2

River
1000
W
P V B
Q T
500 A R S
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Unit 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x

INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS AND

CONTINUITY

Unit Outcomes:
After completing this unit, you should be able to:



understand the concept of "limit" intuitively.



find out limits of sequences of numbers.



determine the limit of a given function.



determine continuity of a function over a given interval.



apply the concept of limits to solve real life mathematical problems.



develop a suitable ground for dealing with differential and integral calculus.

Main Contents
2.1 LIMITS OF SEQUENCES OF NUMBERS
2.2 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS
2.3 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION
2.4 EXERCISES ON APPLICATIONS OF LIMITS
Key terms
Summary
Review Exercises
Mathematics Grade 12

INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with the fundamental objects of calculus: limits and continuity.
Limits are theoretical in nature but we start with interpretations.
Limit can be used to describe how a function behaves as the independent variable
approaches a certain value.

x2 − 1 0
For example, consider the function f ( x ) = . Then f (1) = has no meaning. The
x −1 0
0
form is said to be indeterminate form because it is not possible to assign a unique
0
value to it.
This function is not defined at x = 1. However, it still makes sense to ask what happens
to the values of f (x) as the value of x becomes closer to 1 without actually being equal
x2 − 1
to 1. You can verify using a calculator that f ( x ) = approaches to 2 whenever
x −1
you take any value very close to 1 for x .
This means that f (x) has a well-defined value near x = 1 on either side of 1.
Limits are used in several areas of mathematics, including the study of rates of change,
approximations and calculations of area.
For example, you know how to approximate the population of your kebele in 2012, but
what is different in limits is you will learn how to know the rate of change of population
in your kebele in 2012.

 O PPEEN NG
NIIN G P
PRRO
OB EM
BLLE M
Imagine that a regular polygon with n-sides is inscribed
in a circle.
1 As n gets large, what happens to the length of
each side of the polygon?
2 What will be the limiting shape of the polygon as
n goes to infinity?
3 Will the polygon ever get to the circle? Figure 2.1

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

2.1 LIMITS OF SEQUENCES OF NUMBERS

ACTIVITY 2.1
1 Find the maximum and minimum elements of each of
the following sets.
a { 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10} b { 1, -1, 1, -1, . . .} c { x ∈ℝ:− 3 ≤ x < 5}
1 
d  : n ∈ ℕ e { x∈ ℝ : −1 ≤ x ≤ 2 } f { x∈ ℝ : −5 < x ≤ 4}
n 
g { x∈ ℝ : x < 5}
2 For each of the following sequences {a n}, find m and k such that
i an ≤ m, for all n ii a n ≥ k, for all n
1  1
a an = 2n + 1 b an = c an = (-1)n 1 + 
3n  n
n
n +1 1 10 − 1
d an = e an = 7 + f an =
n n 10 n

2.1.1 Upper Bounds and Lower Bounds

The numbers m and k in Activity 2.1 are said to be an upper bound and a lower bound
of the sequences, respectively.

Definition 2.1
Let { an } be a sequence and m, M ∈ ℝ . Then
i M is said to be an upper bound of {an}, if M ≥ ai for all ai ∈ { an}.
ii m is said to be a lower bound of { an }, if m ≤ ai for all ai ∈ {an}
iii A sequence is said to be bounded, if it has an upper bound (is bounded above) and
if it has a lower bound (is bounded below).

Note:
 A sequence {an} is bounded, if and only if there exists k > 0 such that
an ≤ k for all n∈ ℕ .

1  1 1 1
Example 1 Consider the sequence   , where the terms are: 1, , , ,...
n 2 3 4
1
Clearly, 0 < ≤ 1 for all n∈ N .
n
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Mathematics Grade 12

Some upper bounds are: 1, 2, 3 , 5, and some lower bounds are:

0, −2, −3, −5, −7.
1 
Thus,   is a bounded sequence.
n
Example 2 Show that the following sequences are bounded.
 4n − 1 
a { (−1)n} b  
 2n 
Solution
a The sequence {(−1)n} is bounded because −1 ≤ (−1)n ≤ 1 for all n∈ N .
4x −1
b Consider the graph of the rational function y = . The horizontal
2x
asymptote, y = 2, is the limiting line of the curve.
 4n − 1 
If we mark the points  n,  on the curve of the rational function, it
 2n 
3
gives the graph of the sequence. The terms are increasing from to 2.
2
an
4n − 1
aan ==4n − 1
22nn

Figure 2.2

3 4n − 1  4n − 1 
Thus, ≤ < 2 for all n ∈ℕ. This shows that   is bounded.
2 2n  2n 
Example 3 For each of the following sequences,
i find some upper bounds and some lower bounds.
ii determine the greatest element of the set of lower bounds and the least
element of the set of upper bounds.

 1  
n
 ( − 1) n 
a   b {1–n} c { 2n } d   
 n   n  

44
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Solution One of the strategies in finding upper bounds and lower bounds of a
sequence is to list the first few terms and observe any trend.
 ( − 1)n 

a The first few terms of   are:
 n 
1 1 1 1
−1, , – , , − ,… ,
2 3 4 5
which are consisting of negative and positive values with – 1 the minimum
1
term and the maximum term.
2
n
( −1) 1
Hence, −1 ≤ ≤ for all n∈ N .
n 2
The set of lower bounds is the interval (–∞, –1] whose greatest element is −1.
1  1
The set of upper bounds is the interval  , ∞  whose least element is .
2  2
b The terms of { 1 – n } are:
0, −1, −2, −3, . . . ,
which are decreasing to negative infinity starting from 0. This shows that
the sequence has no lower bound (is unbounded below). The set of upper
bounds is [0, ∞) with 0 the least element of all the upper bounds.
c When we consider {2n}, the terms are 2, 4, 8, 16, . . ., which are starting from
2 and indefinitely increasing. Thus, {2n} has no upper bound, whereas the
interval (−∞, 2] is the set of the lower bounds with 2 being the greatest
element.
 1 n 
d The terms of    are non-negative numbers starting from 1 and
 n  
1
decreasing to 0 at a faster rate as compared to   .
n
1 1 1
Look at its terms: 1, , , , ...
4 27 256
n
1
Clearly, 0 <   ≤ 1 , for all n∈ N
n
Thus the set of lower bounds is (−∞, 0] with 0 being the greatest element and the
set of upper bounds is [1, ∞) with 1 the least element.

45
Mathematics Grade 12

The following table contains a few upper bounds and a few lower bounds.
Sequence Few upper bounds Few lower bounds
 ( − 1)n  1
  , 1, 4, 10 −1, −2, −5, −7.5
 n  2
{1–n} 0, 1, π, 5 None
1
{ 2n } None 2, , 0, − 10
2
 1 n 
   1, 2, 3, 12 0, −1, −2, −π
 n  

Least upper bound (lub) and greatest lower bound (glb)

In Example 3 above, you have seen the least element of the set of upper bounds and the
greatest element of the set of lower bounds. Now, you consider sequences of numbers in
general and give the following formal definition.

Definition 2.2
Let {an} be a sequence of numbers.
1 x is said to be the least upper bound (lub) of {an}
i if x is an upper bound of {an}, and
ii whenever y is an upper bound of {an}, then x ≤ y.
2 x is called the greatest lower bound (glb) of {an}
i if x is a lower bound of {an} and
ii whenever y is a lower bound of {an}, then x ≥ y.

You may determine the lub or glb of a sequence using different techniques of describing
a sequences such as listing the first few terms or plotting points.
In the following example, to determine the lub and glb plotting the points might be
much more helpful than listing the terms.
 2n − 3 
Example 4 Find the lub and glb of the sequence  
 n +1 
Solution If the general term of a sequence has a rational expression, then plotting the
points on the curve of the corresponding rational function can be helpful.
2x − 3
Consider the graph of y = .
x +1
If you have values for the natural numbers, then it gives the graph of the sequence.

