FAKE NEWS DETECTION
has been done by the Politifact site, and the statements are One of the main difficulties in the fake news detection field
classified into 6 classes: pants-fire, false, barely-true, half- is the scarcity of labelled cases [198], [199]. Even though
true, mostly-true, and true. In addition, another fake news multiple datasets with a massive amount of records exist they
dataset was collected from real-world news articles called are mostly unlabeled or have only a few records labeled.
ISOT. The real news cases were collected by crawling news Researchers have collected datasets over the last few years
articles from Reuters.com, and the fake news examples were for use with DL models in different contexts associated with
obtained from unreliable websites, which were annotated by fake news detection. Datasets are massively diverse from
the Politifact website. The PHEME dataset was collected one another due to having different research goals inside the
from Twitter based on 9 newsworthy events classified by fake news detection application domain [200]. For example,
journalists. The annotation process was conducted by jour- some datasets contain exclusively political statements, while
nalists (human annotators) and each tweet was annotated other datasets only include news articles or social media
with one of the following labels: "proven to be false", "con- posts [188].
firmed as true" or "unverified". The FakeNewsNet dataset To collect appropriate datasets to serve in fake news detec-
consists of three subdatasets, which are GossipCop, Politi- tion, we need fake articles and non-fake articles. Fake articles
Fact, and BuzzFeedNews. In total, the FakeNewsNet dataset are gathered from deceitful websites that are designed on
contains approximately 19,838 news articles labelled as ei- purpose to disseminate misinformation and fake news. The
ther "fake" or "real". The news articles in the FakeNewsNet fake news published on these websites will eventually be
dataset were annotated by a team of human annotators. The shared on social media to be read and circulated by innocent
annotators were given guidelines for identifying fake news people who do not check the news source.
and were trained to identify various characteristics of fake
It is also clear from our findings that the datasets used in
news, such as misleading headlines, fabricated content, and
fake news detection are insufficient for training models due to
misleading images. Table 1 summarizes the main character-
their characteristics, such as language features or size [201].
istics related to these datasets.
That leads us to the question of creating a dataset to serve as
TABLE 1: Main characteristics of the publicly available FND a benchmark in the detection process. However, this can be
datasets. challenging due to several reasons, some of which are:
Dataset Size Num. of Labels Type • Sources of fake and non-fake news: Identifying reliable
LIAR 12.8K 6 Political Statements sources of fake and non-fake news can be difficult,
PHEME 5800 2 Social media (tweets) especially in today’s world where there are numerous
ISOT 45k 2 News articles
sources of information and not all of them are trustwor-
thy [202]. It is crucial to ensure that the dataset contains
BuzzFeedNews 5,835k 2 News articles
a diverse range of sources to ensure that the model is
PolitiFact 12,835k 2 News articles
trained to detect fake news from a variety of sources.
GossipCop 1168k 2 News articles
• Bias in the data: Bias can be introduced in the data due
to various reasons such as the sources of the data, the
From our findings, LIAR achieved a maximum of 98.95% labelling process, or the selection criteria for the dataset.
when a Bi(LSTM) model was used for training [127]. The Bias can affect the accuracy of the model and can also
same dataset was an option for training the (Bi)GRU in [138] lead to unfair predictions [203].
which recorded a low detection accuracy of 28.12%. ISOT • Labeling issues: Labeling data for fake news detection
recorded high detection effectiveness in many cases, espe- can be challenging, as there can be discrepancies in the
cially when the trained model was a Bi(LSTM) [54] with an definition of what constitutes fake news. Human labels
accuracy of 99.95%. Still, the accuracy decreased when the may be subjective, and there may be inconsistencies
models used for training were the RNN and CNN, showing in the labelling process. Automatic labels generated
a performance of 82.5% as the lowest in [47]. PHEME using machine learning techniques can also have their
also exhibited a high performance when the CLSTM model limitations [199], [204].
was used for training, providing an accuracy of 91.88% • Bots involvement: Bots can be used to generate large
and recording a minimum accuracy of 59.2% in training volumes of fake news and spread it rapidly across the
a (Bi)GRU [124]. Lastly, FakeNewsNet sub-datasets used internet, making it difficult to detect and remove. Bots
in training different models such as CNNs [51], various can also be used to manipulate the labelling process by
RNNs [51], [111], [112], [136], [138], GNNs [172], and providing biased labels, leading to inaccuracies in the
BERT [111], [112], [136], [182]. The best detection accuracy dataset [202].
that achieved when training the GAT with a 96.42% accuracy • Rapid evolving nature of fake news: The nature of fake
while it recorded a 71.16% accuracy when it was used to train news is constantly evolving, and new techniques for
a (Bi)GRU. creating and spreading it are being developed all the
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time. This makes it difficult to create a comprehensive • Training models in similar domains: This transfer learn-
dataset and up-to-date [200], [205]. ing method trains models that belong to similar do-
To address these issues, it is crucial to have a well-designed mains. For instance, if there is insufficient data to com-
and diverse dataset that is regularly updated to reflect the plete task X, but task Y is similar and has adequate data,
changing nature of fake news. It is also important to have a model can be trained on task Y and then used to create
robust labelling procedures in place, using a combination a new model for task X [216].
of human and machine labels, to ensure that the dataset is • Feature extraction: Feature extraction is another trans-
unbiased and accurate. Additionally, researchers should confer learning approach where deep neural networks are
sider incorporating techniques such as adversarial training to trained to extract features automatically. After training
improve the robustness of the model to adversarial attacks. them on pre-existing models, the representations are
exported to new models. This technique is commonly
employed by data scientists [217].
