Aperture Antenna:

It represents a class of antennas that are generally analyzed considering the antenna as an opening in a surface. Typical aperture antennas are slot, horn, reflector and lens antenna. In the analysis of aperture antennas, the original antenna geometry is converted into an equivalent geometry which can be looked at as radiation through an aperture in a closed surface field equivalence principle. The duality and image principles are also used along with equivalence principle for the analysis of aperture type antennas. The field equivalence principle uses the uniqueness theorem which states that for a given set of sources and boundary conditions in a lossy isotropic medium, the solution to Maxwells equations is unique. For a source free lossless volume, the uniqueness theorem reduces into, the electromagnetic fields in a lossless source free volume are completely determined by the tangential components of the E or H fields on the surface enclosing the volume. The fields are computed using the vector magneticpotential as shown below

TITLE:Magnetic Currents and its Fields:

For analyzing the aperture antennas, magnetic current density, M (unit: volt per square meter) is used.Using the magnetic charge density, rm (unit: weber per cubic meter, Wb/m3), Maxwells equations become symmetric

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If above equations m and M are set to zero, the standard equations are obtained. The vector electric potential is given by,

Thus, when both J and M are present, the field equations are,

For far field region, the fields are

TITLE:Uniqueness Theorem:
It states that for a given set of sources and boundary conditions in a lossy medium, the solution to Maxwells equations is unique. Consider a source-free volume V in an isotropic homogenous medium bounded by a surface S, and let (E1, H1) be the fields inside
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it produced by a set of sources external to the volume. Now, let (E2, H2) be another possible set of fields in the volume V. If either the tangential E or the tangential H is the same on the surface S for the two sets of solution, the fields are identical everywhere in the volume. This is known as Uniqueness Theorem. It is important to note that it is sufficient to equate either the tangential E or the tangential H on S for the solution to be unique. In other words, in a source free region the fields are completely determined by the tangential E or the tangential H on the bounding surface.

TITLE:Field Equivalence Principle:

Consider a set of current sources in a homogenous isotropic medium producing electromagnetic fields E and H everywhere. Enclose all the sources by a closed surface S, separating the entire space into two parts, volume V1 containing the sources and the volume V2 being source-free. Let n be a unit normal to the surface drawn from V1 into V2.

According to the field equivalence principle, the fields in V2 due to the sources in volume V1 can also be generated by an equivalent set of virtual sources on surface S, given by Js = n x H and Ms = E x n, where E and H are the fields on the surface S produced by the original set of sources in volume V1. Further, the set of virtual sources produce null fields everywhere in V1. This principle is proved by using the Uniqueness theorem.

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TITLE:Duality Principle:
It is the consequence of the symmetry in Maxwells equations obtained with the introduction of magnetic charge density m and magnetic current density M.

TITLE:Method of images:

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A small electric current element, radiating in free space, is placed above an infinite, perfectly conducting plane. The presence of conducting plane forces the tangential E field on the conducting surface to zero. This is because, the E field of the current element induces a current distribution on the conducting surface such that the field of the induced current distribution is exactly opposite to the original incident field Lenzs law. This current distribution produces fields everywhere above the conducting surface. Therefore, the field at any point above the conducting surface is a sum of the incident field due to the current element and the scattered field due to the induced current distribution on the conducting surface. The idea of image principle is that, the conducting boundary is removed and an image current (of same magnitude but flowing in opposite direction) is introduced.

Therefore the resultant tangential E field is zero. The uniqueness theorem also ensures that the field in the upper half is the same as in the original problem. Also it is very easy to solve the problem without conducting plane or boundary by applying the free-space vector potential expressions.

TITLE: Pattern Properties for Sheet Current Distribution in Free Space

For =0 plane, E=0 & Y=0 and in the =90 plane, E=0 and X=0.

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 Thus the expression for the radiation intensity in the two principal planes are simplified to,

In the x-z plane, the pattern is controlled by the aperture dimension in the x-direction and in the y-z plane, the y-dimension controls it. For large apertures, i.e., a>> and b>>, the term is a slowly varying function of as compared to and factors. Hence, the term is neglected and the normalized pattern functions are

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The directivity is
It is difficult to evaluate the integral in the denominator which gives the total radiated power. The power radiated can be obtained by integrating the Poynting vector over the aperture. Thus, the power radiated is given by, Assuming, Ea = ayEO and Ha = -axHO = -axEO/, power radiated through the aperture is,

the

By examining the radiation intensity expression, it is found that, the maximum occurs for X=0 and Y=0, which corresponds to =0.

