Faculty of Nursing

Department of Psychiatry & Mental

Health Nursing
Masters Program
Autumn Semester 2022-2023

COURSE: THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGY

TOPIC: BEHAVIORISM THEORY PART I and II

SUPERVISED BY: Prof. Dr. Sanaa Abdel Aziz

PREPARED BY: Hemat Mostafa

Nicholas K. Bii
OUTLINE
❖ Introduction

❖ Definition of terms

❖ Types of Behaviorism

❖ Classical conditioning

o Biography

o Basics of classical conditioning

o Applications of classical conditioning

o Criticisms

❖ Operant Conditioning

o Biography

o Basics of operant conditioning

o Difference between classic and operant conditioning

o Basics of operant conditioning

o Self-control processes

o Applications of operant conditioning

o Criticisms

❖ Strengths and weaknesses of the behaviorist approach

❖ References

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Introduction

Behaviorism is based on the study of what can only be observed as a means to

attempt to make psychology more scientific. This way, it redefines psychology as
the study of overt behavior. It is built on the belief that behaviors can be measured,
trained and changed.

Ivan Pavlov is credited for demonstrating the simple form of learning called classical
conditioning in his famous experiment with dogs, food, a tone, and salivation. In
classical conditioning, the organism learns that one stimulus will be followed by
another stimulus because the two stimuli repeatedly occur closely together in time.

John B. Watson was also another advocate of classical conditioning, through his
famous experiment with “little Albert” he demonstrated that fear to a previously
neutral stimulus can easily be conditioned. Watson and Raynor presented Little
Albert with a white rat and he showed no fear. Watson then presented the rat with a
loud bang that startled Little Albert and made him cry. After the continuous
association of the white rat and loud noise, Little Albert was classically conditioned
to experience fear at the sight of the rat. Albert's fear generalized to other stimuli
that were similar to the rat, including a fur coat, some cotton wool, and a Father
Christmas mask.

Edward L. Thorndike on the other hand contributed to the behavioral theory through
his famous ‘Law of effect’ principle. In Thorndike’s experiment, cats were deprived
of food, and then placed in problem boxes and left there until they accidentally
moved a mechanism that opened a door and allowed them to escape. The animals
usually made a variety of responses before making the correct one- a phenomenon
Thorndike referred to as trial-and-error learning. He explained this trial-and-error
learning by maintaining that an association was established between the animals’

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responses and the reinforcing consequences. The law of effect states that behaviors
that lead to reward tend to be ‘stamped in’ (i.e. increase in strength), whereas those
that lead to punishment tend to be ‘stamped out’ (i.e. decrease in strength).

B. F. Skinner, popularly known for the operant conditioning, argued that most
behavior is learned based on the reinforcement (consequence of reward or
punishment) to the organism’s response. A response operates on the environment to
produce consequences that either strengthen or weaken that behavior. Skinner
adopted a modification of the law of effect to explain the acquisition of behavior. If
the response is reinforced, it is more likely to occur again; if it is not reinforced, it is
less likely to recur.

Behaviorism can be best summed up by J.B. Watson’s quote: “Give me a dozen

healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and
I’ll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of
specialist I might select…doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even
beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities,
vocations and race of his ancestors.”

Definition of Terms

Behaviorism - is defined an approach to psychology based on the study of objective,

observable facts rather than subjective, qualitative processes, such as feelings,
motives, and consciousness.

Learning is defined as the relatively permanent change in behavior brought about

as a result of experience or practice.

Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning that occurs through the repeated
association of two or more different stimuli. An initially neutral stimulus (e.g., tone)
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is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food), to enable it elicit a
conditioned response (salivation) in an automatic manner thus transforming the
neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) is a method/procedure of

learning through which a change in the consequences of a response-through rewards
or punishment- will affect the rate at which the response occurs.

Operant refers to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to
generate consequences.

Operant behavior- defined as the behavior that acts on the environment to produce
an immediate consequence and in turn is strengthened by that consequence.

Respondent behavior- refers to behaviors elicited by antecedent stimuli and are

relatively insensitive to their consequences.