V. STRATEGIES FOR TRANSFER LEARNING
• Utilizing pre-trained models: This approach involves
A. TRANSFER LEARNING STRATEGIES APPLIED TO
developing pre-trained models that take transfer learn-
FAKE NEWS DETECTION
ing variables into account. Companies experienced in
Numerous real-world applications have made use of the ma- model development often have access to a library
chine and deep learning techniques. These learning method- of models that can be used to create future models.
ologies assume that the input feature space and data distribu- This means that when dealing with a new problem,
tion properties are maintained across the experiments carried a pre-trained model can be selected, optimized for
out because the training data and testing data are drawn the problem at hand, and then reused to train another
from the same domain [206]. This assumption, however, may model [216].
not be accurate in some real-world machine-learning situa-
tions. In fact, in some circumstances, gathering training data The first transfer learning technique involves training mod-
can be costly and/or challenging. As a result, the research els in similar domains by using a pre-trained model from a
community has been considering the development of high- source domain that is similar or related to the target domain.
performance learners who are trained using data that could The idea is that the knowledge learned from the source
be more easily obtained from other various domains instead domain can be leveraged to improve model performance
of the deployment domain. on the target domain, even if the target domain has limited
Transfer learning is a technique used to advance a learner labelled data.
in one domain by transferring knowledge from a related Training models in similar domains typically involve the
domain. Real-world, non-technical experiences can help us following steps:
comprehend why transfer learning is feasible. Take the case 1) Selecting a source domain: The source domain should
of two individuals who wish to learn how to play the piano. be chosen based on its similarity or relevance to the
One person has no prior musical training, whereas the other target domain. Ideally, the source domain should have
plays the guitar and has a wealth of musical expertise. By similar data distribution, task, or domain characteris-
applying previously acquired musical information to the goal tics as the target domain, so the knowledge learned
of learning to play the piano, a person with a strong musical from the source domain can be effectively transferred
background will be able to learn the piano more quickly and to the target domain.
effectively [207]. One can employ knowledge from a task 2) Acquiring or creating a labelled dataset in the source
they have already mastered to help them learn a new one that domain: A labelled dataset in the source domain is
is related. needed for training the pre-trained model. This dataset
The essence and necessity of transfer learning appear when should be representative of the data in the source
there is a dearth of target training data [206]. This can be domain and should cover the task or tasks of interest.
the result of the data being rare, expensive to gather and 3) Pre-training the model on the source domain: The pre-
label, or inaccessible. The use of other existing datasets trained model is trained on the labelled dataset in the
that are related to, but not precisely the same as a given source domain. This involves training the model using
target domain of interest makes transfer learning solutions standard machine learning or deep learning techniques,
an alluring strategy since big data repositories become more such as supervised learning or unsupervised learning,
widespread. Transfer learning has been successfully used in depending on the availability of labelled data in the
many machine and deep learning applications, including text source domain.
sentiment classification [208], image classification [209]– 4) Fine-tuning or adapting the pre-trained model to the
[211], classification of human activity [212], classification of target domain: After pre-training on the source domain,
software defects [213], and classification of multi-language the pre-trained model is fine-tuned or adapted to the
text [214]. target domain. This typically involves further training
Different techniques can be utilized in transfer learning to the model using the limited labelled data available
accomplish tasks as the following [215]: in the target domain, while retaining the knowledge
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learned from the source domain. Fine-tuning can be 4) Training a new model on top of the extracted features:
done by updating the weights of some or all of the lay- The extracted features are then used as inputs to a new
ers of the pre-trained model, depending on the specific model, which is trained on the limited labelled data
task and data. available in the target domain. This new model, often
5) Evaluating and validating the model performance: The referred to as the target model, is trained using standard
fine-tuned model is evaluated and validated on the machine learning or deep learning techniques, such as
target domain dataset to assess its performance. This supervised learning or fine-tuning, depending on the
may involve measuring metrics such as accuracy, pre- availability of data in the target domain.
cision, recall, F1 score, or other relevant performance 5) Evaluating and validating the target model perfor-
indicators to determine the effectiveness of the transfer mance: The trained target model is evaluated and val-
learning approach. idated on the target domain dataset to assess its per-
Transfer learning by training models in similar domains formance. This may involve measuring metrics such as
can be useful when the target domain has limited labelled accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score, or other relevant
data, but related or similar domains have abundant labelled performance indicators to determine the effectiveness
data. By leveraging the knowledge learned from the related of the transfer learning approach.
