JAYPEE INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, NOIDA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD THEORY LAB
MANUAL
(18B15EC312)
 JAYPEE INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, NOIDA

VISION

To become a Center of Excellence in the field of IT & related emerging areas education,
training and research comparable to the best in the world for producing professionals who
shall be leaders in innovation, entrepreneurship, creativity and management.

MISSION

MISSION 1: To develop as a benchmark University in emerging technologies.

MISSION 2: To provide state of the art teaching learning process and R&D environment.

MISSION 3: To harness human capital for sustainable competitive edge and social
relevance.
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VISION
To be a centre of excellence in education, training and research in Electronics and
Communication Engineering to cultivate technically competent professionals for Industry,
Academia and Society.

MISSION
MISSION 1: To impart education through contemporary, futuristic and flexible curricula
with innovative teaching learning methods and hands on training with well equipped Labs.

MISSION 2: To carry out cutting edge research in different areas of Electronics and
Communication Engineering.

MISSION 3: To inculcate technical and entrepreneurial skills in professionals to provide

socially relevant and sustainable solutions.

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1: To provide strong foundation in Electronics and Communication Engineering to
pursue professional career, entrepreneurship and higher studies.

PEO2: To evolve capability to analyze, design and develop feasible solutions to real world
problems.

PEO3: To inculcate professional ethics, managerial and communication skills to develop

ingenious solutions for the benefit of society and environment.
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS FOR ODD SEMESTER 2022-2023

1. [CO1] Study, design and modelling of the rectangular waveguide using

ANSYS Electronics Desktop (ANSYS HFSS).
2. [CO1] Plot the different parameters of the designed rectangular waveguide
and optimize with the help of parametric study using ANSYS Electronics
Desktop (ANSYS HFSS).
3. [CO2] To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular waveguide
working in TE10 mode.
4. [CO2] Determine experimentally the broader dimension of rectangular
waveguide using microwave test bench at X-band of microwave frequency.
5. [CO3] Experimentally determine the propagation characteristics of Magic Tee
operating in X-band using microwave test bench.
6. [CO3] To study Gunn oscillator as a source of microwave power and hence to
study and plot its I–V characteristics.
7. [CO4] Study, design and modelling of the microstrip-fed rectangular
microstrip antenna using ANSYS Electronics Desktop (ANSYS HFSS).
8. [CO4] Plot the different parameters of the designed antenna and optimize with
the help of parametric study for the designed rectangular microstrip antenna
using ANSYS Electronics Desktop (ANSYS HFSS).
9. [CO4] Measurement of input parameters of an antenna using vector network
analyzer (VNA).
10. [CO3] To plot and study the radiation pattern of microstrip antenna.
 Experiment-1

Aim: Study, design and modelling of the rectangular waveguide

using ANSYS Electronics Desktop (ANSYS HFSS).

Apparatus Required: ANSYS Electronics Desktop (ANSYS HFSS)

Theory:

Rectangular Waveguide: A waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a

rectangular cross section. When the waves travel longitudinally down the guide
because of conducting walls plane waves are reflected from wall to wall. This
process results in a component of either electric or magnetic field in the direction
of propagation of the resultant wave. Therefore, the wave is no longer a transverse
electromagnetic wave. Any uniform plane wave in a lossless guide may be
resolved into TE and TM waves. In rectangular guide the modes are designed TEmn
or TMmn.

Cut-off Frequency of a Waveguide:

Since, we have 𝛾 2 + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Where, 𝐴 = and 𝐵 =
𝑎 𝑏

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
2
𝛾 = + − 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀
𝑎 𝑏

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝛾= + − 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
𝑎 𝑏

At lower frequencies, γ > 0

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
+ − 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 > 0
𝑎 𝑏
γ then becomes real and positive and equal to the attenuation constant α i.e. the
wave is completely attenuated and there is no phase change. Hence, the wave
cannot propagate.
However at higher frequencies, γ < 0

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
+ − 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 < 0
𝑎 𝑏

γ becomes imaginary there will be phase change β and hence the wave propagates.
At the transition γ becomes zero and the propagation starts. The frequency at
which γ just becomes zero is defined as the cut-off frequency fc.
At f = fc, γ = 0

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
0= + − 𝜔𝑐2 𝜇𝜀
𝑎 𝑏

1 𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝑓𝑐 = +
2𝜋 𝜇𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

for air filled waveguide the cut off frequency is given by

𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
𝑓𝑐 = +
2 𝑎 𝑏

The cut-off wavelength (λc) is

2
λ𝑐 = 𝑐/𝑓𝑐 =
𝑚 2 𝑛 2
+
𝑎 𝑏
All wavelengths greater than λc are attenuated and less than λc are allowed to
propagate inside the waveguide.
For 𝑇𝐸10, the cutoff frequency can be calculated using the equation below:
m
fc 
2a 
Problem Statement:
Q1. Design a rectangular waveguide on ANSYS Electronics Desktop
(ANSYS HFSS) with dimensions a = 22.86 mm and b = 10.16 mm.

Procedure:

Step 1: To open HFSS using the windows search bar type in „ANSYS HFSS‟

Step 2: Upon opening HFSS, you will see the screen below. To create a new
design, click the symbol highlighted below

Step 3: To name or rename the project and the design, right click the symbols
highlighted below and click „rename‟
 BUILDING THE WAVEGUIDE

Step 1: First create a box, click the box icon highlighted below:

Step 2: Use the mouse to design an arbitrary box, the dimensions don‟t matter as
they will be changed later

Step 3: To re-dimension the box, double-click „CreateBox‟ under Box1

Step 4: We will set the position of the base corner at the centre of the box

Step 5: The lengths of all of the sides will be set using variables so they can be
changed if necessary.
Step 6: When you type in a dimension that relies on a variable, HFSS will want to
know the Unit Type, Unit, and Value for that variable. All of these can be changed
later, but it is helpful to have correct units and reasonable values during the
construction process