Stimulus refers to an event, sensation or experience that causes you to react.

Neutral stimulus- a stimulus which does not naturally cause the subject to respond
in a certain way.

Conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that acquires positive or

aversive properties through conditioning.

Unconditioned stimulus refers to a stimulus that automatically elicits a particular

(unconditioned) response, without any learning or conditioning being necessary.

Conditioned response is a response to a conditioned stimulus that has been learned

through conditioning.

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Unconditioned response refers to an automatic, unlearned response elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus.

Basic Assumptions of Behavior Theory

i) All human behavior is a response to a stimulus/stimuli from the environment

ii) Human beings can control or determine the behavior of other
iii) The human personality is a mere pattern of stimulus-response chains or habits
iv) Both adaptive and maladaptive behavior are learned or strengthened through
reinforcement
v) Maladaptive behavior can be unlearned and replaced by adaptive behavior if
the person receives exposure to specific stimuli or reinforcements for the
desired adaptive behavior.

Types of Conditioning

There are two major types:

i) Classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian

ii) Operant conditioning, also called the instrumental

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning is defined as a type of learning that occurs through the

repeated association of two or more different stimuli. Learning is only said to have
occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not
previously produce.

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This conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). Through repeated pairing, the
neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that evokes a conditioned
response (CR) similar to the original UCR.

Biography

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) author of Lectures on the Work of the Principal Digestive
Glands (1897), Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes (1928), and Conditioned Reflexes
and Psychiatry (1941) hailed from Ryazan, Russia.

He was a natural science graduate of the University of St. Petersburg when he got
admitted into the Academy of Medical Surgery. After obtaining his doctorate, he

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joined the Military Medical Academy serving as director in the department of
physiology in the Institute of Experimental Medicine.

In 1904, his work on the digestive secretions of dogs at the Institute earned him the
Nobel Prize. This work formed the foundation to his renowned classical
conditioning. Pavlov passed on in 1936 having suffered from pneumonia.

Basics of Classical Conditioning

1) Acquisition

Refers to the period during which a response is being learned. Under normal
circumstance a dog cannot salivate at the sound of a tone (neutral stimulus), instead
it can only prick up its ears. If presented with food (unconditioned stimulus), it
automatically starts salivating (unconditioned response), this response is reflexive-
their nature when they see food.

The tone is paired with food to produce salivation response by the dog, this is called
a learning trial. After several learning trials, the dog will salivate upon presentation
of the tone without food. The initially neutral stimulus has thus acquired the status
of conditioned stimulus.

This principle also states that the higher the intensity of the UCS the stronger the
response. The larger the amount of food the more rapid conditioning happens.

Stronger acquisition also occurs when the time interval between presentation of tone
and food is shorter. Forward pairing where CS (tone) appears first then followed by
UCS (food) results in quick learning.

Acquisition can also happen with just one CS-UCS pairing (one-trial learning) in
cases where the UCS is intense and aversive like electric shock or any traumatic
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event. For example, car phobia following a very traumatic accident. Riding in or
seeing a car, initially NS becomes a CS. Fear, which was the UCR, becomes CR
triggered by the sight of cars.

2) Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Extinction is a process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of

UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear. Each occurrence of the
CS without UCS is called extinction trial. When several extinction trials were
repeated, the dog finally stopped salivating upon presentation of the tone.

When a CR extinguishes, not all traces of it are necessarily erased. Even when the
dog had stopped salivating, when the tone is still presented later it may still salivate.
This is termed as spontaneous recovery- defined as the reappearance of a
previously extinguished CR after a rest period and without new learning trials.
Spontaneous recovery indicates that the extinction occurs through the formation of
an inhibition of the CR, rather than the unlearning of the CR.

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3) Stimulus generalization

This is the process by which CSs that are similar, but not identical to the original CS
elicit a CR. Typically adaptive because it allows us to transfer what we have learned
to new things.

For example, a dog that salivates to a medium-pitched tone is more likely to salivate
to a new tone slightly different in pitch than to a very low-or-high-pitched tone.