46
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

1
The sequence increases from − to 2. an
2
Its elements are limited by the
2n − 3
horizontal asymptote of the rational an =
n +1
function.
1 2n − 3
Hence, − ≤ ≤ 2 for all n∈ N .
2 n +1
n
1
Therefore, the glb is – and the lub
2
Figure 2.3
is 2.
Example 5 Find the lub and glb of each of the following sequences.
1  n  ( − 1)n + 1 
a  
n 
b {( −1) } c 
 2


 1  ( − 1)n  2
d 1 −  e 1 −  f  n
 n  n  3 
Solution In this example, listing the first few terms is sufficient to determine the
lub and glb.
Look at the following table.
Sequence First few terms lub glb
1  1 1 1 1
  1, , , , , . . . Decreases to 0 1 0
n  2 3 4 5
n
{( −1) } −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . Oscillates 1 −1

 ( − 1)n + 1 
  0, 1, 0, 1, . . . Oscillates 1 0
 2 
 1 1 2 3 4
1 −  0, , , , , . . . Increases to 1 1 0
 n 2 3 4 5
a2n-1
Decrease to 1
 ( − 1)n  1 4 3 6 5 1
1 −  2, , , , , ,… Increase to 1 2
 n  2 3 4 5 6 2
a2n Converges to 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 n , , , ,... Decreases to 0 0
3  3 9 27 81 3

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Mathematics Grade 12

Example 6 Find the glb and lub for each of the following sequences.

 1n   1

a 2  b (0.01) n 
   
Solution These sequences need a calculator or a computer to list as many terms as
Possible; alternatively plot the corresponding function graph.
a The lub is 2 and the glb is 1 b The lub is 1 and the glb is 0.01.

Exercise 2.1
For each of the following sequences, find some upper bounds and lower bounds and
determine the lub and glb.
 ( − 1)n   n − 1  3n − 2   n 1 
1   2   3   4 ( −1) 1− 
 n + 3   n + 1  n    n 
 1− 3n   1n n  n+2   1n 
5   6  2 ( −1)  7   8 n 
 2n + 5     3n − 7   
 n!   2n 
9  n 10  
n   n! 

Monotonic sequences
Definition 2.3
Let {an} be a sequence of numbers. Then,
i { an } is said to be an increasing sequence, if an ≤ an + 1, for all n∈ N .
i.e. { an } is increasing, if and only if
a1 ≤ a2 ≤ a 3 ≤ . . . . ≤ an ≤ an + 1 ≤ . . .
ii {an} is said to be strictly increasing if an < an + 1, for all n∈ ℕ
iii { an } is said to be a decreasing sequence, if an ≥ an + 1, for all n∈ N . i.e., {an} is
decreasing, if and only if
a1 ≥ a 2 ≥ a3 ≥ . . . . ≥ an ≥ an + 1 ≥ . . .
iv {an} is said to be strictly decreasing, if an > an + 1, for all n∈ ℕ

 1
Example 7 Show that the sequence 3 −  is strictly increasing.
 n

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Solution This can be seen directly from the order of the terms:
1 1 1
3 −1 < 3 − < 3 − < 3 −
2 3 4
1 1 1 1
Also, n < n + 1 ⇒ > ⇒− < –
n n +1 n n +1
1 1  1
⇒ 3– <3– , for all n∈ N ⇒ 3 −  is strictly increasing.
n n +1  n
 1
Example 8 Show that 3 +  is strictly decreasing.
 n
1 1 1 1
Solution Note that 3 + 1 > 3 + > 3 + > .... > 3 + > 3 + >⋯
2 3 n n +1
1 1
⇒ 3+ >3+ , ∀n ∈ ℕ
n n+1
 1
⇒ 3 +  is strictly decreasing.
 n

Definition 2.4
A sequence {an} is said to be monotonic or a monotone sequence, if it is either
increasing or decreasing.

 ( − 1)  n

Example 9 Show that   is not monotonic.

 n 
Solution It suffices to list the first few terms of the sequence.
1 1 1
The terms −1, , − , ,... are neither in an increasing order nor in a decreasing
2 3 4
 ( − 1)n 
order. Thus,   is not monotonic.
 n 
Example 10 Decide whether or not each of the following sequences is monotonic.
 1  1  ( −1) n 
a 8 −  b  8+  c  1− 
 n  n  n 
Solution
 1  1  1
a In 8 −  , since −  is increasing to 0, 8 −  is increasing to 8.
 n  n  n
Hence, it is monotonic.

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Mathematics Grade 12

1  1
b   is a decreasing sequence; it is decreasing to 0. Hence 8 + 
n  n
decreases to 8.
Hence, it is monotonic.
c You can write the terms of the sequence as:
1 4 6
1 + , if n is odd; → 2
n 3 5
1 1 3 5
1 − , if n is even; →
n 2 4 6
 ( − 1)n 
This shows that 1 −  is not monotonic.
 n 

Exercise 2.2
1 Show that each of the following sequences is monotonic and bounded.
 n +1   1   1n 
a   b  2  c 3 
 2n − 1 n + 4  
 π  1  2n + 1
d sin   e cos   f  
 2n  n  n+5 
2 Give examples of convergent sequences that are not monotonic.
3 Give examples of bounded sequences that are not convergent.
4 Can you find a convergent sequence that is not bounded?
5 In each of the following, determine whether or not the sequence is bounded.
 1  2  4 
a n +  b 7 +  c  2  d {sin ( n )}
 n  n  n + 1
 1n   1 n   n − 1    1 
e 7  f    g   h ln   
   e    n + 1    n 
6 Use an appropriate method to show that each of the following sequences converges.
 4  2n − 3   1 2 
a 3 +  b   c  − 
 n  3n + 2   n +1 n + 3
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n − 1)   2n +1   2n 
d   e  n−4  f  2 
 6n2 + 1  5   n + 100 
  π   ( − 1) 
n

g sin    h 1 + 
  n   n 

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

2.1.2 Limits of Sequences

 O PPEENNIINNG
G P
PRRO
OBBLLE
EMM
 1 
Consider the terms of the sequence  
 n 
 1  1 −2
1 List terms of   that satisfy the condition 0 < < 10
 n  n
1
2 Find the smallest natural number k such that 0 < < 10 −5 for all n ≥ k.
n
Sequences are common examples in the study of limits. In particular, sequences that
tend to a unique value when n increases indefinitely are important in the introductory
part of limits of sequences of numbers.

ACTIVITY 2.2
Decide whether each of the following sequences tends to a unique
real number as n increases.
1   (− 1) n 
1   2   3 {4} 4 {−10 −n }
n  n 
 2  
n
n + 5 n
5   
 3  
6 
 n 
 7 {( −1) } 8 { 2n }

In Activity 2.2, the terms of some of the sequences are tending to a unique real number L
as n gets larger and larger.
 1 
Consider the terms of the sequence  :
 n 
1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , . . . , , ,...
2 3 4 n n +1
1
It is clear that as the value of n becomes larger and larger, the nth term   of the
n
sequence becomes smaller in value and hence it becomes closer and closer to 0. Moreover,
1
for extremely large values of n, it will be very hard to distinguish the values of from 0.
n
1 
In this case, 0 is said to be the limit of the sequence   and you express this idea shortly
n
1
by writing lim = 0 .
n →∞ n

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Mathematics Grade 12

1 1
Read lim = 0 as "the limit of as n approaches to infinity is 0."
n →∞ n n
1
Also, for the sequence  n  , whose terms are:
2 
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , ,..., n , n+1 ,...
2 4 8 16 2 2
 1 
you can see that lim  n  = 0.
n →∞
2 
Observe that the terms of the sequence
1  1  11
 n  are decreasing to 0 at a rate faster n, 1n  nn,, 
2   n, 2 n   nn
 2 
 1 
than that of   . Figure 2.4 shows this
 n  Figure 2.4
comparison.
Note:
1 
 If a constant c is added to the nth term of the sequence   , then you get the
n 
 1
sequence c +  which converges to c.
 n
 1
Example 11 Consider the sequence 5 +  , whose terms are
 n
1 1 1 1
5 + 1, 5 + , 5 + , 5 + , . . . ., 5 + , . . .
2 3 4 n
1 1
As n gets large, gets close to 0 so that 5 + gets close to 5 + 0.
n n
 1
 1  n, n5,5++ 1
Therefore, lim  5 +  = 5.   n 
n →∞
 n  n

This can be seen graphically, as follows;

1
shifting the graph of an = by 5 units in
n
the positive y-direction gives the graph of
 11
1 nn, , 
an = 5 + , so that as n gets large its graph  nn
n
approaches the line with equation y = 5
Figure 2.5
instead of the line with equation y = 0.