Step 7: To modify the box‟s properties, Double-Click Box1 icon

Step 10: Start by naming the box „Air‟ Spaces are not allowed in the name

Step 11: If air isn‟t listed in the Material dropdown menu, click edit to search for
air.
Step 12: Finally, set the color you want and set the transparency to 0. Remember to
hit „Apply‟ before closing the window
Now it‟s look like as shown below

Step 13: Right click in empty space and click „Select Faces‟

Step 14: Using „crtl + click‟ option on particular wall , select all the side walls of
waveguide.
Step 15: After selecting all the side walls of waveguide. Put the cursor on it and
right click. On right click you will see the options as shown below, then go to
„Assign Boundary‟ and select option „Perfect E‟

Step16: Congratulations, you should now have a fully constructed Waveguide

where side walls boundaries are assigned „Perfect E‟ which you can check in
project manger tree by clicking the „Boundaries‟ option just below „Model‟ on the
left most side.

Step17: If you need to change the values of any of your variables, do so through
HFSS Design Properties.
Step 18: All of your variables will appear here and you can change the Values,
Units, etc.

ASSIGNING WAVEPORT TO THE WAVEGUIDE

Step1: Right click in empty space and click „Select Faces‟

Step 2: Select the face associated with one of your Waveguide‟s ports, Right- Click
the highlighted face, and then select Wave Port…

Step 3: Rename your Wave Port „WP1‟ and select „New Line…‟ under
„Integration Line‟
Step 4: You will be required to select a vector for your Wave Port. For 𝑇𝐸10, draw
a straight line from one long edge of „Air‟ to the other like so. Then click „Next‟
and „Finish‟.

Step 5: Turn your Waveguide around, select the face of your other port, make it a
Wave Port, rename it WP2, and click „Next‟ and „Finish‟ (This port does not
require an Integration Line)
Step 6: Now you can check assigned wave ports in project manger tree by clicking
the „Excitation‟ option just below „1‟ and „2‟ ports are shown as given below.

Result:
 Experiment-2

Aim: Plot the different parameters of the designed rectangular

waveguide and optimize with the help of parametric study using
ANSYS Electronics Desktop 2019 (ANSYS HFSS).

Apparatus Required: ANSYS Electronics Desktop 2019 (ANSYS HFSS)

Theory:

Rectangular Waveguide: A Rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with

a rectangular cross section. When the waves travel longitudinally down the guide
because of conducting walls plane waves are reflected from wall to wall. This
process results in a component of either electric or magnetic field in the direction
of propagation of the resultant wave. Therefore the wave is no longer a transverse
electromagnetic wave. Any uniform plane wave in a lossless guide may be
resolved into TE and TM waves. In rectangular guide the modes are designed TEmn
or TMmn.

Cut-off Frequency of a Waveguide:

Since, we have 𝛾 2 + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2
𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Where, 𝐴 = and 𝐵 =
𝑎 𝑏

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
2
𝛾 = + − 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀
𝑎 𝑏

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝛾= + − 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
𝑎 𝑏

At lower frequencies, γ > 0

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
+ − 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 > 0
𝑎 𝑏
γ then becomes real and positive and equal to the attenuation constant α i.e. the
wave is completely attenuated and there is no phase change. Hence the wave
cannot propagate.
However at higher frequencies, γ < 0

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
+ − 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 < 0
𝑎 𝑏

γ becomes imaginary there will be phase change β and hence the wave propagates.
At the transition γ becomes zero and the propagation starts. The frequency at
which γ just becomes zero is defined as the cut-off frequency fc.
At f = fc, γ = 0

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
0= + − 𝜔𝑐2 𝜇𝜀
𝑎 𝑏

1 𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝑓𝑐 = +
2𝜋 𝜇𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

for air filled waveguide the cut off frequency is given by

𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
𝑓𝑐 = +
2 𝑎 𝑏

The cut-off wavelength (λc) is

2
λ𝑐 = 𝑐/𝑓𝑐 =
𝑚 2 𝑛 2
+
𝑎 𝑏
All wavelengths greater than λc are attenuated and less than λc are allowed to
propagate inside the waveguide.
For 𝑇𝐸10, the cutoff frequency can be calculated using the equation below:
m
fc 
2a 
Problem Statement:

Q1. Design and Simulate an air-filled Rectangular Waveguide on

ANSYS HFSS with dimensions a = 22.86 mm and b = 10.16 mm
operated below 17GHz. How many TE and TM modes can the
waveguide transmit? Calculate the cut off frequencies of modes. Also,
calculate the propagation constant γ at 12 GHz for dominant mode.

Solution:
Procedure:

Model the waveguide of given dimensions and apply the wave-ports for excitation
as done in previous experiment.

SIMULATING THE WAVEGUIDE

Step 1: Right-Click Analysis on the Project Manager tree to select „Add Solution
Setup…‟

Step 2: Before editing any of the default parameters, you need to select your
excitation frequency
A good frequency to look at is the cutoff frequency of your Waveguide For 𝑇𝐸10,
the cutoff frequency can be calculated using the equation below:
2 2
1 m n
fc     
2  a b
The simplified equation above comes from the general equation below:
 TE10
m 1
fc    6.56GHz
2a  20.02286  

Now that we know our cutoff frequency is 6.56GHz, we can input the parameters
we care about. So we want to look at a frequency that is above the cutoff frequency
i.e. at 6.56GHz but below the operating frequency i.e. at 17GHz. Max Number of
Passes will affect how fast the simulation runs.

Step 3: Now that we know our cutoff frequency is 6.56GHz, we can input the
parameters we care about. So we want to look at a frequency that is above the
cutoff frequency i.e. at 10GHz.