Stimulus generalization occurs along a generalization gradient: the more similar to

the original CS the new CS is, the stronger the CR will be.

4) Stimulus discrimination

This occurs when we exhibit a less pronounced CR to CSs that defer from the
original CS. For instance, the dog does not salivate to presentation of all manner of
sounds, it can differentiate which is the correct one and ignore the others which are
not similar to the original one.

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A person with car phobia is able to discriminate between cars and bicycles, trains or
airplanes. This is adaptive as it enables one to distinguish between relevant and
irrelevant stimuli.

APPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

There are three behavioral therapy applications

1) Systematic Desensitization/ Graduated Exposure

It is the planned progressive exposure to stimuli that elicit fear or anxiety while the
fear response is suppressed with relaxation techniques. The main principle in this
therapy is to teach the patient how to relax as the session progresses. It involves
gradually presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS itself does
not produce the CR. Actually, this is the process of extinction of the association
between the CS and the CR.

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This therapy is useful in eliminating a range of problems involving fear/phobias and
anxiety responses.

Hierarchies of the fear-eliciting stimuli are constructed through a detailed

assessment. The stimuli least likely to evoke fear or anxiety is introduced initially,
followed by gradual exposure to more fearful stimuli. Can be imaginal exposure
(visual imagery) or real-life exposure.

There are basically three steps in systematic desensitization:

i) Teach the individual a relaxation strategy

ii) Breakdown the CS into a sequence arranged from least to most anxiety-
producing. Also known as fear hierarchy
iii) Gradually begin to extinguish the CR by pairing items in the hierarchy with
relaxation by working upward/gradually through the items in the
hierarchy.

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The process of systematic desensitization (graduated exposure)

UCS UCR UCS UCR CS CR

2) Aversion therapy

This is a therapy which inhibits or discourages undesirable behavior by pairing it

with an aversive stimulus so that the behavior becomes associated with pain or
discomfort. It is programmed to ensure patients stop an unwanted habit by linking
such habit with an unconditioned stimulus that is not pleasant.

Aversion therapy is based on the learning theory which states that all behaviors are
learned and if we want to change an undesirable behavior, we can change it through
appropriate conditioning.

There have been successful results in its use to treat many behaviors such as
alcoholism, drug dependence, nail biting, gambling, sexual deviance and varying
obsessions and compulsions.

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For example, an individual ate something and felt sick afterwards. If this happened
2 or 3 times, then he is likely to avoid this kind of food as he doesn’t want to get sick
again.

There are two main types of aversion therapy

i) Overt sensitization is a type that links an unpleasant stimulus, such as nausea, to

an undesirable behavior. For example, if someone wants to quit smoking, he may be
asked to hold the smoke in his mouth for 6-7 seconds for every puff and do this
rapidly. The rapid smoking will produce a nauseating feeling, which is an unpleasant
feeling for the smoker. Gradually, the individual’s desire to smoke will decrease.

Sometimes drugs are used to induce unpleasant stimuli such as severe nausea,
palpitation and headache. For example, disulfiram (Antabuse) as used in
management of alcohol addiction by serving as a deterrent to drinking.

ii) Covert sensitization- this technique requires that the individual has the
motivation to change. Instead of relying on external factors, such as drugs, to
produce the unpleasant stimuli, the individual has to produce the stimuli himself.
The individual learns to imagine and create the nauseating feeling. He can practice
this whenever it is required.

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3) Flooding

This therapy involves bringing the client into direct contact with the CS and keeping
them in contact with it until the CR is extinguished. Used for treatment of phobias
and anxiety disorders.

The principle behind this technique is that anxiety will be experienced at a very high
level and then gradually diminish, thus enabling the client to experience the CS in
the absence of the CR.

It works by exposing the patient to their painful memories with the goal of
reintegrating their repressed emotions with current awareness. With the guidance
and support from the therapist, the anxiety is eventually decreased.

It can be imaginal flooding (visual imagery) or in-vivo flooding (real-life

experience).