source domain, the model can benefit from the additional Feature extraction in transfer learning allows leveraging
data and potentially achieve better performance on the target the knowledge learned from the source domain to extract
domain task. However, it is important to carefully consider relevant features from the data in the target domain, even
the similarity and relevance between the source and target if the target domain has limited labelled data. By using
domains to ensure that the knowledge transfer is effective and the learned features as inputs to a new model, the target
results in improved performance. model can potentially benefit from the representations or
For the second transfer learning technique, feature ex- embeddings learned from the source domain. This can help
traction is one of the common techniques used in transfer improve the performance of the target model on the target
learning, where a pre-trained model is used to extract features domain task. However, it is important to carefully consider
from data in one domain and these features are then used to the similarity and relevance between the source and target
train a new model for a different task or domain [218]. domains to ensure that the features extracted from the source
In transfer learning with feature extraction, the pre-trained domain are relevant to the target task.
model is typically a deep neural network trained on a large
For the third transfer learning technique, utilizing pre-
dataset from a source domain. This model has learned to
trained models is a common approach in transfer learn-
extract relevant features from the source domain data, which
ing where a pre-trained model, typically trained on a large
can be representations or embeddings of the input data at
dataset, is used as a starting point for training a new model
different layers of the network. These learned features are
on a smaller target dataset. The idea is that the knowledge
then used as inputs to a new model, often referred to as the
learned from the source domain can be transferred to the
target model, which is trained on the limited labelled data
target domain, even if the two domains are different, to
available in the target domain.
improve the performance of the target model [219].
The process of using feature extraction in transfer learning
typically involves the following steps: Here are some key steps involved in utilizing pre-trained
1) Selecting a pre-trained model: The pre-trained model models for transfer learning:
should be chosen based on its relevance to the target 1) Select a pre-trained model: Choose a pre-trained model
task or domain. Ideally, the pre-trained model should that is trained on a large dataset and is relevant to
have been trained on a large dataset from a source your target task. For example, suppose you are working
domain that is similar or related to the target domain, on an image classification task. In that case, you can
so that the learned features are relevant to the target choose a pre-trained Convolutional Neural Network
task. (CNN) such as VGG, ResNet, or Inception, which have
2) Removing the last layers of the pre-trained model: The been trained on large image datasets like ImageNet.
last layers of the pre-trained model, which are often 2) Remove or freeze some layers: Depending on the ar-
responsible for task-specific predictions, are removed chitecture of the pre-trained model, it may be necessary
to retain the feature extraction capability of the model. to remove or freeze some layers. For example, you can
These last layers are replaced with new layers that are remove the output layer(s) of the pre-trained model and
specific to the target task. replace them with new layers that are suitable for your
3) Extracting features from the source data: The pre- target task. Alternatively, you can freeze the weights
trained model is used to extract features from the data of some of the layers in the pre-trained model and
in the source domain. This typically involves passing only fine-tune the remaining layers during the training
the data through the layers of the pre-trained model up process.
to a certain layer and using the outputs of that layer as 3) Add new layers: Add new layers on top of the pre-
the learned features. trained model to adapt it to your target task. These new
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layers are typically randomly initialized and are trained works (CNNs), traditionally used for image recognition, to
using the target dataset. The output of these new layers text classification tasks, including fake news detection [22].
serves as the final prediction layer for your target task. Models like VGG16, which were previously trained on large
4) Fine-tune the model: Train the entire model, including image datasets, may be reused by replacing the last layers and
the pre-trained layers and the newly added layers, on retraining on textual data [228]. This strategy takes advantage
your target dataset. During the fine-tuning process, the of CNNs’ hierarchical feature extraction capabilities, which
weights of the pre-trained layers and the new layers are enable them to detect detailed patterns in textual data that
updated using the gradients computed from the target indicate fake news. In addition, pre-training hybrid models
dataset. Fine-tuning allows the model to learn task- on large datasets and then fine-tuning them on specific fake
specific representations while leveraging the knowl- news datasets used in fake news to exploit the strengths of
edge from the pre-trained model. both architectures.
5) Evaluate and tune: After training, evaluate the perfor- Recently, the researchers shifted the whole focus to
mance of the transferred model on your target task. You transformer-based models, particularly those like BERT,
may need to tune the hyperparameters and architecture GPT-3, and Llama [229], [230]. These models are pre-
of the transferred model to optimize its performance. trained on massive datasets using self-supervised learning
Utilizing pre-trained models can be an effective transfer techniques, which enable them to understand and generate
learning approach as it allows leveraging the knowledge human-like text. For fake news detection, these models can
learned from large datasets, reducing the need for extensive be fine-tuned on labelled datasets specific to fake news,
training data in the target domain, and potentially improving enabling them to distinguish between fake and real news with
the performance of the target model. However, it’s important high precision.
to carefully choose the pre-trained model, architecture, and Based on the collected data from the surveyed articles,
fine-tuning strategy to ensure that the transferred knowledge along with their corresponding fake news detection effective-
is relevant and beneficial for the target task. ness, the following conclusions can be drawn related to the
There are various pre-trained machine learning mod- use of transfer learning techniques in this domain:
els available in the market, such as Google’s Inception 1) CNN with AlexNet as a transfer learning technique
model [220], Microsoft’s MicrosoftML R package [221] achieved an accuracy of 93.2%. In comparison, not
and Microsoftml Python package [222], and others like applying transfer learning recorded an accuracy of
AlexNet [223], Oxford’s VGG Model [224], and Mi- 70.1% in [22].