Step 4: Right-Click „Setup1‟ to select „Add Frequency Sweep‟

Step 5: Select a sweep range ( i.e Start – 5GHz and Stop – 17GHz) that
encompasses your analysis frequency, select either „Interpolating‟ or „Fast‟ from
the „Sweep type‟ dropdown menu, and hit OK

Step 6: As we know that we need to run the simulation for 5 modes. So go to

Project Manager Tree click on „Excitations‟ under which you can see port 1 and
port 2. Double Click on port 1 then a window gets open with name wave port as
you can see below. Go to Modes option and change no of modes: 5 (as we need to
study first five modes of the waveguide). Similarly do for port 2.
Step 7: Select the „Validate‟ symbol to validate your model and select the „Analyze
All‟ symbol to run your analysis. Validate

Step 8: Now Right-Click on „Results‟ in the Project Manager tree and select
„Rectangular Plot‟

Step 9: Using the window that appears, you can plot any S-Parameter you are
interested in. We will look at 𝑆21 first.
Step 10: As can be seen from the plot of 𝑆21, the cutoff frequency of our waveguide
for 𝑇𝐸10 is 6.56GHz. After the cutoff frequency, transmission is maximized.

Step 11: Similarly to study the propagation constant and phase constant of first five
modes Right-Click on „Results‟ in the Project Manager tree and select
„Rectangular Plot‟: Using the window that appears, you can plot any Gamma-
Parameter you are interested in. If we chose „im‟ option in function widow it will
plot imaginary part of γ i.e jβ (As we know that γ = α + jβ or we can say
propogation constant = attenuation constant + j phase constant)
Step 12: As can be seen from the plot of imaginary part of γ i.e. jβ, the cutoff
frequencies of our waveguide for 𝑇𝐸10, 𝑇𝐸01, TE20, TE11 and TM11 modes are
6.56GHz, 14.76GHz, 13.12GHz, 16.15GHz and 16.15 GHz respectively. After the
cutoff frequencies, transmission is maximized.

Step 13: Similarly we can be seen from the plot of real part of γ i.e. α, the cutoff
frequencies of our waveguide for 𝑇𝐸10, 𝑇𝐸01, TE20, TE11 and TM11 modes are
6.56GHz, 14.76GHz, 13.12GHz, 16.15GHz and 16.15 GHz respectively. After the
cutoff frequencies, attenuation constant is zero.
And plot will look like as given below:

Step 14: We can also plot the guided wavelength for all the five modes again
Right-Click on „Results‟ in the Project Manager tree and select „Rectangular Plot‟:
Using the window that appears, you can plot guided wavelength parameter in any
mode at any operation frequency you are interested in.
For example here we took 12 GHz operating frequency then the graph will look
like as given below:

Step 15: Now to plot the fields in different modes - Select the „Air‟ box, right click
the pink box, and find your way to Vector_E and Vector_H to plot the electric and
magnetic field vectors.
Step 16: Select the „Air‟ box, right click the pink box, and find your way to
Vector_E and Vector_H to plot the electric and magnetic field vector You will
need to use „Select Objects‟ to select the „Air‟ box.
Step 17: When the Create Field Plot window appears just click „Done‟
Step 18: Something like this should appear on screen. For TE10 mode

Step 19: Similarly we can plot TE and TM modes plots by Right-Click on „Field
Overlays‟ in the Project Manager tree and select „Edit Sources‟: . Something like
this should appear on screen.
If we want to change the mode we need to change scaling factor to 1 for which
mode we want to study the fields accordingly.
FIELD PATTERNS FOR DIFFERENT MODES
Result:
 Experiment-3

Aim: To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular

waveguide working in TE10 mode.

Equipment Required: Klystron Tube 2K25,Klystron Power Supply 5KPS-610, Klystron

Mount, XM-251, Isolator XI-621, Frequency Meter X F710, Variable Attenuator XA-520,
Slotted Section XS-651,Tunable Probe XP-655, VSWR Meter SW-115,Waveguide stand XU-
535,Movable short XT-481,Matched Termination XL-400.

Theory:

A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube (evacuated electron tube). Klystrons are
used as amplifiers at microwave and radio frequencies to produce both low-power reference
signals for super heterodyne radar receivers and to produce high-power carrier waves for
applications such as radar and microwave relay transmitters, and the driving force for modern
particle accelerators.

Klystron amplifiers have the advantage (over the magnetron) of coherently amplifying a
reference signal so its output may be precisely controlled in amplitude, frequency and phase.
Many klystrons use waveguides for coupling microwave energy into and out of the device,
although it is also quite common for lower power and lower frequency klystrons to use coaxial
cable couplings instead. In some cases a coupling probe is used to couple the microwave energy
from a klystron into a separate external waveguide.

All modern klystrons are amplifiers, since reflex klystrons, which were used as oscillators in the
past, have been surpassed by alternative technologies.
For dominant TE10 mode rectangular waveguide:

1 1 1
 
 2
0  2
g 2c

Where λc is cut-off wavelength, λg is guide wavelength, λ0 is free space wavelength.

 VSWR
Klystron
Power Supply
CRO

Variable
Klystron Isolator Frequenc Attenuator Slotted line with
y meter tunable probe
Oscillator

ble probe

Load

Fig. 1: Setup for frequency and wavelength measurement.

Procedure:
 Set up the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 1.

 Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.

 Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:

Range 50 dB
Input switch crystal low impedance
Meter switch normal position
Gain (coarse & Fine) mid position

 Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:

 Beam voltage OFF
Mod switch AM
Beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage fully clockwise
AM-amplitude knob around fully clockwise
AM- frequency knob around mid position

 Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan switch.

 Switch ON the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 230 V with help of beam
voltage knob.
 Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.

 Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power
supply.
 Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum deflection.

 Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.

 Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.

 Replace the termination with movable short and detune the frequency meter.

 Move the probe along the slotted line. The deflection in VSWR meter will vary, move the
probe to a minimum deflection position to get accurate reading. If necessary increase the
VSWR meter range dB switch to higher position, note and record the probe position.

 Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again.

 Calculate the guide wavelength as twice the distance between two successive minimum
positions obtained as above.