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CRITICISMS

In real-life settings, many human behaviors are not automatic and not simple as
underestimated by Pavlov’s theory

It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture. It is

more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and
nurture (environment).

In normal adults the conditioning process can apparently be overridden by

instructions: simply telling participants that the unconditioned stimulus will not
occur causes an instant loss of the conditioned response, which would otherwise
extinguish only slowly.

Classical conditioning theory is deterministic- it does not allow for any degree of
free will in the individual. Accordingly, a person has no control over the reactions
they have learned from classical conditioning, such as a phobia. This is not the case
in real-life experiences.

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OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning, also known instrumental conditioning, is rooted in the theory

that behavior can be understood by looking at one's past and present environment
and the reinforcements within it, thereby influencing behavior either positively or
negatively.

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based
on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect.

Skinner’s work has had wide practical applications. Therapeutic techniques derived
from his research are being applied in clinical settings to treat a variety of disorders
including psychoses, mental retardation, and autism. His behavior-modification
techniques are also used in schools, businesses, correctional institutions, and
hospitals.

Biographical Sketch

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna,

Pennsylvania. He received his Bachelor of Arts, English Major from Hamilton
College in 1926 and thereafter ventured into writing as a career. He was involved in
literature pieces and poems though he did not succeed as a novelist.

He then opted to pursue his interest in animal and human behavior by enrolling into
graduate school at Harvard University in 1928, to study psychology. Skinner became
interested in the ideas of Pavlov and Watson, and received his Ph.D. in 1931 despite
never taking a course in this field prior to his enrolment. Thereafter, he did several
postdoctoral fellowships, staying at Harvard until 1936.

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He later authored some books including The Behaviour of Organisms: An
Experimental Analysis (1938) and Science and Human Behaviour (1953).

On August 10, 1990, Professor Skinner was awarded a Citation for Outstanding
Lifetime Contribution to Psychology by the American Psychological Association.
He died of complications from leukemia on August 18, 1990, in Cambridge,
Massachusetts

Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning

 All behavior is learned

 Consequences result from behavior- broadly speaking, reward and
punishment
 Behavior that is rewarded with reinforcers tend to recur
 Positive reinforcers that follow a behavior increase the likelihood that the
behavior will recur
 Negative reinforcers that are removed after a behavior increases the likelihood
that the behavior will recur
 Continuous reinforcement is the fastest way to increase that behavior, but the
behavior will not last long after the reward ceases
 Random intermittent reinforcement is slower to produce an increase in
behavior, but the behavior continues after the reward ceases.

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Difference between Classical and Operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian First described by B. F. Skinner, an
physiologist American psychologist
Pavlov’s world-famous dog experiment is Skinner’s rat box experiment became the
the first scenario which helped to establish base for the introduction of operant
the classical conditioning theory. conditioning theory with its concepts.
Correlates with the process of learning Described as a type of learning which is
which alters an individual’s behavior in based on the behavioral patterns, taking
relation to various internal or external place in response to numerous rewards and
stimuli. outcomes.
Focuses on involuntary, automatic Focuses on strengthening or weakening
behaviors. Culminates to a respondent voluntary behaviors. Culminates to an
behavior. operant behavior.
Involves placing a neutral signal before a Involves applying reinforcement or
reflex punishment after a behavior
Results in behaviors which pair with Takes place with the involvement of two
involuntary stimuli where the major concepts including reinforcements
unconditioned response, later on, become and punishments following the behavior
a conditioned response with time which will result in either an increase or
decrease of the acquired behavior.
The organism is a passive agent The organism is an active agent

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The Skinner Box (Operant conditioning chamber)

Although Skinner is keenly

interested in the prediction
and control of human
behavior, his extensive
research deals mostly with
animals (which are more
easily investigated under
laboratory conditions). His
primary method for studying
operant conditioning is the
well-known piece of apparatus that he invented, which is referred to by others as the
Skinner box. (He called it operant conditioning apparatus.)
One version of Skinner’s apparatus consists of a soundproof box, approximately 1
foot square, in which a pigeon is placed. A lighted plastic key (disk) at one end
permits access to food when pecked. This is not a difficult operant for a pigeon to

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learn, especially since it is deprived of food for some time prior to the experimental
session. The key is connected to an electronic recording system that produces a graph
of the pigeon’s response rate, and the apparatus can be programmed so that
reinforcement is available after every peck of the disk or only intermittently.

