INTRODUCTION TO

NUMBER THEORY
Number theory is a branch of pure
mathematics devoted to the study of the natural
numbers and the integers. It is the study of the set of
positive whole numbers which are usually called the set
of natural numbers. As it holds the foundational place in
the discipline, Number theory is also called "The Queen
of Mathematics".
Pierre de Fermat

• He is credited as being the

father of modern number
theory
DIRECT PROOF
is a simple way to prove theorems or propositions that have
the form of conditional statements.

If “p then q”, p is called the hypothesis and q is the conclusion

DIRECT PROOF PRINCIPLE
1. If n is an even integer then
𝑛 = 2𝑘 for some integer k (𝑘 ∈ 𝑍)

2. If n is odd integer then

𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some integer k (𝑘 ∈ 𝑍)
1. Prove that if 𝑥 is odd integer then 𝑥 − 3 is even.

Proof: Suppose 𝑥 is odd then 𝑥 = 2𝑘 + 1 , 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍

Since 𝑥 = 2𝑘 + 1 then it follows that
𝑥 − 3 = 2𝑘 + 1 − 3
= 2𝑘 − 2
=2 𝑘−1
Let 𝑘 − 1 = 𝑎, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍
Thus,𝑥 − 3 = 2𝑎, wherein 2a is even. Therefore, 𝑥 − 3 is even.
 2
2. Prove that if 𝑝 is even integer the 𝑝 is also even.
Proof: Suppose p is even then 𝑝 = 2𝑘 , 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
Since 𝑝 = 2𝑘 then 𝑝2 = (2𝑘)2
𝑝2 = (2𝑘)2
2
= 4𝑘
= 2 2𝑘 2
Let 2𝑘 2 = 𝑚, m ∈ 𝑍
Thus, 𝑝2 = 2𝑚 , wherein 2m is even. Therefore, p2 is
even.
3. Suppose 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍. If x and y are odd, then 𝑥 𝑦 is odd
Proof: Suppose 𝑥 and 𝑦 is odd then 𝑥 = 2𝑘 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑦 = 2𝑘 + 1 , 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍
Since 𝑥 = 2𝑘 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2𝑘 + 1 then
𝑥𝑦 = (2𝑘 + 1 )(2𝑘 + 1 )
=4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1
=2(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) + 1
Let(2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘) = 𝑛, n ∈ 𝑍
Thus,𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑛 + 1 , wherein 2n+1 is odd. Therefore, xy is odd.
INDIRECT PROOF
The method of indirect proof is sometimes called the proof by
contradiction. The proof is basically done by contradicting the
conclusion or assuming that the conclusion is false.

Principle of Contradiction states that no statement can be

both true and false.
All the following are different ways of saying P → Q:
If P, then Q.
P implies Q.
P only if Q.
Q whenever P.
P is sufficient for Q.
Q is necessary for P.
1.) Shows that if x is odd integer then x-3 is even.
2.) If 𝑝2 is even then p is also even.
Proof:
Assuming that p is odd.
Since p is odd then p=2k+1, k∈Z
Mathematical
Induction
Mathematical Induction

• It is one of the most developed techniques of proof

in the history of mathematics. It is used to check
conjectures about the outcomes of processes that
occur repeatedly and according to definite patterns.
Principle of Mathematical Induction
• Let Pn be a property or statement defined for positive integer n.
suppose that the following two conditions can be proven:
1. P1 is true (That is, the statement is true for the positive integer n =
1,2 or 3.)
2. For any positive integer, if Pk is true, then Pk+1 is also true. (That
is, if the statement is true for some positive integer k, it is also
true for the next positive integer k+1.)

Then, the statement Pn is true for all positive integers n.

Methods of Proof
I. Verification
I

I. Formulation of the Hypothesis of Induction

We assume that the statement is true for n = k.
III. Assumption
n=k+1
Methods of Proof
IV. Proof of Induction
Proving the statement is true for n = k+1

I. Conclusion
Forming conclusion
 Proving Summation Identities

Example 1:
𝑛(𝑛+1)
Prove that Pn : 1+2+3+…+ n = 2 is true for all natural numbers.

I. Verification II. Hypothesis of Induction

n=1 n=k
1(1+1)
1= 𝑘(𝑘+1)
1=1
2
Pk : 1+2+3+…+ k =
2
III. Assumption IV. Proof
𝑘(𝑘+1)
n=k+1 1+2+3+…+ k =
2
𝑘+1[(𝑘+1)+1]
Pk+1 : 1+2+3+…+ (k+1) = 1+2+3+…+ k + ( k+1)=
𝑘(𝑘+1)
+ ( k+1)
2 2
(𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
= 𝑘 𝑘+1 +2 ( 𝑘+1)
2 =
2
2
𝑘 +𝑘+2𝑘+2
=
2
𝑘2+3𝑘 +2
=
2
(𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
=
2
V. Conclusion
Since both conditions of the principle of
mathematical induction have been verified, it follows
𝑛(𝑛+1)
that Pn : 1+2+3+…+ n = 2 is true for all natural
numbers.
Example 2:
Prove that Pn : 1+3+5+…+ 2n-1 = n2 is true for any value of n.
Proving Divisibility Statements

If m, n, and k are natural numbers, and m

and n are both divisible by k then m + n is
divisible by k and m – n is divisible by k.
Example :
Show that Pn : 42n -1 is divisible by 5 for all positive integers n.
I. Verification II. Hypothesis of Induction
n=1 n=k
42n -1 is divisible by 5 Pn : 42k -1
Pn : 42n -1 42k -1 is divisible by 5
42(1) -1
16 -1
15 is divisible by 5
III. Assumption IV. Proof
n = k+1 Pk+1 – Pk = 42(k+1) -1 – ( 42k – 1)
Pk+1 : 42(k+1) -1 = 42(k+1) -1 – 42k + 1
42(k+1) -1 is divisible by 5 = 42(k+1) - 42k
= (42k + 2) – 42k
= 42( 42k) – 42k
= 15(42k)
IV. Conclusion
Since both conditions of the principle of
mathematical induction have been satisfied, it follows
that Pn : 42n -1 is divisible by 5 for all positive
integers n.
Example 4:
Show that Pn : 23n -1 is divisible by 7 for all positive integers n.