 Measure the waveguide inner broad dimension „a‟ which will be around 22.86 mm for X-
band.
 Calculate the frequency by following equation
 1 1
f  c / 0  c  
 2
g 2c

Where, c = 3×108 m/s

 Verify with frequency obtained by frequency meter.

 Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.

Precautions:

 Before switching on power make sure about the following position.

 Keep the beam voltage knob fully anti- clockwise position.
 Keep the reflector voltage knob fully clockwise position.
 Keep the H.T switch at OFF position.
 Experiment-4

AIM: Determine experimentally the broader dimension of

rectangular waveguide using microwave test bench at X-band of
microwave frequency.
Apparatus Required: Microwave test bench operating at X-band.

Theory: A waveguide is a structure that guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound,
with minimal loss of energy by restricting expansion to one dimension or two. In a waveguide
that can support more than one propagation mode, the mode that propagates with the minimum
degradation, i.e., the mode with the lowest cutoff frequency is called as dominant mode. Below
the cut-off frequency, total reflection will happen in the waveguide. So, operating frequency
must be above cut off frequency of dominant mode and below cut off frequency of next higher
order mode. Designations for the dominant mode are TE10 for rectangular waveguides and
TE11 for circular waveguides.

Cut-off wavelength equation for rectangular waveguide is given below:

2
c  ……………..(1)
2 2
m n
   
 a  b

Where,
m = number of half wavelength variations along broader dimension,
n = number of half wavelength variations along the shorter dimension,
For dominant mode TE10, m = 1 and n = 0.
Hence, λc = 2a = 2(broader dimension)

Formula Used: For the dominant TE10 mode in rectangular waveguide λ0, λg and λc are related
as below.
1 1 1
  2 ………………( 2)
c 0
2
g

Procedure:

 Make the connections as required according to the setup given.

 Set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
 Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
 Meter switch „Off‟
Mod-switch AM
Beam voltage knob Fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage Fully clockwise
AM-Amplitude knob Around fully clockwise
AM-Frequency knob Around mid-Position

 If you are using VSWR meter in place of CRO, keep the control knobs of VSWR meter
below:
Range dB 50 dB position
Input switch Crystal low impedance
Meter switch Normal position
Gain (coarse & fine) Mid Position
 Switch „ON‟ the klystron power supply, VSWR meter/CRO and cooling fan.
 Rotate the meter switch of power supply to beam voltage position and set beam voltage at
230 V (you should not make beam voltage higher than 300V) with help of beam voltage
knob (you should not touch this knob till the end of the experiment).
 From here, the procedure can be discussed as two cases: one is using CRO and another
one using VSWR meter.

Klystron
VSWR/CRO
Power
Supply

Slotted line
Klystron Isolator Frequenc Variable with tunable Termination
y meter Attenuator probe
Oscillator

Fig. 1. Experimental set-up to calculate broader dimension of waveguide.

A. Using CRO:
 Observe a waveform in CRO.
 Tune the frequency meter so that the amplitude of the wave in CRO slightly reduces, note
down that frequency in frequency meter.
  Move probe along the slotted line and observe the change in amplitude of the wave in
CRO from minimum to maximum or maximum to minimum.
 Calculate the distance between two minima‟s or two maxima‟s.
 Calculate guided wavelength using this distance and finally find out the cutoff
wavelength and then broader dimension of waveguide.

B. Using VSWR meter:

 Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
 Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power
supply.
 Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
 Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
 Tune the frequency meter knob to get a „dip‟ on the VSWR scale and note down the
frequency directly from the frequency meter.
 Move probe along with the slotted line, the deflection in VSWR meter will vary. Move
the probe to a minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading; it is necessary to
increase the VSWR meter range dB switch to higher position. Note and record the probe
position.
 Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again.
 Calculate the guided wavelength as twice the distance between two successive minimum
positions obtained as above.
 Finally, calculate the cutoff wave length and broader dimension of the waveguide.

Observations:

 Resonant frequency from frequency meter: f0 = ______ GHz

 For short circuit termination, note down the positions of four consecutive minima with
the help of VSWR meter.

Position of first minima, d1 = ______ cm

Position of second minima, d2 = ______ cm
Position of third minima, d3 = ______ cm
Position of fourth minima, d4 =_____ cm

Calculations:

 Take average, (let)A = [(d2-d1) + (d4-d3)] /2

 Now λg can be calculated as 2*A
 Calculate λo from f0.
 From λg and λo, calculate λc with the help of equation (2).
 From λc, calculate the broader dimension of waveguide, a = λc/2.

Results and Discussion:

Precautions:
 The exhaust fan should be kept always „ON‟.
 The direction of isolator should be correct.
 All the connection should be tightly fixed.
 Repeller voltage must be applied before beam voltage.
 The knob of slotted line should be moved very slowly.
 Experiment-5
AIM: Experimentally determine the propagation characteristics of
Magic Tee operating in X-band using microwave test bench.

Apparatus Required: Microwave Source (Klystron), Isolator, Frequency Meter, Variable

Attenuator, Directional Coupler and Magic Tee, Waveguide Stand, Cables and Accessories,
Power meter, Matched Termination.
Power meter
Klystron Power
Supply

Variable
Klystron Frequency Magic Tee
Isolator Attenuator
Oscillator meter

Cooling Fan

Fig. 1. Experimental set-up to study the characteristics of Directional coupler and Magic Tee.

Theory:

Magic Tee:
The Magic Tee is a four port device & it is a combination of the E & H plane Tee. If the
power is fed into arm 3 (H- arm), the electric field divides equally between arm 1 and 2
with same phase, and no electric field exists in arm 4. If the power is fed in arm 4 (E-
arm), it divides equally into arm 1 and 2 but out of phase with no power to arm 3.
Further, if the power is fed from arm 1 and 2, it is added in arm 3 (Harm), and it is
subtracted in E-arm, i.e., arm 4.
 Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of Magic Tee.