Skinner’s second version is that of a rat where he established that rats are positively
reinforced by receiving food for pressing a bar.

The Skinner box may also be used to study the effects of negative reinforcement, as
by having a peck of the disk or press of the bar turn off or prevent an electric shock.
Or complicated sequences of behavior may be conditioned, as when a pigeon is
reinforced for pecking a series of disks (with the correct order depending on their
positions or colors).

Skinner’s apparatus permits him to study the contingencies of reinforcement that he

believes to control all behavior, namely the interrelationships among environmental
stimuli (e.g., the disk), the organism’s response, and the reinforcing consequences.

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The Basics of Operant Conditioning

1) Reinforcement and Punishment

Behavior is controlled not only by antecedent stimuli, but also by its consequences.
Such consequences involve the presentation or removal of either pleasant or
unpleasant stimuli following a behavior. The presentation of a stimulus is termed as
positive and the removal of a stimulus as negative.

The principle of positive reinforcement refers to an increase in the frequency of a

behavior when that behavior is followed by the presentation of pleasant stimuli or
positive reinforcers. There are two types of positive reinforcers: primary (or
unconditioned) reinforcers are automatically or naturally reinforcing—for example,
food, water, and sex; secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers acquire their
reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers or with other
conditioned reinforcers-for example praise, attention, money, and good grades.

Negative reinforcement refers to the removal of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus

following a response, thereby increasing the rate and probability of occurrence of
that response in the future. For instance, taking medicine that relieves (removes)
your stomach ache (aversive stimulus). Medicine-taking behavior is strengthened
when it is followed by the elimination or removal of an aversive stimulus.

The principle of punishment refers to a decrease in the frequency of a response

when that response is followed immediately by certain consequences such as
aversive events, or punishers. It makes the occurrence of that behavior less probable.

The presentation of an aversive stimulus following a behavior is called positive

punishment. Primary (or unconditioned) punishers are stimuli that are inherently
aversive or unpleasant—for example, spankings, being hit by a rock, and falling
down and breaking a leg. Secondary (or conditioned) punishers acquire their
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aversive properties by being paired with primary punishers or other conditioned
punishers. Examples of conditioned punishers are poor grades, criticism, ridicule,
and sarcasm. Fining a person for speeding is intended to discourage the behavior.

Negative punishment refers to the removal of a desirable or pleasant stimulus

(positive reinforcer) following a behavior to decrease its occurrence. Taking a toy
away from a child for lying is a form of negative punishment called response cost.
Response cost involves a penalty of some kind—for example, a fine for a traffic
violation or fees for late filing of income tax or late registration for classes.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when

punishment is no longer present.

Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with

problems.

Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you
what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.

2) Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement are the precise rules, defined in terms of the time and/or
the number of responses, that are used to present (or to remove) reinforcers (or
punishers) following a specified operant behavior.

There are two broad classifications: continuous reinforcement (a schedule in which

each performance is followed by a reinforcer) and intermittent reinforcement
(fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio and variable ratio).
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Common reinforcement schedules, and associated patterns of response and
resistance to extinction

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3) Stimulus and Response Generalization

Stimulus generalization is the evocation of a non-reinforced response to a stimulus

that is very similar to an original conditioned stimulus. Stimulus generalization is
necessary for learning to occur, since no two situations are ever identical in every
respect.

An operant tends to generalize to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus,

without any further conditioning. A pigeon that has been reinforced for pecking a
red key will also peck a key that is orange or yellow, albeit not as frequently. Such
stimulus generalization is also common among humans, as when one is expecting
an important telephone call and rushes to the phone when the doorbell rings.