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

In general, for a sequence {an}, if there exists a unique real number L such that an
becomes closer and closer to L as n becomes indefinitely large, then L is said to be the
limit of {an} as n approaches infinity.
Symbolically, this concept is written as: lim a n = L
n→∞

If such a real number L exists, then we say that {an} converges to L. If such a number L
does not exist, we say that {an} diverges or lim a n does not exist.
n→ ∞

Example 12 Show that the sequence {(–5)n} diverges.

Solution The terms of the sequence {(–5)n} are
–5, 25,–125, 625, ...
Thus, lim (–5)n does not approach a unique number. Therefore, {(–5)n} diverges.
n →∞

Example 13 Show that the sequence {2n} diverges.

Solution The terms of the sequence {2 n} are: 2, 22, 23, 24,…, 2n, 2n + 1,… which are
indefinitely increasing as n increases to infinity.
Thus, lim 2n = ∞ .This shows that {2n} diverges.
( )
n→∞

5n − 2
Example 14 Decide whether or not the sequence converges.
3n
 5n − 2  2

5n − 2  n   5−
Solution First we notice that = = n
3n  
3n 3
 
 n
 2
1  5− n  5
Together with lim = 0 , we have lim =  =
n →∞ n
 3  3
x →∞

 
Hence, the sequence 
5n − 2  5
 converges to .
 3n  3
Example 15 Show that the sequence {sin (n)} is divergent.
Solution You know that −1 ≤ sin (n) ≤ 1. As n gets large, sin (n) still oscillates
between –1 and 1. It does not approach a unique number.
Thus, {sin (n)} diverges.

Null sequence
Definition 2.5
A sequence {an} is said to be a null sequence, if and only if lim an = 0.
n→∞

53
Mathematics Grade 12

Example 16 Each of the following sequences is a null sequence.

1   1   1   ( −1) n 
a   b  n c  2  d  
n 10  n + 5  n 
 cos ( n ) 
Example 17 Show that the sequence   is a null sequence.
 n 
Solution Notice that as n approaches to infinity, –1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1.
cos ( n ) finite quantity  cos ( n ) 
So lim = = 0 . Thus,   is a null sequence.
n →∞ n infinite quantity  n 
  1 
Example 18 Show that the sequence sin   is a null sequence.
  n 
Solution The terms of the sequence
1 1
sin (1), sin   , sin   ,…are decreasing to sin 0.
2 3
1
Thus, lim sin   = sin ( 0 ) = 0
n→∞
n
This can be shown graphically:
1 1
As n goes to infinity, sin tends to 0. Thus, an = sin  
n n
1
sin   is a null sequence.
n
Figure 2.6
Exercise 2.3
1 Find the limit of each of the following sequences as n tends to infinity.

 3   ( −1)n  1  1n 
a   b  2  c  n d 7 
 n +1  n  6   
 1
  1  cos ( n)    1 
e ( 0.5) n  f 1 − 2  g   h cos   
   n   n    n 
 1 1+ n   1 5 7 
i n +  j   k  1, 0, , 0, , 0, , 0. . . .
 n 2 + n   3 7 9 
 n+3   10   ( −1) ( n − 1) 
n

l   m n −  n  
1− 2n   n  n +1 
o { 0.6, 0.66, 0.666, . . . }

54
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

2 Decide whether or not each of the following sequences is a null sequence.

 1  2   (−1) n 
a −  b 1 −  c  2 
 n  n + 1  n + 1
 3   
n−2
7
   
n
d e   f {2 − 2−n }
 n(n + 1)   8 
 n +1
 4 n − 1  2n   
g  2  h  2  i  n 
 n +1  n + 1

2.1.3 Convergence Properties of Sequences

ACTIVITY 2.3
1 Given on the next page are graphs of some sequences. Identify
those graphs which are bounded and find their limits.

a b

c d

e f
Figure 2.7
55
Mathematics Grade 12

2 For each of the following sequences,

i decide whether or not it is bounded and/or monotonic.
ii determine the limits in terms of the glb and lub.
 1  2
a 1+  b 3-  c {4 − n}
 n  n
  1 
 sin   
1− n n
d {2 } e f {−2 }
  n 
From Activity 2.3, you have the following facts about monotonic sequences:
1 If a monotonic sequence is unbounded, then it diverges.
2 If a monotonic sequence is bounded, then it converges.
a If it is bounded and increasing, then it converges to the least upper bound
(lub) of the sequence.
b If it is bounded and decreasing, then it converges to the greatest lower
bound (glb) of the sequence.
 n +1 
Example 19 Show that the sequence   converges.
 2n + 3
n +1 1 1
Solution Observe that = −
2n + 3 2 2(2n + 3)
1
The sequence – is increasing.
2(2n + 3)
1 1
Hence, − is increasing, with
2 2(2 n + 3)
2 n +1 1
≤ < for all n∈ N . Explain!
5 2n + 3 2
 n +1 
Therefore,   is bounded and monotonic and hence it converges.
 2n + 3
n +1 1 1 1
Also, lim = lim − = . Why?
n →∞ 2n + 3 n→ ∞ 2 2(2n + 3) 2

 n +3 
Thus,   converges to the least upper bound of the sequence.
 2n + 3
So far, the limit of a sequence { an } has been discussed. Your next task is to determine
the limits of the sum, difference, product and quotient of two or more sequences.

56
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Theorem 2.1
Let {an} and {bn} be convergent sequences with lim an = L and lim bn = M . Then the sum
n →∞ n →∞

{an + bn}, the difference {an – bn}, a constant multiple {can}, the product {an bn}, and the
a 
quotient  n  , provided that M ≠ 0 and bn ≠ 0 for every n, are convergent with
 bn 
1 lim( an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = L + M
n →∞ n →∞ n →∞

2 lim( an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = L − M

n →∞ n →∞ n →∞

3 lim(can ) = c lim an = cL for a constant c.

n →∞ n →∞

4 lim( an .bn ) = lim an .lim bn = LM

n→∞ n→∞ n →∞

 a  lim an L
5 lim  n  = n →∞ =
n →∞ b
 n  nlim→∞
bn M

6 If an ≥ 0, as n → ∞ , lim an = lim an = L
n →∞ n →∞

 1
Example 20 Evaluate lim  8 + 
n →∞  n
Solution Using property 1,
 1 1
lim  8 +  = lim 8 + lim = 8 + 0 = 8
n →∞
 n n →∞ n →∞ n
n+2
Example 21 Evaluate lim
n →∞ 3n − 5