The basic parameters to be measured for magic Tee are defined below:
Isolation: The isolation between E and H arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by
the generator connected to the E-arm (port 4) to the power detected at H-arm (port 3) when side
P
arms 1 and 2 are terminated in matched load. Hence, Isolation 3 - 4 = 10 log 4 .
P3

Coupling Coefficient: It is defined as Cij = 10 α/20, Where‘α‟ is attenuation / isolation in dB

when ‘i’ is input arm and „j‟ is output arm. Thus α = 10 log Pi / Pj, Where ‘Pi’ is the power
delivered to arm ith and Pj is power detected at jth arm.

In the case of magic tee, there are total 12 coupling coefficients one for each of the arms as input
and each of the other three arms as output. However, if we connect perfectly matched detector
and generator then, Cij= Cji.

Procedure:

For Magic Tee:

 Set the equipment‟s as shown in Fig. 1.
 Measure the power at the output of the waveguide. The input from where power
needs to be delivered is connected to the waveguide.
 Calculate the input power with the help of power meter.
 The output port of the magic tee from where power needs to be detected is connected
to the power meter.
 The remaining two ports of the magic tee are terminated with the matched
termination.
 Reverse one by one and connect one arm to the generator side and one arm to the
detector side. The remaining port is connected by matched load.
 Repeat this process for every port and measure the power from each port.
 Determine the coupling coefficient from the equation mentioned above.
  Determine the isolation between port 3 and 4 as P3 – P4 in dB.

Observation Table:

For Magic Tee:

O/P at O/P at O/P at O/P at Coupling
port 1 port 2 port 3 port 4 coefficient Isolation
I/P at port 1
I/P at port 2
I/P at port 3
I/P at port 4

Calculations:

Error Calculation:

Results and Discussion:

Precautions:

 Use fan to keep the klystron temperature low.

 Ensure tight connection of the apparatus.
 Avoid tight connection to the threads.
 Beam voltage should be minimum and repeller voltage should be normal before switch
ON/OFF the Klystron PSU.
 Experiment-6

Aim: To study Gunn oscillator as a source of microwave power and

hence to study and plot its I–V characteristics.
Apparatus Required: Gunn power supply, Gunn oscillator, Isolator, Frequency meter, Matched
termination.

Theory:

A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron device (TED), is a form of diode, a
semiconductor electronic component, used in high-frequency electronics. Its internal
construction is unlike other diodes in a sense that it consists of only of N-doped semiconductor
material, whereas most diodes consist of both P and N-doped regions. In the Gunn diode, three
regions exist: two of them are heavily N-doped on each terminal, with a thin layer of lightly
doped material in between. When a voltage is applied to the device, the electrical gradient will be
largest across the thin middle layer. Conduction will take place as in any conductive material
with current being proportional to the applied voltage. Eventually, at higher field values, the
conductive properties of the middle layer will be altered, increasing its resistivity, preventing
further conduction and current starts to fall. This means a Gunn diode has a region of negative
differential resistance. Its largest use is in electronic oscillators to generate microwaves, in
applications such as radar speed guns and microwave relay transmitters.

The negative differential resistance, combined with the timing properties of the intermediate
layer, is responsible for the diode's largest use: in electronic oscillators at microwave frequencies
and above. A relaxation oscillator can be created simply by applying a DC voltage to bias the
device into its negative resistance region. In effect, the negative differential resistance of the
diode cancels the positive resistance of the load circuit, thus creating a circuit with zero
resistance, which will produce spontaneous oscillations. The oscillation frequency is determined
partly by the properties of the middle diode layer, but can be tuned by external factors. In
practical oscillators an electronic resonator is usually added to control frequency, in the form of
a waveguide, microwave cavity or YIG sphere. The diode is usually mounted inside the cavity.
The diode cancels the loss resistance of the resonator, so it produces oscillations at its resonant
frequency. The frequency can be tuned mechanically, by adjusting the size of the cavity, or in
case of YIG spheres by changing the magnetic field. Gunn diodes are used to build oscillators in
the 10 GHz to high (THz) frequency range.
 Fig. 1 (a): Setup for study of I-V Characteristics of GUNN Oscillator.

Fig 1(b): I-V Characteristic of GUNN Oscillator.

Procedure:

 Set the components as shown in fig 1(a).

 Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below:

Meter switch OFF

Gunn bias knob fully anticlockwise

PIN bias knob fully anticlockwise

PIN mode frequency any position

  Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
 Switch ON the Gunn power supply.
 Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to various Gunn bias voltages through the
digital panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above the 10 V.
 Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in fig 1(b).
 Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to maximum current.

Precautions:

 Before switching ON the power supply, make sure that the GUNN Bias and modulation
amplitude control knobs are fully ANTICLOCK WISE to protect the GUNN oscillator
and PIN modulator from sudden surge.
 Before switching OFF the power supply rotate the GUNN bias and Mod amplitude bias
control knob fully anticlockwise.
 Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.
 Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 seconds
reading should be obtained as fast as possible otherwise due to excessive heating. Gunn
diode may burn.
 Experiment-7
AIM: Study, design and modelling of the microstrip-fed rectangular
microstrip antenna using ANSYS Electronics Desktop (ANSYS
HFSS).
APPARATUS REQUIRED: ANSYS Electronics Desktop (ANSYS HFSS)
THEORY:
Antennas are used either to transmit (radiate) energy to another location or to receive (sense
radiation transmitted from another location). The focus of this experiment is on the design of the
rectangular microstrip patch antenna.
Microstrip Patch Antenna:
Microstrip antennas, as shown in Fig.1, consist of a very thin (t << λ0, where λ0 is the free-space
wavelength) metallic strip (patch) placed a small fraction of a wavelength (h << λ0, usually 0.003
λ0 ≤ h ≤ 0.05 λ0) above a ground plane. The microstrip patch is designed so its pattern maximum
is normal to the patch (broadside radiator). This is accomplished by properly choosing the mode
(field configuration) of excitation beneath the patch. End-fire radiation can also be accomplished
by judicious mode selection. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the element is usually λ0/3 <
L < λ0/2. The strip (patch) and the ground plane are separated by a dielectric sheet (referred to as
the substrate), as shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1: Coaxial Feed Rectangular Microstrip Antenna, (a) top view, (b) side view, (c) Perspective view.