Response generalization refers to the spreading of the effects of a behavior

strengthening contingency to other responses that are similar to the target response
that resulted in the behavior strengthening consequence. It is said to have occurred
if a procedure that increases the likelihood of a target operant response causes an
increase of other responses that resemble the target response. Training in one
behavior may improve performance in another, as when learning Latin facilitates
one’s proficiency in English.

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4) Discrimination

This refers to the organism’s ability to perceive a difference between two stimuli, or
between the presence and absence of a stimulus, and thus learn to respond to them
in different ways.

A rat will learn to press the bar only when a light is on if reinforcement is withheld
when the light is off. And a child is taught to discriminate between right and wrong
by being reinforced with approval for correct behaviors (“That’s right!”), but not for
incorrect behaviors (“That’s wrong!”).

Discrimination is also essential to learning, as otherwise we would respond to every

situation in much the same way. It plays a particularly important role in the learning
of skilled behaviors: The expert pianist or golfer becomes able to recognize and
correct subtle physical errors that the novice cannot identify, and is reinforced for
doing so with better performances.

5) Extinction

Extinction is the elimination/diminishing of a learned behavior (response) by

discontinuing/removing the reinforcer of that behavior.

If a rat has learned to press a lever because it receives food for doing so, its lever-
pressing will decrease and eventually disappear if food is no longer delivered.

With people, withholding the reinforcer may eliminate some unwanted behaviors.
For instance, parents often reinforce temper tantrums in young children by giving
them attention. If parents simply ignore the child’s tantrums rather than reward them
with attention, the number of tantrums should gradually decrease.

Behavior is learned under continuous reinforcement extinguishes more quickly.

Behavior is learned more slowly under intermittent reinforcement is more resistant

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to extinction. For example, gamblers who become addicted to slot machines
continue to insert their coins even though they usually lose. Slot machines pay off
only infrequently, and this intermittent reinforcement leads to behavior that is highly
resistant to extinction. But if you put your money into a vending machine that you
have learned “pays off” on every trial (continuous reinforcement), and no candy
emerges, this response is likely to extinguish very quickly.

SELF-CONTROL PROCESSES/TECHNIQUES

According to Skinner, studying self-control involves an analysis of “how the

individual acts to alter the variables of which other parts of his behavior are
functions”.

Individuals are said to exercise self-control when they actively change those
variables or factors that determine their behavior. For example, an obese person who
exercises control over his behavior by buying and eating only low-calorie foods. He
can also politely refuse to eat high-calorie foods when they are offered to him by
others.

Skinner outlined a number of the techniques that we use to control our behavior:

i) Physical restraints- For instance, some of us clap our hands over our mouths to
avoid laughing at someone else’s mistakes. Others choose to walk away from
someone who has insulted them, lest they lose control and physically attack him/her.

ii) Physical aids -Some truckers take stimulants to avoid falling asleep at the wheel.
Students often drink large amounts of coffee after all-night study sessions in an effort
to remain alert during early morning exams. People with vision problems can put on
eyeglasses or the hearing-impaired make use of hearing aids.

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iii) Changing the stimulus conditions- Overweight people put a box of candy out
of sight so that they can restrain themselves. Smokers diminish smoking frequency
by reducing the range of stimuli associated with it. Smokers typically have favorite
times and situations in which they smoke—for example, while studying, working,
eating, partying, or watching television. Various studies have shown that, if they can
break these associations, they can reduce their smoking drastically.

iv) Manipulating emotional conditions- We sometimes induce emotional changes

in ourselves for purposes of control. Some people employ meditation techniques to
alleviate stress. Similarly, we may work ourselves into a good mood before a
stressful meeting in order to increase our likelihood of performing well.

v) Performing alternative responses- We often keep ourselves from engaging in

behavior that leads to punishment by energetically engaging in something else. The
overweight person may turn to an intensive jogging regimen to burn off excess
calories and to keep from excessive eating.

vi) Positive self-reinforcement- Involves controlling behavior through rewarding

self for commendable behavior. An athlete may promise herself an expensive meal
at a favorite restaurant if she surpasses her old record in the 100-meter dash.

vii) Self-punishment- Individuals also punish themselves for failure to reach self-
generated goals. College football players often voluntarily jog extra laps around the
track Monday morning as punishment for failure to perform adequately during a
game on Saturday afternoon.