Solution First, you divide the numerator and the denominator of the expression
by n.
 n+2 2
n + 2  n 
1+
Then, = = n
3n − 5 3n − 5 5
3−
n n
 2   2 2
lim 1 +  lim (1) + lim  
n+2  1+ 
n = n →∞
 n = n →∞ n →∞
n
⇒ lim = lim 
5
 lim  3 − 5  5
n →∞ 3n − 5 n →∞
3 − lim ( 3) − lim  
 n  n→∞  n n →∞ n →∞
n
1
1 + 2 lim  
=   = 1+ 2× 0 = 1
n →∞ n

 1  3 − 5× 0 3
3 − 5 lim  
 
n →∞ n

57
Mathematics Grade 12

1
Example 22 Find lim
n →∞ n( n + 3)
Solution Using partial fractions
1 a b
= + , for constants a and b.
n ( n + 3) n n + 3

1 a b
⇒ lim = lim + lim
n →∞ n ( n + 3 ) n →∞ n n →∞ n + 3

1 1
= a lim + b lim = a×0+b×0 =0
n →∞ n n→∞ n+3
3n 2 + 4n + 1
Example 23 Find lim
n →∞ 2n 2 + 7
Solution Since both the numerator and the denominator have the same degree,
first divide both by n2
3n 2 + 4n + 1  4 1   4 1 
2
 3+ + 2  nlim  3+ + 2
3n + 4n + 1 n 2
= lim  n n = →∞
 n n 
lim = lim 
n →∞ 2
2n + 7 n →∞ 2
2n + 7 n →∞
 2+ 2 7   7 
lim  2 + 2 
n 2
 n  n →∞
 n 
4 1
lim3 + lim + lim 2
x →∞ n→∞ n n→∞ n 3+ 0+ 0 3
= =
7 2+0 2
lim 2 + lim 2
n→∞ n→∞ n
2  n+2

Example 24 Evaluate lim  n −3 

n →∞  3 
 
2 n+ 2
  2 ×2 
n 2
2
n

Solution lim  3n -3  lim 

=  = lim 108   =108 × 0 = 0
n →∞   n→∞  3n × 1  n→∞ 3
 27 
Example 25 Find the limit of the sequence whose terms are:
0.3, 0.33, 0.333, 0.3333, . . .
Solution Clearly, the sequence converges to 0.3ɺ , if the terms continue by a
series of 3's.
Moreover, the nth term of the sequence can be expressed in terms of n as follows:
3  9   10 − 1 
0.3 = = 3  = 3 
10  9 ×10   9 × 10 
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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

33 3  99  3  10 2 − 1 
0.33 = =  =  
100 102  9  102  9 
3  103 − 1 
Also, 0.333 =   so that
103  9 
 10 n − 1 
3 3  10 n − 1  1  1 
an =   or a n =   = 1 − n 
 10 n
9  9  10 n
 3  10 
1 1  1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1
Thus, lim  1 − n 
= lim  − × n  = lim − lim n
= −0 =
n →∞ 3
 10  n →∞
 3 3 10  n →∞ 3 3 n →∞ 10 3 3
n2 + 1 − 1
Example 26 Evaluate lim
n →∞
n2 +1 + 1
 n2 + 1 − 1  n2 + 1 1
  −
n2 + 1 − 1  n  n 2
n
Solution lim = lim = lim
n →∞ 2 n →∞  2  2
n +1+ 1 n +1 +1 n →∞ n +1 1
  +
 n  n2 n
1 1
1+ 2 −
= lim n n
n →∞ 1 1
1+ 2 +
n n
1 1  1 
lim 1 + − lim lim  1 + 2  − 0
n →∞ n 2 n →∞ n = n →∞
 n 
= =1
1
lim 1 + 2 + lim
1  1 
lim  1 + 2  + 0
n →∞ n n →∞ n n →∞
 n 

Exercise 2.4
Evaluate each of the limits given in 1 – 18.
1 3   3n + 2 n  n
1 lim  +
n→∞  n

n+2
2 lim 
n→∞
 6
n 

3 lim
n→∞
(( 3) )
 25   n +1 
2
 1 + n + n2 
4 lim   5 lim   6 lim  
n →∞  n + 10 

n →∞ 30 n + 100
 n →∞
 n 
 3
n
  1 
n
  1 n 
7 lim  −  8 lim  20 +    9
− lim    − n 
n→∞
 5 n→∞   3  n →∞  3 
  
2
( 3n +1) n2 + 5  2n + 3 5n − 2 
10 lim 2
11 lim 12 lim  × 
n →∞ 2n + 3n + 1 n →∞ n +1 n →∞
 2n + 5 6 n + 1 

59
Mathematics Grade 12

 1 + 2 2 + 32 + ... + n 2   1 1 
13 lim   14 lim(ne−n ) 15 lim  − 
n →∞
 n3  n→∞ n →∞  n n +1 
1
1−
 n+3   1  2n n2 + 1 − 3
16 lim   17 lim   18 lim
n →∞  1 + n n →∞  2  n →∞ n+2
19 Give examples of sequences {an}and {bn} such that
a lim ( an + bn ) exists but neither lim an nor lim bn exists.
n →∞ n→∞ n→∞
b lim (a nbn) exists but neither lim a n nor lim bn exists.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an
20 Let a n = 2n and bn = n ! Evaluate lim
n →∞ b
n

2.2 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

In this topic, you will use functions such as polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic,
absolute value, trigonometric and other piece-wise defined functions in order to introduce
the concept "limit of a function".
We will see different techniques of finding the limit of a function at a point such as cancelling
( x − 2 ) ( x + 5)
common factors in rational expressions, like , for x ≠ 2 , rationalization, like
( x − 2 ) ( x + 1)
( x −1 ). x +1
, graphs, tables of values and other properties.
x −1 x +1

Limits of Functions at a Point

ACTIVITY 2.4
1 Use the graph to answer the questions below it.
7
y
6
5
4
3
y = f (x) 2
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
Figure 2.8

60
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

i What is the domain of f ?

ii Give the values of
a f (−2) b f (−1) c f (2) d f (3) e f (4)
iii What number does f (x) approach to as x approaches
a −∞ ? b –2? c −1 from the right?
d −1 from the left? e 0? f 2 from the right?
g 2 from the left? h 4 from the right?
i 4 from the left? j ∞?
1 1
2 Explain the difference between the limits lim and lim , where n ∈ N and x∈ ℝ .
n →∞ n x →∞ x
Definition 2.6 The intuitive definition of the limit of a function at a point
y
Let y = f (x) be a function defined on an interval f
surrounding xo ∈ ℝ (but f need not be defined at
x = xo). If f (x) gets closer and closer to a single real
L
number L as x gets closer and closer to (but not equal
to) xo, then we say that the limit of f (x) as x
approaches xo is L. x
xo
Symbolically, this is written as
Figure 2.9
lim f ( x) = L
x →xo

Example 1 Let f (x) = x. Then lim f ( x ) = xo

x → x0
y
2
x −4
Example 2 Let f (x) = . Evaluate lim f (x)
x−2 x→2
4
Solution Look at the graph of
x 2 − 4  x + 2, if x ≠ 2
f (x) = =
x − 2  ∃ , if x = 2 x
2
As x gets closer and closer to 2, f (x) gets
closer and closer to 4.
Figure 2.10
⇒ lim f ( x ) = lim ( x + 2 ) = 4
x →2 x →2

Note:
 If f (x) approaches to different numbers as x approaches to xo from the right and
from the left, then we conclude that lim f ( x) does not exist.
x → xo

61
Mathematics Grade 12

ACTIVITY 2.5
1 Explain the difference between lim f ( x ) and f (a).
x→a

2 What happens to lim f ( x ) , if f (x) approaches to different numbers as x approaches

x→ a

to a from the right and from the left? Explain this by producing examples.
3 The limit of a function f (x) as x approaches a from the right is represented by the
symbol lim+ f ( x ) and from the left by lim− f ( x ) .
x→ a x→ a