There are numerous substrates that can be used for the design of microstrip antennas, and their
dielectric constants are usually in the range of 2.2 ≤ εr ≤ 12. The ones that are most desirable for
good antenna performance are thick substrates whose dielectric constant is in the lower end of
the range because they provide better efficiency, larger bandwidth, loosely bound fields for
radiation into space, but at the expense of larger element size.
 Fig. 2: Coaxial Feed Rectangular Microstrip Antenna, (a) top view, (b) side view, (c) Perspective view.

Design Procedure:
The first decision to be made in design of the patch antenna is to set the resonant or operating
frequency fr for the antenna. It is assumed that we select the material (this determines εr) and the
thickness h for the patch substrate. Fringing effects at the right and left hand edges of the patch
in Fig. 2 must be taken into account when designing a patch antenna. The concept of an effective
length Leff = λ/2 is introduced for this purpose. This is done by introducing an extension of the
actual length L by ΔL on each edge to account for the fringing effects, or:

Le ff  L  2L (2)

ΔL is given by

W 
L
 0.3  0.264
h 
eff

 0.412 (3)
h
 eff  0.258 W  0.8 
h 
h
L  (4)
e
Here, h is the substrate height. εeff is the effective relative permittivity that takes into account that
some of the energy in the patch is in the substrate below the patch metallization and some is in
the air above that metallization. εeff is expressed as:

1
 r 1  r 1  h 2
 eff   1  12 W  (5)
2 2
To determine the value needed for W, the desired resonant frequency fr must be set and will be
assumed known for this development. W is found using:

c 2
W (6)
2 fr r 1

The physical length of the patch, L is determined using:

L  Leff  2L  2  2L (7)

In eq.(6), λeff is given by

c
 (8)
fr  eff

where, c is the speed of light in free space.

Design Specifications of the Microstrip Antenna:

Input Impedance = 50 Ω
Operating Frequency of the Antenna = 2.45 GHz
Relative permittivity of the substrate = 4.4
Height of substrate = 1.6 mm
Dielectric loss tangent =0.02
PROCEDURE:
1) Modeling of the Microstrip Patch Antenna
2) Assigning Materials
(a) Select the substrate to assign material
(b) Select the ground plane and assign it copper material
(c) Select the patch and assign it copper material
3) Assigning Boundaries and Excitations
(a) Assign lumped port excitation to the rectangle on the xz plane.
(b) Assign the radiation boundary to the Airbox to define far-field.

4) Solution Set-up
(a) Set up an Adaptive solution at 2.4415 GHz, with 10 passes and delta as 0.02
(b) Set up a Sweep solution from 2-3 GHz with a step size of 0.01.

RESULTS:

(a)
 (b)

(c)
Fig. 3. Different views of the designed Microstrip antenna
 Experiment-8
AIM: Plot the different parameters of the designed antenna and
optimize with the help of parametric study for the designed
rectangular microstrip antenna using ANSYS Electronics Desktop
(ANSYS HFSS).
APPARATUS REQUIRED: ANSYS Electronics Desktop 2019 (ANSYS HFSS)
THEORY:
After designing and modelling the microstrip antenna, it is important to simulate the structure
and obtain its relevant parameters. Some of the notable parameters are given below:

VSWR and Input Reflection Coefficient (S11):

An antenna system has electrical signals from source to feed line and then it radiates into free
space. During the travelling they may encounter different impedance surfaces and thus
impedance mismatching is introduced. This mismatching quantifies that how much power will
be reflected back with respect to the incident power and as a result of this standing waves are
introduced. Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) defined as the ratio of maximum voltage to the
minimum voltage. VSWR should be ideally 1 as it represents no mismatching and all power will
be transmitted from source to feed line in this case. But practically it is not possible, therefore
VSWR = 1.5 indicates an excellent system while 1.5 < VSWR < 2 signifies a good system.
Antenna input impedance (Zin) are used to express the reflection coefficient (Γ), VSWR, and
input reflection coefficient (S11) and is related as:

Z L  Z0
 (1)
Z L  Z0

1 
VSWR  (2)
1 

S11 (dB)  20log  (3)

Antenna Bandwidth:
Antenna Bandwidth or operating bandwidth of the antenna is defined as “the region of frequency
to which performance of the antenna can be analyzed with respect to some characteristics,
acceptable to a specified standard”. For broadband antennas bandwidth is the ratio of upper
frequency to the lower frequency i.e antenna having 10:1 bandwidth signifies the upper
frequency is 10 times of the lower frequency.
fH
BW  (4)
fL
where fH = higher or upper frequency, fL = lower frequency; For narrow band antennas
bandwidth are expressed in terms of fractional bandwidth, which is the ratio of difference
between upper and lower frequencies to the center frequency. In other words fractional
bandwidth is the percentage of the frequency difference with respect to center frequency (usually
resonance frequency for a dipole).
fH  fL f  fL
FBW  100% , where f c  H (5)
fc 2

The bandwidth can also be considered as the range of frequencies on either side of the center
frequency where the antenna parameters (such as input impedance, Input reflection coefficient,
pattern, beam width, polarization, side lobe level, gain, radiation efficiency) conform to a
specific level. Generally an antenna should have input reflection coefficient less than -10 dB for
mostly wireless applications as it ensures 90% input power to be transmitted.

Electrical Size:
Numerous physical sizes of the antenna are found to be used in particular wireless applications.
In fact physical size of the antennas is characterized by the minimum frequency of resonance. In
general resonance frequency is decreased by increasing the physical dimensions of the antennas.
It is very difficult to compare two small antennas in terms of their physical sizes as they may be
operated in different wireless bands. Therefore to address those circumstances electrical size is
introduced which is the physical size of the antenna in terms of their least operating resonant
frequency. It is expressed in terms of λ0, where λ0 is the free space wavelength corresponding to
least resonant frequency. For wideband antennas λ0 is taken as the free space wavelength
corresponding to their center frequency (fc).