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APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

Behavior therapy is based on the concepts of classical conditioning and operant

conditioning. Behavior therapy is a common and effective treatment with disruptive
behavior disorders. With this approach, rewards are given for appropriate behaviors
and withheld when behaviors are disruptive or otherwise inappropriate.

The principle behind behavior therapy is that positive reinforcements encourage

repetition of desirable behaviors and aversive reinforcements (punishments)
discourage repetition of undesirable behaviors.

Behavior modification techniques—the system of rewards and consequences—can

be taught to parents to be used in the home environment. Consistency is an essential
component.

Conditioned responses, such as fears or phobias, can be treated with behavioral

techniques. It can also be used in the management of anorexia nervosa.

When working with children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, goals
include task completion for homework, hygiene tasks, turn-taking when talking, and
so forth. The child is given a “star” or sticker when tasks are completed. Upon
reaching a specified number of stars, the child receives a reward.

Modern behavior therapists use a variety of techniques. Some of these are based on
Skinner’s ideas, whereas others involve somewhat different concepts and
procedures.

Behavior therapy differs from the forms of psychotherapy devised by

personality theorists in the following ways:

i. The goal of behavior therapy is to change clearly specified behaviors and/or

symptoms, rather than unobservable inner states.

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 ii. Active control is exercised by the therapist, who selects and imposes specific
procedures designed to bring about the desired changes in behavior.
iii. Behavior therapy emphasizes the present aspects of the client’s difficulties,
and is less concerned with childhood causes.
iv. Behavior therapists use different techniques to treat different types of
problems, rather than imposing the same form of therapy on every client.
v. Behavior therapy is typically of shorter duration than psychotherapy, and may
last as little as a few months.
vi. Behavior therapy is not concerned with resistances and transferences.
vii. The techniques of behavior therapy are based on empirical research, rather
than on a psychotherapist’s theoretical speculations and subjective judgments.

1) The Token Economy

The token economy system is a form of behavior modification that was often used
in psychiatric hospitals to manage the behavior of individuals who may be
aggressive or unpredictable. The system was based on selective positive
reinforcement, whereby patients are rewarded with tokens for behaving in
appropriate ways; behavior that is not appropriate is not rewarded.

These tokens can later be exchanged for various privileges (e.g., time watching
television; cigarettes). Initially tokens are awarded often and in higher amounts, but
as individuals learn the appropriate behavior, opportunities to earn tokens decrease.

The token economy system is still applicable within mental health psychiatric units
even if it does not cure psychosis, it is capable of producing marked improvements
in behavior.

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Parents and teachers too, often use token economies, allowing kids to earn tokens
for engaging in preferred behaviors and lose tokens for undesirable behaviors. These
tokens can then be traded for rewards such as candy, toys, or extra time playing with
a favorite toy.

2) Aversion therapy

An alcoholic may be shown pictures of liquor together with graphic illustrations of

kidney disease, so that avoiding alcoholic beverages will become negatively
reinforcing. Some behavior therapists have sought to extend this procedure by
following pictures of alcohol with a mild electric shock, but Skinner regards such
punishment as inferior to reinforcement because its effects are only temporary.

3) Applied Behavior Analysis

Behavior analysis is primarily based on understanding behavior and its
consequences. Because of this, the techniques that behavior analysts use are
usually focused on teaching people more effective ways of behaving. It is often
used to improve skills in children and adults with developmental conditions.
Behavior analysis can be a particularly effective learning tool for helping children
with autism or developmental delays acquire and maintain new skills.

Some of the techniques used by behavior analysts include:

• Chaining: This behavior technique involves breaking a task down into

smaller components. The simplest or first task in the process is taught first.
Once that task has been learned, the next task can be taught. The process
continues until the entire sequence is successfully chained together.
• Prompting: This approach involves using some type of prompt to trigger the
desired response. This might involve a verbal cue, such as telling the person

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 what to do, or a visual cue, such as displaying a picture designed to cue the
response.
• Shaping: This strategy involves gradually altering a behavior, rewarding
closer and closer approximations of the desired response.