Are lim+ f ( x ) and lim− f ( x ) the same for every function f ?

x→a x→ a
What can you say about lim f ( x ) , if lim+ f ( x ) = lim− f ( x ) ?
x→a x→ a x→a

4 Consider the following graph of a function f.

y
5
4
f
3
2
1
x
d a b c
Figure 2.11
Evaluate the following limits from the graph.
a lim+ f ( x ) b lim+ f ( x ) c lim f ( x ) d lim f ( x )
x→a x→ d x→ d x→a−

e lim f ( x ) f lim f ( x ) g lim f ( x ) h lim f ( x )

x →d − x → b+ x →b − x → c+

Example 3 Evaluate each of the following limits.

x x2 − 5x + 2
a lim ( 2x −1) b lim c lim
x→2 x →0 x x→3 x+4
2
x + x−2 x
d lim e lim 2
f lim+ tan x
x →−2 x+2 x→1 x −1 x→
π
2

Solution y
lim f ( x ) = 1
a lim ( 2 x − 1) = 2 (2) – 1 = 3 1
x → 0+
x→2
x
1,if x > 0
x  −1
b =  ∃, if x = 0 lim f ( x ) = −1
x → 0−
x 
−1,if x < 0 Figure 2.12

⇒ lim f ( x ) doesn't exist.

x →0

62
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

c Look at the following tables of values (taken up to 4 decimal places)

x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.1 3.01 3.001 ... 3
2
x − 5x + 2
−0.5927 −0.5736 −0.5717 −0.5479 −056917 −0.5712
x+4
To which number does f (x) approach as x approaches to 3?
x 2 − 5x + 2 4
lim = − = −0.5714
x→3 x+4 7
x2 + x − 2 ( x + 2)( x −1)
d = = x – 1; x ≠ −2.
x+2 x+2
x2 + x − 2
lim = lim ( x − 1) = − 3.
x → −2 x+2 x →− 2

Look at Figures 2.13 and 2.14 to answer problems e and f.

y y
3 1
f (x) = tan x
2 x
f ( x) =
1 x2 − 1
x x
π π 3π
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −
−1
2 2 2
−2
−3 −1
Figures 2.13 Figures 2.14
x x x
e lim 2
= ∞ ; lim− 2 = −∞ ⇒ lim 2 doesn't exist.
x →1+x −1 x →1 x −1 x →1 x −1
f lim+ (tan x) = −∞; lim− (tan x) = ∞ ⇒ lim(tan x) doesn’t exist.
π π π
x→ x→ x→
2 2 2

Example 4 The limit of a constant function at x = a is the constant itself.

To verify this:
Let f (x) = c. Clearly, f (x) is approaching to c as x is approaching any number, so
that lim c = c.
x→ a

Example 5 The limit of the identity function as x → a is a. That is, lim x = a .

x →a

0, if x ∈ ℤ
Example 6 Let f (x) =  . Evaluate
1, if x ∉ ℤ 3
y
a lim f ( x ) b lim f ( x ) 2
x → −2 x → 0.3
1
Solution Sketch the graph of f (see Figure 2.15) x
a lim f ( x) = 1 , but f (−2) = 0. −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5
x→2
−2
b lim f ( x ) = 1
x → 0.3 −
Figure 2.15

63
Mathematics Grade 12

Is lim f ( x ) = 1 for all c∈ R ?

x →c
What can you say about c if lim f ( x) = f (c) = 1?
x→ c

Clearly, c must not be an integer.

Exercise 2.5
Use graphs or calculators to determine the limits in exercises 1 – 15.
1
1 lim ( 5 x + 7 ) 2 lim sin x 3 lim1
x→4 x →0
x→
3
( 3x − 1)
x 1 x −1
4 lim ( 2 ) 5 lim x
6 lim 2
x→0 x →0 e − 1 x →1 x + x−2
3
x−2 x + 27 x4 −1
7 lim 2 lim 8 9 lim 6
x →2 x − x − 2 x→−3 x+3 x →1 x − 1
3
x −1 x −2 x−4 x
10 lim 11 lim 12 lim
x→1 x − 1 x →4 x − 4 x →0 x
2 3 2
5 x − x x x − 5 x − 14
13 lim 14 lim 15 lim
x →5 x − 5 x →0 x x →−2 x2 − 4
16 Discuss the following point in groups. Is the limit of the sum of two functions at a
point the same as the sum of the limits at the given point? Justify your answer by
producing several examples.

Basic limit theorems

Suppose lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) exist and k∈ R .
x→ a x→ a

f 
Then, lim ( f ( x) + g ( x) ) , lim ( f ( x) − g ( x) ) , lim kf ( x) , lim ( fg ) ( x) , lim   ( x) ,
x→a x→a x→ a x →a x →a
g 
provided that lim g ( x ) ≠ 0 , exist and
x→ a

1 lim ( f ( x) + g ( x) ) = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x)

x→a x →a x →a

2 lim ( f ( x) − g ( x) ) = lim f ( x) − lim g ( x)

x→a x →a x →a
3 lim kf ( x) = k lim f ( x)
x→ a x→ a

4 lim ( fg ) ( x) = lim f ( x) ⋅ lim g ( x)

x→a x →a x →a

 f  lim f ( x)
x→a
5 lim   ( x) =

x→a g
 lim
x→a
g ( x)

6 lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) , provided that f (x) ≥ 0 for x near a.

x→a x →a

64
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

See how to apply the limit theorems in the following example.

 1 
Example 7 lim  x3 + 4 x 2 − + 7 x + 11
x→2
 x 
1
= lim x3 + 4 lim x 2 − lim   + 7 lim x + lim (11)
x→2 x→2 x→2 x
  x→2 x →2

3
2 lim(1)
x→2
(
= ( 2 ) + 4 lim x − x → 2 )
lim( x )
+ 7(2) + 11
x→2

1
= 23 + 4 × 22 – + 25 = 48.5
2
The limit of a polynomial function
Suppose p(x) is a polynomial, then lim p ( x ) = p (c ). Exp lain!
x→ c

Example 8 lim(x − 2x + 5x + 7x + 1) = 34 − 2(3)3 + 5(3)2 + 7(3) + 1 = 94

4 3 2
x →3

Theorem 2.2
Let f and g be functions. Suppose lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) exist and f (x) = g (x), ∀x ≠ a.
x→a x→a

Then lim f ( x) = lim g ( x).

x→a x→a

x2 −1
Example 9 Find lim .
x→1 x − 1

x 2 −1 x 2 −1
Solution = x + 1; for x ≠ 1. Let f (x) = and g (x) = x + 1.
x −1 x −1
x2 −1
f (x) = g (x), ∀x ≠ 1. Then lim f ( x ) = lim g ( x ) ⇒ lim = lim( x + 1) = 2.
x→1 x →1 x→1 x − 1 x →1
x −1
Example 10 Find lim .
x →1 x −1
x −1
Solution What happens to lim when x =1? Is the result defined?
x −1 x→1

Rewrite the expression by rationalizing the denominator.

x − 1 ( x − 1) x + 1
=
( )
x −1 x −1
x −1
⇒ lim = lim ( x +1 = 2)
x→1 x −1 x→1
x3 + 3x 2 − x − 3
Example 11 Evaluate lim
x →−3 4 x 3 + 12 x 2 − x − 3

Solution x + 3x – x – 3 = x2 (x + 3) – (x + 3) = (x2 – 1) (x + 3)
3 2

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Mathematics Grade 12

4x3 + 12x2 – x – 3 = 4x2 (x + 3) – (x + 3) = (4x2 – 1) (x + 3)