crosoft’s ResNet [225]. In addition, some of the well- 2) In [181], pre-trained BERT as a transfer learning tech-
known pre-trained models used for NLP-related data prob- nique achieved an accuracy of 94.66%. Similarly, a
lems are Google’s word2vec Model [226], Stanford’s GloVe pre-trained BERT has also helped in the detection of
Model [227] and BERT [180]. fake news using ISOT dataset [92]. In another case
BERT is a pre-trained language model that was initially of BERT variations, RoBERTa achieved an accuracy
introduced by Google in 2018. The model is trained on a large of 92.77% and 91.7% on Politifact and Gossipcop
corpus of unlabeled text data to learn the underlying structure respectively [229] which outperform the state-of-the-
of the language. It utilizes a transformer-based architecture art, without transfer learning, techniques by achieving
that allows it to capture long-term dependencies and con- an average accuracy of 10.49% and 14.53% improve-
textual relationships between words. After pre-training, the ments on Politifact and Gossipcop, respectively.
model is fine-tuned on a specific downstream NLP task, 3) CNN with various transfer learning techniques, such
such as sentiment analysis, question answering, or named as AlexNet, ResNet50, MobileNet, DenseNet, Xcep-
entity recognition. This fine-tuning step enables the model tionNet, InceptionV3, VGG16, and VGG19, achieved
to adapt to the specific requirements of the downstream high accuracy on the EMERGENT dataset [228]. The
task. In summary, BERT is a transfer learning technique that detection accuracy was ranging between 91.22% and
leverages pre-training on unlabeled text data and fine-tuning 97.68% in [49]. VGG16 was also used as a pre-trained
on specific NLP tasks to achieve state-of-the-art performance model with freezing some layers and trained on a self-
on a variety of NLP benchmarks [180]. created dataset, achieving about 98% detection accu-
In particular, the most common transfer learning strategy racy [72].
in fake news detection is fine-tuning pre-trained models. 4) The Universal Language Model Fine-tuning transfer
Models like BERT, Llama, and GPT (Generative Pre-trained learning technique has achieved over 80% for all the
Transformer) have been pre-trained on extensive text corpora evaluation metrics (Accuracy, Precision, Recall, F1) on
and can be fine-tuned for fake news detection [92]. By PHEME dataset [56].
adjusting the weights of these models on a specific fake news
dataset, researchers can achieve high detection accuracy with B. TRANSFER LEARNING CHALLENGES FOR FAKE
relatively low computational resources. NEWS DETECTION
Other transfer learning strategies used for fake news de- Transfer learning has been used in various natural language
tection include the adaptation of Convolutional Neural Net- processing (NLP) applications, including fake news detec-
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tion. However, there are several challenges associated with poorly when datasets are highly imbalanced [232]. From the
applying transfer learning in this domain. standpoint of applications, the nature of the imbalance can
One initial aspect that we must highlight is that transfer be divided into two categories: data that is naturally imbal-
learning has not been extensively explored in fake news anced (e.g., credit card frauds, earthquakes, shuttle failure
detection. we consider that this is partly due to the complexity and rare diseases) or data for which it is too expensive to
of the task, which requires identifying subtle linguistic cues obtain data on the minority class for learning such as natural
and context-specific information. disasters prediction, or uncommon events prediction such as
Another challenge concerns the difficulty in finding related volcanic eruptions or tsunamis, may require historical data or
domains and publicly available datasets that can be useful for expert knowledge, which could be sparse or expensive to ob-
training the models. The success of transfer learning relies on tain [232]. This is also the case for fake news detection where
the availability of large and diverse datasets that share some the number of fake news available is much less represented
commonality with the target task. However, in the case of in the available data.
fake news detection, relevant datasets are often limited, and Several techniques have been proposed to address the
it can be challenging to find related domains that can be used issues associated with class imbalance. The three main types
for transfer learning. of techniques that can be applied are resampling techniques
The rarity of data is another significant challenge in (or data pre-processing), algorithmic level techniques, and
fake news detection. Since the detection of fake news is data post-processing techniques [233]. The solutions most
a relatively new area of research, there are limited anno- commonly used are the data pre-processing or algorithm-
tated datasets available for training and testing models. This level techniques.
scarcity of data makes it difficult to apply transfer learning In data preprocessing techniques, sampling is applied to
techniques, which rely on large amounts of labelled data for the training data to add new samples or remove existing ones.
pre-training. These techniques aim to change the training data distribution
In addition to these challenges, other issues need to be to force the learning algorithm to focus on the most relevant
addressed to apply transfer learning effectively in fake news class. This change in the training data can be accomplished
detection. For instance, the choice of pre-trained models and through over- and/or under-sampling. Over-sampling is the
their adaptation to specific tasks can significantly impact the process of adding new samples to the training data while
performance of the models. Furthermore, the transferability under-sampling is the process of removing samples. Fig-
of pre-trained models across different languages, domains, ure 14 and Figure 15 illustrate the random under-sampling
and cultures is still an active area of research. Considering and random over-sampling techniques. These techniques act
transfer learning strategies is a relevant area for further re- by randomly removing cases or adding copies of existing
search that can lead to improved solutions for FND. cases.