Thus, the directivity expression is reduced into,

where, Ae is the effective aperture area.

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For a uniform the aperture.

distribution, the effective area is the same as the actual area of

TITLE: Slot antenna

The geometry of a rectangular slot is similar to the geometry of a rectangular aperture in an infinite conducting plane except that b (ydimension) is very small compared to the wavelength and a is of the order of half a wavelength.
Since b is small compared to the wavelength, the slot can be considered to be a slot transmission line section shorted at both ends.The slot can be excited by a voltage source connected across the slot at the center point at x=0.

Geometry of a rectangular slot antenna

The E field in the slot has only y-component (Ey) with constant distribution in the y-direction and a sinusoidal distribution in the x-direction with zero field at the shorted ends.It is expressed as,

Hence, the magnetic sheet current of the equivalent formulation is given by,

The electric vector potentials are,

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Since,

Where X =

and Y =

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Substituting the expressions of F and F in E = -j(A + F) E = j(A + F) we get,

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Since the slot antenna is excited at the center and is open on both sides of the conducting plane, the radiation occurs equally on both sides of the conducting plane. Hence, the radiation pattern computed for the z>o space is also applicable to the z<o space. Therefore, the pattern is symmetric about the z=0 plane.

An infinite-plane conducting screen is pierced with apertures of any shape or size and the resultant screen is called S1. Consider the screen which is obtained by interchanging the region of metal and aperture space in S1 and let it be S2. Then the screens S1 and S2 are said to be complementary, because added together, they result in a complete infinite metal screen. The slot and flat dipole antennas are complementary.

Properties of Slot antenna A horizontal slot produces a vertical polarization in the direction normal to the slot and a vertical slot produces a horizontal polarization.
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 The electric field across the slot is maximum at the center and tapers off towards the edges. The polarizations are different for slot and its complementary wire antenna the E field associated with the slot is identical with the H field of the complementary wire antenna.

Methods of feeding the slot antenna

1.Centre feed: A slot antenna is energized with a coaxial transmission line with the method of feeding at center of the antenna.

2. Off center feed: A coaxial cable is connected to slot antenna at the distance l/20 from one end, i.e., away from the center of the slot antenna. This method is used to provide a better impedance matching with coaxial cable of 50ohms

3. Boxed in slot antenna: In boxed type of feeding, the slot antenna sheet is very large and ideally infinite and boxed. In this method, radiation occurs Visit-www.engineering-grs.com only from one side.

[4. Slotted wave-guide antenna for

broadside array of slots:

In this method, slots are spaced at half guide wavelength lg. The radiation occurs in the same phase.

TITLE: HORN ANTENNA

Horn Antenna Horn antennas are very popular at UHF (300 MHz- 3 GHz) and higher frequencies (as high as 140GHz). They often have a directional radiation pattern with a high gain , which can range up to 25 dB in some cases, with 1020 dB being typical. Horn antennas have a wide impedance bandwidth, implying that the input impedance is slowly varying over a wide frequency range (which also implies low values for VSWR). The bandwidth for practical horn antennas can be on the order of 20:1 (for instance, operating from 1 GHz-20 GHz), with a 10:1 bandwidth not being uncommon.
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The gain of horn antennas often increases (beamwidth decreases) as the frequency of operation is increased. (This is because the size of the horn aperture is always measured in wavelengths). Since the horn antenna has a fixed physical size, the aperture is more wavelengths across at higher frequencies. And, a recurring theme in antenna theory is that larger antennas (in terms of wavelengths in size) have higher directivities. Horn antennas have very little loss, so the directivity of a horn is roughly equal to its gain. It is a flared out or opened out waveguide. A waveguide is capable of radiating radiation into open space provided the same is excited at one end and opened at the other end. The radiation is much greater through waveguide than two-wire transmission line. In waveguide a small portion of the incident wave is radiated and the large portion is reflected back by the open circuit, due to impedance mismatch between the waveguide and space. Also the diffraction around the edges will provide a poor radiation and a non-directive radiation pattern. Hence in order to overcome these difficulties, the mouth of the waveguide is opened out which assume the shape of electromagnetic horn (just like the opened out transmission line gives a dipole). If the waveguide is terminated by any type of horn, the abrupt discontinuity is replaced by a gradual transformation, hence all the incident energy will be radiated in forward direction and the impedance is matched.