⇒ lim
x3 + 3x 2 − x − 3
= lim
( x 2 − 1) ( x + 3) = lim x 2 − 1 = 8
x →−3 4 x 3 + 12 x 2 − x − 3 x →−3 (4 x 2 −1) ( x + 3) x →−3 4 x 2 −1 35
2
−1
Example 12 Evaluate lim x3 .
x→2 x − 8

2  2− x
−1   1
Solution x =  x  =– ; x ≠ 0, 2
3 2 2
x − 8 ( x − 2)( x + 2 x + 4) x x + 2x + 4 ( )
2 −1
1 1
⇒ ⇒ lim 3 x = − lim 2
=−
x →2 x − 8 x → 2 x ( x + 2 x + 4) 24
f ( x ) − f (1)
Example 13 Let f ( x ) = 2 − x . Simplify the expression and
x −1
f ( x ) − f (1)
evaluate lim .
x→1 x −1
f ( x ) − f (1) 2 − x −1 −1 1
Solution lim = lim = lim =– .
x →1 x −1 x →1 x −1 x →1 1 + 2 − x 2

Example 14 If lim( f ( x) + g ( x)) exists, do the limit lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) exist?
x→ xo x → xo x →xo

1 2
Solution Take, for example, f (x) = and g (x) = .
x −1 1 − x2
Do lim f ( x ) and lim g (x) exist? Evaluate lim ( f + g )( x ) .
x →1 x →1 x →1

lim f (x) and lim g ( x) both don't exist. But

x→1 x→1

 1 2  1− x 1 1
lim ( f ( x ) + g ( x ) ) = lim  + 2 
= lim 2
= lim =
x→1 x →1  x − 1 1 − x  x→1 1 − x x →1 x + 1 2
x −4
Example 15 Find lim
x →4 x −2

Solution lim
x −4
= lim
( x + 2) =
(x − 4) ( x − 4)( x +2 )
lim
x →4 x − 2 x→4 ( x − 2)( x + 2) x→4 x−4

= lim ( x + 2 ) = 4
x →4

f ( 4 + h ) − f ( 4)
Example 16 Let f (x) = x . Find lim .
h→0 h

66
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

f ( 4 + h ) − f ( 4) 4+h − 2  4 + h −2 4 + h + 2
Solution lim = lim = lim  . 
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
 h 4 + h + 2
 1  1
= lim  =
h→ 0  4+h +2 4
Example 17 Evaluate lim x3 + x 2 − 6 x + 5
x →1

Solution x3 + x2 – 6x + 5 ≥ 0 for x near 1.

⇒ 3 2
lim x + x − 6 x + 5 = 3 2
lim ( x + x − 6 x + 5 ) = 1=1
x →1 x →1

5− x − 5
Example 18 Find lim
x →0 x

Solution
5− x − 5
= lim
( 5− x − 5 )( 5 − x+ 5 )
lim
x →0 x x →0
x ( 5− x+ 5 )
5− x −5 1 1
= lim = − lim =−
x→ 0
x ( 5− x + 5 ) x →0 5− x + 5 2 5
1 1
−
Example 19 Find lim x + 7 14 .
x→7 x−7
1 1
lim x + 7 − 14 14 − ( x + 7 ) 7−x 1 
Solution x →7 . = lim = lim  . 
x−7 x →7 14 ( x + 7 )( x − 7 ) x →7 x − 7 14 ( x + 7 )
 
1 1
= – lim =−
x → 7 14 ( x + 7 ) 196
1+ 4 + x − 2
Example 20 Evaluate lim .
x→−3 x+3
1+ 4 + x − 2 1+ 4 + x − 2 1+ 4 + x + 2
Solution lim = .
x→−3 x+3 x+3 1+ 4 + x + 2
4 + x −1 1
= . . (Explain!)
x+3 1+ 4 + x + 2
x+3 1
= . (Explain!)
x+3
(
4 + x +1 1+ 4 + x + 2)( )
1+ 4 + x − 2 2
⇒ lim = . (Explain!)
x→−3 x +3 8

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Mathematics Grade 12

Exercise 2.6
1 Use the following graph of the function f to determine each of the limits.
y
5
4
3 y = f (x)
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
Figure
− 2.16

a lim f ( x) b lim f ( x) c lim f ( x )

x→1− x→2 x→−2

d lim f ( x) e lim f ( x) f lim f ( x)

x →1+ x → 4− x→3

1 − x 2 , if − 1 < x < 2

 −3 if x = −1
2 Let f (x) = 
 − x − 1, if x < −1
 x − 5, if x ≥ 2
Sketch the graph of f and determine each of the following limits.
a lim f ( x ) b lim f ( x ) c lim f ( x ) d lim f ( x )
x →− 1 x→ 2 x →5 x →3

3 Suppose that f, g and h are functions with lim f ( x ) = 7, lim g (x) = –4 and
x→2 x→ 2

3
lim h( x) = , evaluate
x →2 5
a lim ( f ( x ) + g ( x ) ) b lim ( ( fg )( x ) − 3 h ( x ) )
x→ 2 x→2

f ( x) g ( x) h ( x)
c lim
f ( x ) + g ( x ) − 5h ( x )
x→ 2

4 Determine each of the following limits.

x−3 x2 + 1 − 1 x +1
a lim b lim c lim
x→3
x2 − 6 x + 9 x →0 x2 x→ 3 x − 1
1
3
3 3 2
x +8 x x + x − 20
d lim e lim f lim
x →−2 x+2 x→0 x +x x →−5 x2 + 4x − 5
sin x + 1 x− 2 x − 2 x +1 −1
g lim h lim i lim
x→0 x + cos x x→2 x−2 x →2
x −2
x −1 + x −1
j lim
x →1
x2 − 1

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Limits at infinity
Limits as x approaches ∞

ACTIVITY 2.6
1 Using the concept of limits of sequences of numbers, evaluate
each of the following limits at infinity.
1 3x − 1 x2 + 1
a lim b lim c lim
x →∞ x x →−∞ x + 5 x →∞ x − 1

p(x)
2 Let f (x) = be a rational function.
q (x)
p ( x)
a If degree of p (x) = degree of q (x), evaluate lim in terms of the
x →∞ q ( x)
leading coefficients of p (x) and q (x).
p ( x)
b If degree of p (x) < degree of q (x), discuss how to evaluate lim .
x →∞ q ( x)
c Do you see a relationship between these limits and horizontal asymptotes of
rational functions?

Definition 2.7
Let f be a function and L be a real number.
If f (x) gets closer to L as x increases without bound, then L is said to be the limit of
f (x) as x approaches to infinity.
This statement is expressed symbolically by lim f ( x ) = L
x →∞

3x2 − 5x + 4
Example 21 Evaluate lim
x →∞ 2 x2 + 4
Solution You apply the technique which are used in evaluating limits of number
sequences. i.e. divide the numerator and denominator by x2 (the highest
power monomial).
 3x 2 − 5 x + 4   5 4 
  lim  3 − + 2 
 3x − 5 x + 4 
2
x 2 x →∞  x x  3−0+0 3
lim   = lim  = = =
x →∞
2
 2 x + 4  x→∞  2 x + 4 
2
 4  2+0 2
  lim  2 + 2 
 x 2
 x →∞  x 
 1 − 3x 2x +1 
Example 22 Evaluate lim  + 2 

x →∞ 6 x + 5 x + 7x +1

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Mathematics Grade 12

Solution
1
−3
 1 − 3 x 2 x + 1   1 − 3 x  2 x + 1
lim x 1
lim  + 2  = lim   + lim = +0= − .