VI. STRATEGIES FOR DEALING WITH IMBALANCE

Deep learning and machine learning algorithms presuppose
that the target classes of the training data have similar prior
probabilities. This assumption, however, is flagrantly vio-
lated in a variety of real-world applications, including fake
news detection. In this section, we start by summarizing the
main techniques used to deal with the class imbalance prob-
lem and describe our main findings from the surveyed articles
in the context of fake news detection. Then we summarize the FIGURE 14: Random under-sampling
main open challenges related to the class imbalance problem
that are still open in this domain. In Random Under-sampling, examples from the majority
class are randomly removed from the training dataset until
A. THE CLASS IMBALANCE PROBLEM IN THE the class distribution becomes more balanced. This can be
CONTEXT OF FAKE NEWS DETECTION achieved by randomly selecting examples from the majority
In many real-world domains, the majority of the available class and removing them from the training dataset. Random
examples belong to one class (the majority or negative class) under-sampling can be a simple and quick technique to ad-
while a much smaller number belongs to the other class dress class imbalance, but it may result in the loss of valuable
(the minority or positive class), which is typically the most information from the majority class, leading to a potential
important class [231]. This situation is known as the class loss of predictive performance.
imbalance problem. The dominant class tends to overpower In Random over-sampling, examples from the minority
classifiers in this situation, causing them to overlook the mi- class are randomly duplicated or synthetically generated to
nority class. The significance of the imbalance problem grew increase their representation in the training dataset. This
as more researchers discovered that it leads to inadequate can be achieved by randomly selecting examples from the
classification performance and that most algorithms perform minority class and duplicating them or generating synthetic
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93.56% respectively.
It should be noted that despite the effectiveness of class
imbalance techniques in improving the accuracy of fake news
detection models, a significant portion of the literature has
not thoroughly investigated or addressed this issue. From
our findings, only five research articles investigated the class
imbalance effect on fake news detection. This highlights the
need for further research and exploration of various imbal-
FIGURE 15: Random over-sampling
ance techniques to better understand their impact on model
performance and generalizability in the context of fake news
detection.
examples using techniques such as SMOTE (Synthetic Mi-
nority Over-sampling Technique) [234] or ADASYN (Adap-
tive Synthetic Sampling) [235]. Random over-sampling can B. CHALLENGES RELATED TO THE CLASS
help in increasing the representation of the minority class, but IMBALANCE PROBLEM IN FAKE NEW DETECTION
it may also result in overfitting or amplification of noise if not Class imbalance is a common problem in multiple applica-
done carefully. tion domains, and fake news detection is not an exception.
The second method for resolving class imbalance is to However, it has not received as much attention as it deserves
create or modify an existing algorithm. Instead of changing in the context of fake news detection, which we consider a big
the distribution of the training data, the change is applied to challenge to be addressed. The imbalance between real and
the learning and the decision process by increasing the im- fake news samples in the dataset can lead to biased classifica-
portance of the positive class. The cost-sensitive method and tion, where the model performs well on the majority class but
recognition-based approaches, kernel-based learning, such poorly on the minority class [233]. Even when considering
as support vector machine (SVM) and radial basis func- the usage of deep learning models, it was shown that the class
tion [236], are among the algorithms that have been adapted imbalance problem will still affect the performance of the
to address the class imbalance problem. Typically, specially models [238].
developed algorithms for dealing with the class imbalance One of the challenges related to the class imbalance prob-
issue will work very well for a specific domain for which they lem in fake news detection is the issue of using adequate
were thought. However, they will fail under other domains performance assessment metrics to evaluate the model’s
and they require a thorough understanding of the algorithm performance. Traditional metrics such as accuracy can be
to implement the modifications [233]. misleading, as the model may perform well on the majority
Our findings show that the use of various imbalance class but miss out on correctly identifying the minority class.
techniques, such as oversampling and downsampling, has This issue emphasizes the need for specialized metrics such
shown promising results in improving the performance of as F1 score, precision, and recall [239].
different classifiers, including RNN variations, CNN, and In the FND domain, there is a lack of systematic studies
hybrid models like CNN+LSTM. The results indicate that that evaluate the impact of known techniques for dealing
oversampling has been effective in improving the accuracy with class imbalance. Techniques such as oversampling,
of LSTM and CNN models in [21], achieving accuracies of undersampling, and ensemble methods have been widely
95.51% and 98.96%, respectively. Similarly, oversampling used in many other domains. However, their effectiveness in
has also been beneficial for BERT, achieving an accuracy of fake news detection remains understudied. Therefore, more
94.66% in [181]. research is needed to explore the effectiveness of these tech-
Moreover, the use of SMOTE oversampling has demon- niques in the FND domain. An important challenge with the
strated effectiveness in dealing with class imbalance. For application of these techniques for fake news detection is
instance, in [237], SMOTE was used to improve the perfor- related to the generation of fake news texts. In this case, it
mance of a DNN model, achieving an accuracy of 98% on is necessary to generate complete texts that look like real
the Politifact dataset. news, but it is also necessary to generate texts that correspond
Additionally, another study [179] utilized the focal loss to fake news. This leads to another challenge connected
function to prevent classification bias towards the majority to the need to carefully craft the synthetic text generation
class, which significantly improved the performance of their so that it corresponds to either fake news or real news. In
models on imbalanced datasets. particular, the generated fake news articles should be realistic
Downsampling has shown effectiveness in improving the and representative of the actual fake news articles to ensure
training accuracy of hybrid models like CNN+LSTM on the effectiveness of the model.