Radiation Pattern:
An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as the “mathematical function or
graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna as a function of space coordinates”.
Radiation patterns are usually quantified in far field region and represented as a function of
directional coordinates. Radiation properties include power flux density, radiation intensity, gain,
directivity, field strength, phase or polarization. Radiation patterns are further categorized into
2D or 3D radiation patterns with respect to position of observers. A trace of the received power
at different angles on a constant radius provides radiation pattern. It generally represents
normalized power with respect to maximum power at different angle. 3D radiation patterns can
be said as the multiplication of two 2D radiation patterns i.e. azimuthal and elevation planes. In
most of the cases linearly polarized antennas are described in terms of E-Plane and H-Plane
patterns. E-plane is the plane containing direction of E- field and direction of propagation while
H-plane contains direction of H- field and direction of propagation.
There are three types of patterns on the basis of their directional properties:

(a) Isotropic - An Isotropic radiator is defined as the “hypothetical lossless antenna having
equal radiation in all directions.” Although it is ideal and not physically realizable, it is often
taken as a reference to find directive properties of particular antenna.
(b) Directional - A directive antenna is defined as the antenna whose capability to radiate or
receive electromagnetic waves in a particular direction than the others. Usually this term is
used for the antenna whose maximum directivity is significantly greater than that of half
wave dipole antennas.
(c) Omnidirectional - Omnidirectional patterns are those “having an essentially non directional
in a given plane and a directional pattern in orthogonal plane.” Thus it is also referred as a
special case of directional pattern.

Total Antenna Efficiency and Radiation Efficiency:

Total efficiency of the antenna is defined as “How much an antenna radiates the power with
respect to total input power” i.e it takes account into several losses which one encounters during
travelling of signals. These losses are
1. Reflection losses (due to mismatching between transmission line and antenna)
2. I2R losses (conduction and dielectric losses)
0  rcd (6)

where η0 =Total radiation Efficiency, ηr = reflection efficiency = 1   2

, η c = conduction

efficiency, ηd = dielectric efficiency, Γ= voltage reflection Coefficient.

 On the other hand antenna radiation efficiency only considers the dielectric and conduction
losses. In other words it is defined as the ratio of radiated power to the accepted power. Thus it is
given as
rad  cd  cd (7)

Directivity and Gain

Directivity is a measure of how much an antenna is directive in a particular direction. It is
defined as the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction (U(θ, ϕ)) to the radiation intensity
of isotropic antenna (U0). For an isotropic antenna radiation intensity is equal to the power
radiated (Prad) by 4π. Therefore Directivity of an antenna can be expressed as
U ( ,  ) U ( ,  ) 4 U ( ,  )
D(directivity )   
U0 Prad Prad (8)
4

If the direction of the antenna is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum radiation
(maximum directivity) expressed as
U max U max 4U max
Dmax  D0    (9)
U0 U0 Prad
Gain is another important parameter which defines the directional property of an antenna
considering both radiation efficiency and directivity as well. It is the ratio of the radiation
intensity in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained when the power
accepted by the antenna is radiated isotropically. The radiation intensity corresponding to the
isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted (input) by the antenna divided by 4π.
In mathematical form it can be given as
4 U ( ,  )
Gain  (10)
Pin

Usually we deal with the relative gain which is the ratio of the power gain in a given
direction to the power gain of a referenced antenna in its referenced direction. The power input
must be the same for both antennas. The reference antenna may be dipole, horn or any other
antenna whose gain is known. However reference antenna is a lossless isotropic source. When
the direction is not stated, gain is always considered in direction of maximum radiation.
 In other words, gain considers losses which antenna encounters from accepted power to
radiated power i.e. conduction losses and dielectric losses. Therefore gain can also be expressed
as the multiplication of directivity and radiation efficiency. Thus

Prad
Gain(G )  Directivity  (11)
Pacc

Gain(G)  rad  Directivity (12)

Prad = radiated power, Pacc = accepted power, ηrad = radiation efficiency

PROCEDURE:
1) Click on Validation and Check
2) Analyze the results
(a) Plot the S matrix in dB to check if the designed Antenna resonates at the specified fr GHz
(b) Plot the Mag of Zo to check if the Input Impedance is 50 Ohm as designed.
(c) Plot the antenna gain using 3D polar plot.
(d) Plot the radiation pattern in xz and yz planes.
(e) Find the radiation efficiency and verify the above relationships between gain directivity
and radiation efficiency.
3) Parametric Analysis:
(a) Optimize the inset feed width and length to improve the impedance matching.
(b) If resonant frequency is not obtained as desired, use below relation:
f1L1 = f2L2
where f1 = obtained frequency, f2 = desired Frequency , L1 = existing dimension of the patch, L2 =
optimized dimension of the patch.
(c) To enhance the bandwidth try, reduce L and increase h.

RESULTS:
Fig. 1: Input Reflection coefficients of the designed microstrip antenna.

Fig. 2: 3D polar plot of the designed antenna showing gain at 2.45 GHz.
Fig. 3: Radiation pattern of the designed antenna at xz plane at 2.45 GHz.
Fig. 4: Radiation pattern of the designed antenna at yz plane at 2.45 GHz.
Fig. 5: Radiation parameters of the Designed antenna at 2.45 GHz.
 Experiment-9
AIM: Measurement of input parameters of an antenna using vector
network analyzer (VNA).
Apparatus Required: Vector Network Analyzer (VNA), Open kit, Short kit, Load kit,
Antenna, and Cable with connector.
Theory: The vector network analyzer (VNA) is one of the most essential and often used high-
precision, intelligent equipment in the field of testing micro- and millimeter-wave frequencies.
The commercial available network analyzer is used as both a generator and receiver. A synthetic
pulse is reconstructed from a step frequency signal and then transmitted to the antenna. The
major advantages of such system is controlling an ultra wideband around the central frequency
and for obtaining higher dynamic range. It is able to measure a variety of different parameters
including the amplitude response as well as the network scattering parameters, or S-parameters,
which are the transmission and reflection coefficients for the device under test. These S-
parameters contain both amplitude and phase information, and therefore a vector network
analyzer, VNA is able to give a very comprehensive view of the device.
Fig 9.1: Front view of vector network analyzer.