x →∞ 6 x + 5 x + 7 x + 1  x →∞  6 x + 5  x→∞ x + 7 x + 1 x→∞ 6 + 5
2
2
x
Non-existence of limits
In the previous topic, you already saw one condition in which a limit fails to exist.
x
For example, lim , does not exist, as the limit from the left and the right do not agree.
x→0 x
Do you see any other condition in which a limit fails to exist?
π 
Consider f ( x ) = sin   .
x
π
You know that y = sin x has one complete cycle on the interval 2π to 4π. As moves
x
π π 1 1
from 2π to 4π , x moves from to which is to . Therefore, the graph of f is
2π 4π 2 4
1 1 
a complete cycle on the interval  ,  , similarly there is a complete cycle on
4 2
1 1  1 1 
intervals  ,  ,  ,  , and so on.
6 4  8 6 
Hence, the graph of f gets more and more crowded as x- approaches 0. i.e. changes too
frequently between –1 and 1, as x approaches 0. The graph does not settle down. That
is, it does not approach a fixed point. Instead, it oscillates between –1 and 1. Therefore,
π 
lim sin   does not exist. This is the second condition in which a limit fails to exist.
x →0
x
π  π 
The following is the graph of f (x) = sin   showing the non-existence of lim sin   .
 
x x→ 0
x
y
1

0.5

x
-1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5

π 
f ( x ) = sin  
-0.5  x

-1

Figure 2.17

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

One side limits

ACTIVITY 2.7
1 Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = x and g ( x ) = − x

Evaluate each of the following one-sided limits based on your knowledge of limit
of a function f at a point x = a as x approaches a from the right, lim+ f ( x ) and as x
x→a

approaches a from the left, lim− f ( x ) .

x→a

a lim f ( x ) b lim f ( x ) c lim g ( x ) d lim g ( x )

x→ 0 + x → 0− x → 0+ x →0−

2 Use the following graph of a function f to y

5
evaluate the one side limit. 4
3
a lim+ f ( x ) b lim− f ( x ) c lim f ( x )
x →1 x →1 x → 3+ 2
f
d lim− f ( x ) e lim+ f ( x ) f lim− f ( x ) 1
x→ 3 x→4 x→4 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
g lim f ( x ) h lim f ( x ) −1
x → 2− x → 2+
−2
Figure 2.18
−

Definition 2.8
1 Right Hand Limit
Let f be defined on some open interval (a, c). Suppose f (x) approaches a number L as
x approaches a from the right, then L is said to be the right hand limit of f at x = a.
This is abbreviated as: lim+ f ( x ) = L
x →a

y y

y = f (x)
y = f (x)
L L

x x
a b
a b
Figure 2.19
2 Left Hand Limit
Let f be defined on some open interval (c, b). Suppose f (x) approaches a number L as
x approaches b from the left. Then L is said to be the left hand limit of f at x = b.
This is abbreviated by lim− f ( x ) = L
x →b

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Mathematics Grade 12

Example 23 Let f (x) = x−4 . y

2
Find lim+ f ( x ) 1.6
x→4
1.2
f (x)= x−4
Solution lim+ x − 4 = 0 0.8
x →4
0.4
Example 24 Evaluate x
2 4 6 8 10
a lim 9 − x 2 b lim 9 − x 2 Figure 2.20
x →3+ x →3−

c lim 9 − x2 d lim 9 − x2 y
x →− 3+ x →−3−
5
4
Solution Look at the following orders:
– + – +
3 f (x)= 9 − x2
3 < 3 < 3 and –3 < –3 < –3 2
– 2 – + 2 + 1
(3 ) = 9 and (3 ) = 9 x
– 2 + + 2 – −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
(–3 ) = 9 and (–3 ) = 9
As x → 3+, 9 – x2 → 0– and, as x → 3–, 9 – x2 → 0 + Figure 2.21

Therefore,

a lim 9 − x 2 doesn't exist b 2

lim 9 − x = 0
x →3+ x →3−

2
c lim 9 − x = 0 d lim 9 − x 2 doesn’t exist.
x →−3+ x →−3−

Example 25 Evaluate
3x − 1 4x − 3
a lim− b lim+
x →2 x−2 x→−2 x + 2

Solution Let us investigate these limits graphically.

3x − 1 4x − 3
Let f ( x) = and g ( x) = .
x−2 x+2 16
y
y 14
10 3x − 1 12
f (x) = 10
8 x−2 8 4x − 3
6 f (x) =
6 x +2
4 4
2 2
x x
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 −2
−2 −4
−4 −6

a − b lim g ( x) = −∞
lim f ( x ) = −∞
x →2− x →− 2+

Figure 2.22

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

ACTIVITY 2.8
1 Use the above graphs to evaluate each of the following limits.
i lim f ( x ) ii lim− g ( x) iii lim f ( x ) iv lim g ( x )
x →2+ x →−2 x→∞ x → −∞

2 Discuss the existence of the limit of a function f at x = a, if

i lim f ( x ) = lim− f ( x ) ii lim f ( x ) ≠ lim− f ( x )
x → a+ x→ a x→a+ x→a

What can you say about lim+ f ( x ) and lim− f ( x ) , if lim f ( x ) = L ?

x→a x→a x→a

Two side limits

Definition 2.9
Let f be a function defined on an open interval about a, except possibly at a itself.
Then, lim f ( x ) exists, if both lim+ f ( x) and lim− f ( x ) exist and are equal: That is,
x→a x →a x→ a

lim f ( x ) exists, if lim+ f ( x) = lim− f ( x).

x→ a x→ a x→ a

In this case, lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x) = lim− f ( x).

x→a x→a x→a

Infinite limits
Example 26 Evaluate each of the following limits.
1 1 1 1
a lim− b lim+ c lim+ d lim−
x→2 4 − x2 x→2 4 − x2 x→−2 4 − x2 x→−2 4 − x
2

1
1 f ( x) =
Solution Sketch the graph of f ( x) = in order y 4 − x2
4 − x2
to determine each limit at the same time.
If you try to substitute x = 2, the x
denominator equals 0.
1
a lim− = ∞. The graph is
x →2 4 − x2
going up indefinitely to ∞. Figure 2.23
1
b lim 2
= −∞. The graph is going indefinitely down to –∞.
x →2+ 4 − x

1 1
c lim+ =∞ d lim− = −∞
x→−2 4 − x2 x →−2 4 − x2
Recall that the lines x = 2 and x = –2 are vertical asymptotes of the rational
1
function f (x) = .
4 − x2
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Mathematics Grade 12

Vertical asymptotes
The vertical line x = a is a vertical asymptote to the graph of y = f (x), if one of the
following is true.
1 lim f ( x ) = ∞ 2 lim f ( x ) = ∞ 3 lim f ( x ) = −∞ 4 lim f ( x ) = −∞
x →a− x→a + x →a− x→ a +

y
y

x
x a
a

a lim f ( x ) = ∞ b lim f ( x ) = −∞
x →a x→ a

y y

x x
a a

c lim f ( x ) = ∞; lim f ( x ) = −∞ d lim f ( x ) = −∞; lim f ( x ) = ∞

x →a+ x →a− x→a + x →a−

Figure 2.24

Exercise 2.7
1 The following table displays the amount of wheat produced in quintals per hectare.

year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Qutinal 33 43.6 49.5 53 55.8 57.5 59

Based on this data, the organization that produces the wheat projects that the yearly
140 x + 25
product at the xth year (taking 1995 as the first year) will be p( x ) =
2x + 3
quintals. Approximate the yearly product after a long period of time.