PHEME and FN-COV datasets in [35], achieving accu- The context is also a challenge when considering the gen-
racy rates of 91.88% and 98.62% respectively. Addition- eration of fake news. Since fake news is often generated in
ally, downsampling has improved the accuracy of CNN and response to specific events or situations, it can be difficult to
LSTM models in [53], achieving accuracies of 92.38% and apply generic techniques for dealing with a class imbalance
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that does not consider the specific context in which the fake websites intended to disseminate misinformation. This fake
news was generated. news will end up being shared on social media platforms
Lastly, special-purpose algorithms that can deal with the by its creator. This fake news will also be shared by other
class imbalance problem have not been explored or evaluated individuals unintentionally without checking the news source
for FND. These algorithms include cost-sensitive learning, or by other malicious users and bots.
manipulating the loss functions, or building ensembles that Our findings show that Liar, ISOT, PHEM, and Fake-
are specially developed to address the class imbalance prob- NewsNet (with their three variations) are the most popular
lem [233]. These techniques have shown promising results datasets being used in fake news detection. These six datasets
in multiple domains, and their effectiveness in FND requires have been used in about 80% of the surveyed articles. We
further investigation. also noticed that researchers frequently attempted to create
In conclusion, addressing the class imbalance problem in their own dataset to reach the required size and the domain
fake news detection is crucial for developing accurate and which is obvious in about 45% of the surveyed studies.
reliable models. Still, not much research has been done to Other researchers combined two or more datasets to have an
address this problem. Researchers and practitioners need acceptable-sized dataset.
to pay more attention to this problem and explore various It is also worth mentioning that selecting a proper dataset
techniques to overcome it. This is a possible area where is a crucial task in fake news detection since it will impact the
future researchers should focus on that may lead to improved detection effectiveness. It is noticeable from our findings that
solutions for FND. applying the same detection model in different datasets has
an enormous difference in the detection accuracy [28], [31],
VII. ANSWERS TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS [42]–[44], [47], [51], [123], [127], [137], [138], [165], [172],
In this section, we attempt to answer the research questions [174], [188], [190].
presented in Section II-B based on our findings. The detailed RQ3: How effective are deep learning methods for fake
answers are described below. news detection?
RQ1: Which algorithms are used for fake news detec-
Researchers studied various DL algorithms in the detection
tion throughout time?
and classification of fake news as we mentioned previously.
Given our findings, deep learning models are considered
These algorithms include CNN, RNN (with it is variations),
effective models in fake news detection. There is a notable
GNN, BERT and Attention-based mechanisms, and hybrid
increase in the number of articles that address the different
approaches. The detection effectiveness of these algorithms
models and architectures for this task. We also noticed that
is affected by the datasets used and by the use of a combina-
the research focus shifted towards deep learning models for
tion of different architectures for the detection.
FND during the global COVID-19 Pandemic in 2021 which
CNN and Bi(LSTM) have been the most used detection
forms about 92% of the research effort that was conducted on
models and they achieved the highest detection accuracy
FND. The remaining 8% of the FND research was conducted
when compared against the other approaches. RNNs, in-
before this year.
cluding their variations such as LSTM/(Bi)LSTM and GRU,
Our findings also show that fake news can be detected
are utilized with considerable effectiveness at 70%. Their
by CNNs, RNNs, GRUs, LSTMs, and BERTs models in
ability to maintain information over sequences allows them
many variations and with different architectures. We noticed
to understand context better, which is essential for identifying
that LSTM/(Bi)LSTM were the models that appeared more
fake news. CNNs on the other hand have proven to be
frequently in the surveyed articles. The detection was also
effective for fake news detection tasks, appearing in 61% of
examined using hybrid models which increased the detection
the research articles we surveyed. BERT and hybrid detection
effectiveness at some points. It is also noticeable that using
models have also made a noticeable detection effectiveness
the BERT model in the detection of fake news exhibits a huge
appearing in about 47% of the surveyed articles. Feedforward
positive impact on the detection effectiveness.
Neural Networks and Graph Neural Networks were also used
RQ2: Which datasets are used in the fake news detec-
in the detection process even though not in many studies.
tion domain?