Fig 9.1: Front view of vector network analyzer.

VNA calibration
Calibration is the process of eliminating systematic, reproducible errors from the measurement
results. Calibration plays an important role in determining the accuracy of the measurement
system. The process involves the following stages:

1. A set of calibration standards is selected and measured over the required sweep range.
 2. The analyzer compares the measurement data of the standards with their known, ideal
response. The difference is used to calculate the system errors using a particular error
model (calibration type) and derive a set of system error correction data.

3. The system error correction data is used to correct the measurement results of a DUT that
is measured instead of the standards.

Based upon the requirement one or two port calibration will take place. A full one port
calibration requires a short, an open and a match standards to be connected to a single test port.
The three standard measurements are used to derive all three reflection error terms:

 The short and open standards are used to derive the source match and the reflection
tracking error terms.

 The match standard is used to derive the directivity error.

Calibration procedure is as follows:

 A channel contains hardware-related settings to specify how the network analyzer

collects data. Therefore first the channel setting is done.

 After channel setting one port calibration is performed.

Standard cal kit ZV-Z132

 Figure 9.2: One port calibration menu in VNA

A two-port VNA with S-parameter test set can measure four scattering parameters, S11, S21, S12
and S22 of the device under test (DUT).

Parameters Measurement procedures (The procedure from the Anritsu VNA Master manual)
1. Connect the test port extension cable to the RF Out connector on the VNA Master if it is to be
used during the test.
2. Press the hard key of the Measurement function and select Return Loss (Field Menu) or S11
Reflection | Log Magnitude (VNA menu).
3. Press the hard key of the Freq/Dist function and set the Start and Stop Frequency.
4. Press the Shift key, then the Calibration (2) key.
5. Press the soft key of Start Cal and perform a 1-port calibration at the connector or at the end of
the extension cable. Then follow the instructions on the display.
6. Cal Status On should be displayed in the upper left part of the display when the calibration is
finished and the trace should be centred around 0 dB when the short or open kit is connected.
7. Connect the test port extension cable to the DUT.
8. Save the measurement by pressing the Save/Recall function hard key.
9. Press the hard key of the Measurement function and select the S11 Reflection | VSWR soft
keys (VNA menu).
Results:
 Experiment-10

Aim: To plot and study the radiation pattern of microstrip antenna.

Apparatus Required:
 Microstrip antenna, ATS10 instrument.
 Antenna transmitter tripod and receiver with connection cables, measuring tape.

Theory:

Radiation pattern of antenna is nothing but a graph which shows the variation in actual field
strength of EM field at all points which are at equal distance from the antenna. Obviously the
graph of radiation pattern will be 3D & hence cannot completely be represented on plain paper.
In order to draw the radiation pattern of antenna, field strength are measured at every point
which lies on the surface of an imaginary sphere of fixed radius treating antenna as centre & then
a 3D solid figure is constructed from the reading so obtained. In this case distance from the
centre to the surface of sphere represents the field strength in that direction. In order that the
radiation pattern of an antenna is represented on plain paper, the 3-D solid figure so obtained is
cut by a plane passing through the fixed point and the figure now obtained are used to represent
the radiation pattern in a usual way.

The radiation patterns are different for different antennas & are affected by the location of
antenna w.r.t ground. The gain of an antenna is a basic property which is frequently used as
figure of merit. Gain is closely associated with directivity and directivity itself dependents
entirely upon the shape of radiation patterns of an antenna. The ability of an antenna or antenna
system to concentrate the radiated power in a given direction or conversely to absorb effectively
the incident power from that direction is specified by various antenna terms e.g. antenna gain or
simply gain or directive gain or power gain or directivity. In case of an antenna, Gain is a relative
term in which the actual antenna is compared with a reference antenna. The reference antenna
normally used is hypothetical lossless isotropic radiator or antenna.
Procedure:

 Connect the microstrip antenna to the tripod. Microstrip antenna shall now rest in vertical
direction .The microstrip dimensions are set for 600MHz.
 Set an attenuator to high for high RF output.
 Connect the microstrip antenna to the stepper tripod and set the frequency of receiver to
600MHz and attenuator upwards for maximum sensitivity. Set the length of the antenna
to λ /4 or 12cm. keep the antenna in vertical direction.
 Set the distance between the antennas to be around 1 m.
 A distance of 1m to 1.5m ensures that multipath reflections from floor, ceiling etc are
minimized. Increasing or decreasing the height of tripod should not vary the level reading
by more than 4-6 dB. This ripple can lead erroneous results.
 Keep the antenna in same horizontal plane. Remove any stray object from around the
antenna especially in the line of sight. Avoid any unnecessary movement while taking the
reading.
 Using stepper tripod rotates the vertical microstrip antenna around its axis in steps of 5
degrees. Take the readings from receiver level display at each step and note down.
 Plot the reading on polar or Cartesian plane using log/linear scales on graph papers.
 While plotting take maximum reading as zero reference and subtract the subsequent
readings from this reference reading and plot. Thus all the readings of level shall be dB
as per the graph.
Precautions:

 Keep the antenna in same horizontal plane. Remove any stray object from around the
antenna especially in the line of sight. Avoid any unnecessary movement while taking the
reading
 Ensure that no scattering objects are the vicinity of the antenna which could radiate and
distort the field pattern and consequently the readings. Avoid any movement of persons
while taking readings.