4) Assertiveness Training

When behavioral responses are not appropriate and ineffective, assertiveness

training is instituted. To help patient acquire appropriate behavioral responses that
help him/her express himself without being aggressive or violating other people’s
rights. The assertive responses are modeled and patients are then allowed to practice
them. Reinforcement is given when assertiveness is appropriately demonstrated thus
increasing the likelihood that the patient will repeat in future.

5) Biofeedback

Biofeedback is a self-regulation technique through which patients learn to

voluntarily control what were once thought to be involuntary body processes. This
intervention requires specialized equipment to convert physiological signals into
meaningful visual and auditory cues, as well as a trained biofeedback practitioner to
guide the therapy.

Using a screen such as a computer monitor, patients get feedback that helps them
develop control over their physiology (heart rate, skin conductance, skin
temperature, and muscle activity). Just as looking into a mirror allows one to see and
change positions, expressions, etc., biofeedback allows patients to see inside their
bodies, with a trained practitioner serving as a guide directing them to use the
feedback to regulate their physiology in a healthy direction.

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Common disorders treated in this way include hypertension, anxiety, addictions and
medical conditions exacerbated by stress. Biofeedback also helps to make patients
aware of the thoughts, feelings and behaviors related to their physiology. Over time,
they can learn to self-regulate without feedback screens in front of them.

6) Contingency Contracting

Contingency contracting is the arrangement of conditions that enables patients to

participate in setting target behaviors and selecting reinforcers. The therapist and the
patient jointly specify what, how, when and where behavioral change will occur.
The criteria for reinforcement delivery, type, amount and schedule of reinforcement
are also specified. For instance, a contract specifies that, if the patient approaches
the nurse to ask for his medications at the scheduled time, he can go for a walk with
the nurse after dinner.

CRITICISMS

B.F Skinner deemphasizes the role of internal thoughts and feelings in behavior thus
presenting humans as lacking free will.

Its application in therapy can be seen as manipulative and unethical like use of
Antabuse in treating alcohol addiction.

Not all of our behavior is determined or explained by the external environment or

consequences.

He also ignores biological predispositions. Inherited factors in reality play a role in

some of the expressed behaviors.

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Strengths and weaknesses of the behaviorist approach

Strengths

● Scientific.

● Emphasizes objective measurement.

● Large number of successful applications (e.g., therapy).

Weaknesses

● Mechanistic (machine like).

● Reduces complex human behavior to stimulus response associations.

● Environmental determinism.

●Oversimplified.

General Implications of Behavioral Theory in Nursing Practice

People can learn to behave in socially desirable ways

The behavioral approach can be used with different personality types and different
groups like children, adolescents, couples and families.

Consistency is important. Failure to adhere to the treatment plan leads to

deterioration of the condition

The patient’s behavior and anxiety is the focus of the treatment

Behavioral theory is easy to apply and can be used in teaching self-care to patients,
teaching alcoholics and neurotics.

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REFERENCES

Ewen R. B. (2010). An introduction to theories of personality (7th ed.). Psychology

Press.

Luman, M., Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). The impact of reinforcement
contingencies on AD/HD: A review and theoretical appraisal. Clinical Psychology
Review, 25, 183–213

Ryckman, R. M. (2008). Theories of personality (9th ed.). Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. E. (2005). Theories of personality (8th ed.). CENGAGE
Learning Custom Publishing.

Upton D. (2010). Introducing psychology for nurses and healthcare professionals.

Krishan Nager, Delhi: Pearson.

Videbeck S. L. & Miller C. J. (2011). Psychiatric-mental health nursing (5th edition).

Wolters Kluwer.

Keltner N. L. Schwecke L. H. & Bostrom C. E. (2003). Psychiatric nursing (4th ed.).

Mosby-Elsevier.

Halter M. J. (2014). Varcarolis' foundations of psychiatric-mental health nursing: a

clinical approach (7th ed.). Elsevier.

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