The most difficult part of detecting fake news is the ab- It is worth mentioning that in one research article, many
sence of a labelled dataset with trustworthy ground truth deep learning models were developed to draw comprehensive
labels with an accepted size [197]. For several usages in conclusions. Hence, the total percentage of all the models that
DL, researchers attempted to collect datasets over the last appeared in the surveyed articles is more than 100%.
few years. The collected datasets are massively varied from The detailed effectiveness of DL detection models in the
one another due to the purpose of the study. For instance, fake news field is in Section III.
some of these datasets are political and consist of political RQ4: Which solutions are considering transfer learn-
statements as is the case in PolitiFact. Other datasets are built ing mechanisms (if any)?
with news articles collected in a specific time frame, while Transfer learning is the process of exploiting what has
other datasets include social media posts such as Twitter. been learned in one task to improve the generalization in
Moreover, fake news is frequently collected from duplicitous another task [206]. The goal of transfer learning is to improve
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learning in the target task by leveraging knowledge from the to well-classified examples and focusing more on hard-to-
source task. classify instances [179]. This approach helps to prevent the
Transfer learning is not applied in many fake news detec- model from becoming biased towards the majority class and
tion studies as our findings show. There are only seven re- ensures that the minority class instances are given appropriate
search articles that examined the effect of transfer learning on attention during training.
detection accuracy [22], [72], [92], [99], [181], [185], [229]. Handling the imbalanced dataset achieved a better accu-
However, utilizing transfer learning strategies increased the racy result compared to the baseline cases that do not deal
detection accuracy. The transfer learning that was utilized in with the class imbalance. Thus, this is a relevant area for
the FND domain may be categorized under fine-tuning pre- further research that can lead to improved solutions for FND.
trained models, using CNN-based architectures, employing
pre-trained hybrid models, and leveraging transformer-based VIII. THREATS TO VALIDITY
models. The highest improvement presented by utilizing SLRs are prone to several threats to validity that may lead to
transfer learning was by reaching an accuracy of 93.2% when a bias in the review outcomes. These threats are publication
applying the Alexnet pre-trained model which represents an bias and errors in data collection, study exclusion, and data
improvement of 23.1% compared to the baseline case which extraction. Regarding publication bias, studies with positive
is done without applying transfer learning. results are more expected to be selected over negative studies.
It is worth mentioning that applying the same detection This issue is alleviated by attempting to determine whether
model on different datasets recorded enormous differences in the studies discuss their results and limitations. Moreover, the
the detection accuracy [28], [29], [31], [42], [44], [47], [51], sole purpose of this SLR is to report the effectiveness of DL
[123], [127], [137], [138], [165], [172], [174], [188], [190]. models rather than present new results. In addition, there is
This issue might be tackled by including a transfer learning no motivation from our SLR to select studies reporting only
approach so the detection model can report an approximate positive results.
accuracy. Regarding filtering out studies based on the search criteria,
RQ5: Which solutions deal with different levels of an we aimed to have a broad search query as we mentioned in
imbalanced dataset? Section II-C to alleviate this threat. We could also expand the
A dataset with a skewed class distribution where the end- survey date range to contain the studies that were published
user preferences are biased towards the least represented before 2018. However, fake news became more popular from
class(es) suffers from a class imbalance problem. A model 2018 onward, and we aimed to provide an updated review
learned under these conditions will focus on the majority of the most recent trends in this application domain. This
class and will not learn correctly the minority and important motivation is supported by Figure 3 which demonstrates the
classes [233]. remarkable increase in fake news detection publications over
Most of the available fake news datasets are imbalanced. time.
From the articles we surveyed, only 7 papers specifically
Regarding the issue of incorrectly excluded articles and
treated class imbalance and studied its effect on fake news
extracting the data, we alleviated this issue by asking another
detection by utilizing various strategies to handle this is-
researcher to review some random studies. There is no rule
sue. These strategies were: random and advance oversam-
for determining the number of articles for the random check
pling in four articles, random undersampling in two articles,
task, but about half of the surveyed articles were selected for
and utilizing a different loss function in one article. The
this special check.
oversampling has been deployed by increasing the number
of instances in the minority class to match the majority
IX. MAIN GAPS AND OPEN ISSUES
class which improved the detection effectiveness [21], [32],
[181]. In addition, advanced oversampling techniques such as From our investigation, we gathered a list of the main gaps
the Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE), and open challenges that still deserve the attention of the
generate synthetic examples of the minority class by inter- research community for the fake news detection problem. We
polating between existing instances rather than duplicating must highlight that this is a challenging task, involving sev-
existing ones. SMOTE helped the trained model get about eral difficulties which we describe to allow future researchers
95% detection accuracy with a noticeable improvement com- to focus on the most important open issues.
pared to the baseline case without treating the class imbal- • Lack of labelled data: One of the major challenges in
ance [237]. This helped to mitigate the risk of overfitting and training deep learning models for fake news detection
enhanced the model’s generalization ability. is the limited availability of labelled data [199], [204].
Another strategy presented to balance the dataset was the Fake news datasets are often small, and obtaining ac-
random undersampling which involves reducing the number curate and comprehensive annotations for training can
of instances in the majority class to match the minority be challenging. This can impact the performance and
class [35], [53]. generalization of deep learning models, as they heavily
Finally, the focal loss function is designed to address rely on large amounts of labelled data for effective
the class imbalance by down-weighting the loss assigned training.