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If flaring is done only in one direction, then it is called as sectoral horn. Flaring in the E field direction is Sectoral E plane horn and in the H field direction is Sectoral H plane horn. If flaring is done along the both walls of the rectangular wave-guide, then it is called as pyramidal horn. By flaring the walls of a circular waveguide, a conical horn is obtained.

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The function of the electromagnetic horn is to produce a uniform phase front with a larger aperture in comparison to waveguide and thus the directivity is greater.

where d is permissible phase angle variation, therefore the phase is deviated by an amount less than specified amount. From the right angled triangle OBC,

neglecting

,which is very small

If the flare angle (2q) is very large, the wave front on the mouth of the horn will be curved rather than plane. This will result in non uniform phase distribution over the aperture, resulting increased beam width and decreased directivity, and vice versa occurs if the flare angle is very small as the small angle results in small aperture area for a specified length L.

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Applications: Horn antennas are extensively used at microwave frequencies where moderate power gain is required. Acoustic horn antennas are used in transmitting sound waves (with a megaphone). Horn antennas are also used to feed a dish antenna. It is also used as a "standard gain" antenna in antenna measurements. For high gain, horn antenna dimension becomes large, so other antennas like lens or parabolic reflector, etc are preferred.

TITLE: Pyramidal

Horn

Antenna

It is one of the most often used horn antennas. It is used as a primary feed for reflector antennas as well as standard gain reference antennas in antenna measurements. It is obtained by flaring all four sides of a rectangular waveguide to form a pyramid-shaped horn with a rectangular aperture.

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In order to apply the field equivalence principle and obtain far fields expression, it is needed to approximate the field distribution over the aperture. For small flare angles, it is assumed that the aperture fields have a similar shape as that of the TE10 mode distribution in the exciting waveguide but with a phase variation over the aperture in bothx and y directions. In the x-z and y-z planes the phase centers are not necessarily at the same position.
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The phase of the field at (x,0) with respect to the center of the aperture is given by the product of the path length difference and the propagation constant, in the x-z plane and

in the y-z plane. Combining the above two equations, the phase variation over the aperture can be written as,

For small flare angles, the tangential E and H fields are,

Using the field equivalence principle, the fields are converted into equivalent magnetic and electric current sheets in the aperture, Mx = -Ey and Jy = Hx and the far fields can be computed using the vector potential approach. The directivity is, For the horn to be realizable, the horn length, L, must satisfy the following equations, where aw and bw are the waveguide dimensions and a and b are the aperture dimensions.

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TITLE: Corner Reflector Antenna

The corner reflector is an improvement over the flat-plate reflector and gives a higher directivity. 1.It is made up of two flat-plate reflectors joined together to form a corner. 2.It is generally used in conjunction with a dipole or dipole array kept parallel to the corner line. 3.For a given included corner angle, there is an optimum dipole position for which the directivity is maximum. 4.The fields of a corner reflector excited by a current element or a distribution can be easily analyzed using the image theory, if the subtended angle is a= /n, where n is an integer and the reflector isinfinite. For finite size corner reflectors, the image principle can be applied to get approximate fields.

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For simplicity of analysis, consider a /2 corner reflector excited by a point source. For pattern computation, the image theory can be applied and the problem is converted to a four-dipole array as shown below.

The field pattern can be written using superposition, as a sum of the fields due to each of the four sources. The patterns of four point sources are spheres with centers at the four locations. The power pattern is mainly controlled by the spacing d.

Applications:
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Corner reflectors is used in the passive mode as efficient radar targets. /2 corner reflector has a unique property that a wave incident from any direction is reflected back in the same direction.

TITLE: Curved

Reflector Antenna

Parabolic Cylinder Reflector Antenna

One such ray, FP, is shown as incident at a point P(x,y) on the reflector, producing a reflected ray, PA. For generating an equi-phase front on the surface x=xO, the total path length between the source point F and the point A on the aperture surface must be the same for each ray. Further, the reflected rays must be parallel to x-axis and the snells law must be satisfied at the reflection point, P. Let the point on the reflector be P(x,y) and the line source coordinates be (f,0). A ray along the x-direction will be reflected back to point B on the aperture surface. Therefore, equating the path lengths FO + OB = FP + PA
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or in terms of the coordinates f + xO = { (f x)2 + (y 0)2 }1/2 + (xO x) y2 = 4fx where f is the focal length. By differentiating the above expression with respect to x, the slope of the tangent to the parabola at P(x,y) can be obtained