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• Potentially biased datasets: Another issue in fake news verse sources of misinformation, and rapid information
detection is the potential bias in the datasets used for spread, can impact the performance and reliability of
training and evaluation [203]. Fake news datasets may deep learning models in practical scenarios [200], [205].
contain inherent biases, such as political or cultural
biases, that can affect the performance and fairness of X. CONCLUSION
deep learning models. It is essential to carefully curate The increasing volume of people using communication plat-
and preprocess datasets to mitigate these biases and forms has opened the door for the spread of fake news. Fake
ensure the reliability and generalizability of the models. news can influence readers in many aspects, and it is crucial
• Lack of benchmarks: There is a lack of standardized to understand this phenomenon and study mechanisms that
benchmarks for evaluating the performance of deep allow its early detection. Deep learning has shown its poten-
learning models in fake news detection. The absence of tial in various tasks, including natural language processing,
benchmark datasets, evaluation metrics, and protocols and our systematic literature review highlights its effective-
makes it challenging to compare the performance of ness in fake news detection.
different models and assess their effectiveness [188], From our findings, the main categories of algorithms used
[240]. The development of standardized benchmarks for FND are CNN, RNN, GNN, Attention-based mecha-
can facilitate fair and rigorous comparisons and foster nisms, and BERT. Among these, the most frequently used are
advancements in the field. RNN-based models, which include the Bi(LSTM). We also
• Transfer learning solutions not sufficiently explored: found that Liar, ISOT, PHEME, and FakeNewsNet are the
Transfer learning, which leverages pre-trained models publicly available datasets most frequently used in fake news
for feature extraction or model initialization, has shown detection. These datasets are a central aspect because select-
promise in improving the performance of deep learning a proper dataset is crucial. In effect, the data selection
ing models for various tasks [241], [242]. However, in will have an important impact on the detection effectiveness.
the context of fake news detection, the exploration of Finally, we found that transfer learning and the class
transfer learning solutions is still limited. There is a need imbalance problem are not widely explored in fake news
to further investigate and optimize transfer learning ap- detection studies, even though these techniques have shown
proaches for fake news detection to leverage knowledge promising results in increasing detection accuracy in many
from related tasks and domains. fields. Overall, our systematic review highlights the potential
• Class imbalance not adequately addressed: Class of deep learning in fake news detection and identifies impor-
imbalance, where the number of samples in different tant areas for future research. We also provide a comprehen-
classes is significantly imbalanced, is a common issue sive list of the main gaps and open issues in this domain to
in fake news detection. Deep learning models trained on guide the next steps of research in this area.
imbalanced datasets may result in biased and inaccurate
predictions, as they tend to be biased towards the ma-
jority class [243], [244]. Although some studies have
explored imbalance techniques such as oversampling
or undersampling, the effectiveness of these techniques
in deep learning for fake news detection needs further
investigation.
• Limited understanding of fake news dynamics: Despite
MOHAMMAD Q. ALNABHAN holds a Bache-
extensive research on fake news, there is still a limited lor’s and Master’s degree in Computer Science
understanding of the complex dynamics and mecha- with a specialization in data mining. Currently
nisms underlying the spread and impact of misinforma- pursuing a Ph.D. at the University of Ottawa,
tion [245]. Deep learning models for fake news detec- Canada. His major field of study is focused on
deep learning for security matters and fake news
tion may be limited by the lack of a comprehensive un- detection on social media.
derstanding of how fake news is created, disseminated, He brings a wealth of expertise to his academic
and received, which can impact the models’ accuracy pursuits through a diverse range of work experi-
and effectiveness. Further research is needed to better ences. Mohammad has been a dedicated part-time
professor in the Computer Science department at the University of Ottawa
understand the underlying dynamics of fake news and since 2022, where he imparts his knowledge and passion for the subject to
inform the development of more effective solutions. students. In addition to his academic role, he has proven his skills as a full-
• Real-world applicability: While deep learning models stack Programmer and a Microsoft Certified Trainer Specialist, showcasing
for fake news detection show promising results in con- his proficiency in industry-standard technologies.
trolled research settings, their real-world applicability,
and effectiveness in detecting fake news in diverse and
dynamic environments, such as social media or online
news platforms, is still a challenge. Real-world fac-
tors, such as varying levels of information quality, di-
VOLUME 4, 2016 19

Author et al.: Preparation of Papers for IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS

PAULA BRANCO Paula Branco received the [18] A. Abdullah, M. Awan, M. Shehzad, and M. Ashraf, “Fake news classi-
Ph.D. degree in Computer Science from the Fac- fication bimodal using convolutional neural network and long short-term
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Intelligence, Machine Learning, KDD, and Data [20] M. Al-Sarem, A. Alsaeedi, F. Saeed, W. Boulila, and O. AmeerBakhsh,
Mining, and in particular, imbalanced domain “A novel hybrid deep learning model for detecting covid-19-related
rumors on social media based on lstm and concatenated parallel cnns,”
problems, rare extreme values forecast, health and
Applied Sciences, vol. 11, no. 17, p. 7940, 2021.
cybersecurity applications, and privacy.
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19 misinformation on twitter,” Future Internet, vol. 13, no. 10, p. 244,
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