Now, the angle (p/2 f) = t is the angle between the normal to parabola at P(x,y) and the x-axis. Therefore, If the ray FP makes an angle q to the x-axis, then

or q = 2t. Hence Snells law is satisfied at the point of reflection on the parabolic cylinder surface. A Paraboloidal surface is generated by rotating the parabola about the axis. The point source radiates a spherical wave front. The point P can be any point on the surface and let (x,y,z) be the coordinates of the point P on the paraboloid. Thus, in 3D, f + xo = r + (xO x) ...(1) where r = { + + }1/2 ------------(2) Substituting (2) in (1) and solving, y2 + x2 = 4fx ..(3) which is an equation to a paraboloid. From the figure, cosq = (f x)/r x = f r cosq ...(4) Substituting (4) in (1), we get

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A paraboloid reflector converts a spherical wave front into a plane wave front in the aperture plane. The aperture plane is normally taken as a plane passing through the focal point, x = f plane, or any plane parallel to it. The spill over loss also increases the noise temperature. The ray reflected from the vertex region of the paraboloid is blocked by the primary horn itself and does not reach the aperture plane, which is called as aperture blockage. Due to aperture blockage, directivity is reduced and side lobes are increased. The f/d ratio is the focal length to diameter ratio. Due to the curvature of the reflector, small orthogonal component is generated which produces a cross polar radiation. By having the large f/d ratio, the cross polar radiation can be minimized. The polarization efficiency factor is the measure of the power radiated (power loss) in the cross-polar pattern. The phase efficiency factor is the measure of phase errors over the aperture. The surface efficiency factor (or random efficiency factor) is used to account for the loss in gain due to the deviations in the reflector surface from the exact paraboloidal shape (surface irregularities). The product of all these factors is called as overall aperture efficiency.

Reflector Antenna parameters

Cassegrain Reflector Antenna This is dual reflector configuration using a hyperboloidal surface as a secondary reflector (sub reflector) and a paraboloid as a primary reflector

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The advantages are (a) primary feed horn antenna is located in the main reflector itself long transmission lines or waveguides can be eliminated (b) noise temperature can be minimized since feed horn and primary reflector are facing in the same direction (c) due to larger horn aperture, narrow beam width is achieved sub-reflector size is reduced (d) the cross-polar radiation is reduced The disadvantage is large aperture blockage by the sub-reflector.

TITLE: LENS ANTENNA

An antenna using the collimating properties of anoptical lens is called as lens antenna. The focal length is determined by the curvature of the lens surface. It is used at higher frequencies (>3 GHz) because at lower frequencies they become bulky and heavy. The snells law of refraction must be obeyed

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The conditions to be satisfied for the lens antenna to produce a plane wavefront are (i) the rays must emerge parallel to the axis after refraction at the first curved interface. The normal incidence on the second surface does not produce any refraction (ii) the phase shift along all the ray path should be same (iii) Snells law of refraction should be satisfied

Types of Lens Antenna

1. Dielectric lens (or) H plane metal plate lens (or) delay lens antenna: It is an antenna in which the traveling wave fronts are retarded or delayed by lens media. It is subdivided into: (i) Non metallic dielectric type (Polystyrene (or) Lucite) of lens (ii) Metallic (or) Artificial dielectric type of lens 2. E plane metal plate lens antenna: It is an antenna in which the traveling wave fronts are spaced up by the lens media.

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Zoning in Lens Antenna

Lens antennas have excessive thickness, which is undesirable. It can be overcome by zoned or stepped lens antenna

The thickness is given by, The zoned lens antenna has the benefit of reduced weight and less power dissipation and frequency dependent APPLICATIONS: Unstepped dielectric lens is a wideband antenna asits shape does not depend on the wavelength andhence it can be used over a wide frequency range. However, a stepped dielectric lens antenna isfrequency sensitive. Both reflectors and lens antennas are commonly used above 1000MHz. Since lens antenna is a microwave device, it is generally used above 3000MHz.pation but it is frequency dependent. The feed and feed support do not block the aperture It has greater design tolerance, i.e., larger amount of wrapping and twisting is possible in lens antenna as wave enters one side and emerges at the other side, maintaining the electrical path. It can be feed angularly with respect to optical axis. ADVANTAGES: The feed and feed support do not block the aperture. It has greater design tolerance, i.e., larger amount of wrapping and twisting is possible in lens antenna as wave enters one side and emerges at the other side, maintaining the electrical path.
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 It can be feed angularly with respect to optical axis.

DISADVANTAGES: Lenses are usually bulky, heavy and design is complicated. Costlier for the same gain and beam width in comparison with reflectors. Quarter wave transformed is required for matching (dielectric air interface), which reduces the bandwidth

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