74
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

2 Suppose the unemployment rate of a certain country x- years from now is modelled
45 x + 35
by u ( x ) = percent. Find the level it will reach as time gone. Based on
9x + 2
the formula, discuss whether the unemployment rate increases or decreases.
3 Evaluate each of the following one-side limits.
a lim+ x −1 b lim x −1 c lim+ 1 − x 2
x →1 x →1− x →1
2 2
d lim 1− x e lim 9− x f lim 9 − x2
x → − 1− x →− 3− x → − 3+

1 1 1
g lim+ h lim− i lim+
x →5 x−5 x →5 x −5 x →0 x2
1 4x + x
j lim 2 k lim l lim 4 − x2 − 9
x→0 x x →0+ 4 x − x x →5+

4 Use the following graph of a function f to determine the limits below.

y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
Figure
− 2.25
a lim f ( x ) b lim f ( x ) c lim f ( x )
x → −3+ x →−2 − x → −2 +

d lim f ( x ) e lim+ f ( x ) f lim f ( x )

x →1− x →1 x→2

g lim+ g ( x ) h lim− f ( x ) i lim f ( x )

x→3 x →3 x → 4+

 x 2 − x, if x ≤ 1
e x , if x ≤ 2 
5 Let f ( x) =  g ( x) =  1
;
( e − 1) x + 3, if x > 2  , if x > 1
x
Evaluate each of the following one side limits.
a lim+ ( f ( x ) + g ( x ) ) b lim− ( f ( x ) − g ( x ) )
x→2 x→ 2

f ( x) − g ( x)
c lim+ f ( x ) g ( x ) d lim+
x →1 x →−1 f ( x) g ( x)

75
Mathematics Grade 12

6 In each of the following functions, determine whether the graph has a hole or a
vertical asymptote at the given point. Determine the one side limits at the given
points.
x x3 + 1
a f ( x) = ; x = −5 b f (x) = ; x = −1
x+5 x +1
x 2 −1 ( x − 3)
3

c f ( x) = , x =1 d f (x) = ;x =3
x −1 x−3
1
1+
x ;x = 0 x
e f ( x) = f f (x) = ;x =π
1 sin x
1−
x
2.3 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION
The term continuous has the same meaning as it does in our everyday activity.
For example, look at the following topographic map between two places A and B on the
graph. The y-axis represents how high, in metres, above sea level each point is and the
x-axis represents distance in kilometres, between points.
y
River

1000
W
P V B
Q R S T
500 A
L
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x
Figure 2.26
This curve is drawn from A to B without lifting the pencil from the paper. The graph is
useful for finding the height above sea level of every point between A and B.
Think of continuity as drawing a curve without taking the pencil off of the paper.

2.3.1 Continuity of a Function at a Point

ACTIVITY 2.9
Look at the following graphs.
From each graph evaluate lim f ( x) and f ( xo ) and decide whether those values
x → xo

are equal or unequal. Determine whether or not each graph has a hole, jump, or
gap at x = xo.

76
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

y y
f
f
a a

ℓ (xo, f (xo))
x
xo xo
a b
y y
f
q f
p
x x
xo xo

c d
Figure 2.27
Which of the above graphs are connected at x = xo?

y
Definition 2.10
Continuous function at a point y = f (x)
A function f is said to be continuous at xo, if
f (xo)
i xo ∈ Df (domain of f) ( ) x
ii lim f ( x) exists and xo
x →xo

iii lim f ( x) = f ( xo ) lim f ( x) = f ( xo )

x→xo x → xo

Figure 2.28
Notice that the graph has no interruption at xo.

If any of these three conditions is not satisfied, then the function is not continuous at x = xo.

Definition 2.11
A function f is said to be discontinuous at xo, if f is defined on an open interval
containing xo (except possibly at xo) and f is not continuous at xo.
x
Example 1 Let f ( x ) = . Is f continuous at x = −3? , x = 0? and x = 1?
x
1, if x > 0
x 
Solution f ( x ) = ⇒ f ( x ) = −1, if x < 0
x 
 ∃, if x = 0

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Mathematics Grade 12

What is the domain of f ? What is lim f ( x ) ?

x→0
x
The function is not continuous at x = 0. f ( x) =
x

lim f ( x ) = f (1) and lim f ( x ) = f ( −3)

x →1 x →−3

⇒ f is continuous at x = 1 and x = –3.

Suppose c ≠ 0, then what is lim f ( x ) ?
x→c

What is the value of f (c)?

Figure 2.29
Is f continuous at x = c?
x2
Example 2 Let f (x) = . Is f continuous at x = 0?
x x2
f ( x) =
 x, if x > 0 x
x2 
Solution =  ∃ , if x = 0
x 
−x, if x < 0
f (0) is undefined. But lim f ( x ) = 0.
x→0

⇒ f is not continuous at x = 0 Figure 2.30

1
Example 3 Find out the condition that makes f ( x ) = discontinuous at x = 3?
x −3
Solution f is discontinuous at x = 3 because y
i f (3) is undefined
1
ii lim+ f ( x ) = ∞ f ( x) =
x →3 x−3 x
lim− f ( x ) = −∞
x→ 3

⇒ lim f ( x ) doesn't exist.

x →3

Note that f is unbroken on the interval (3, ∞)

and on (-∞, 3). Figure 2.31

0, if x ∈ ℤ
Example 4 Consider the piecewise defined function f ( x ) = 
1, if x ∉ ℤ
1
Is f continuous at x = 1? x = ?
2
Determine the set of numbers at which f is discontinuous.

78
 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Solution
a lim f ( x ) = 1 and f (1) = 0 y
3
x →1
2
⇒ f is discontinuous at x = 1 1
1 x
b lim1 f ( x ) = 1 and f   = 1 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
x→
2
2 −1
−2
1 −3
⇒ f is continuous at x = .
2 Figure 2.32
Use the graph in Figure 2.32 to evaluate lim f ( x ) when c is an integer.
x→c

Do you see that f is discontinuous at every integer? Justify!

x2 − 3x + 2
Example 5 Show that f ( x ) = is continuous at x = 3.
x −5
Solution What is the domain of f ? Is 3 in the domain of f ?
32 − 3 ( 3) + 2 2
f ( 3) = ⇒ f ( 3) = − .
3−5 2
x 2 − 3x + 2 2
Also, lim =−
x→3 x −5 2
⇒ f is continuous at x = 3.

2.3.2 Continuity of a function on an Interval

Consider the following graph of a function f.
Determine those intervals on which the graph is drawn without taking the pencil off the paper.
y
5
4
3 y = f (x)
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−
Figure 2.33

The function is discontinuous at x = −1, x = 1 and x = 3.

The graph is continuously drawn on the intervals.
(−∞ , −1), (−1, 1), (1, 3] and (3, ∞)

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Mathematics Grade 12

Definition 2.12 y
(One side continuity)
A function f is continuous from the right at x = a
provided that
lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) .
x →a + x
A function f is continuous from the left at x = b a b
provided that
lim f ( x ) = f ( b ) .
x →b − Figure 2.34

Example 6 Let f ( x ) = 1 − x 2 ; show that f is continuous from the right at x = –1

and continuous from the left at x = 1.
Solution
2
a lim+ 1 − x = 0 and f (–1) = 0
x →−1
f ( x ) = 1 − x2
b lim 1 − x 2 = 0 and f (1) = 0
x →1−

The graph of f, shown in Figure 2.35, also

illustrates the answers. Figure 2.35

1
Example 7 Show that g ( x ) = 1 − 3 x is continuous from the left at x = .
3
1
Solution From the graph one can see that lim− g(x) = 0 = g  
x→
1 3
3

y
g ( x ) = 1 − 3x

Figure 2.36

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

x2 − 9
Example 8 Let f ( x ) = . Show that f is continuous neither from the right nor
x−3
from the left at x = 3
Solution The basic strategy to solve such a problem is to sketch the graph.
y
= x + 3, if x > 3
x2 − 9 
 ∃ ,if x = 3
x −3 
f
= − x − 3, if x < 3
lim f ( x ) = lim− ( − x − 3) = −6 x
x →3− x →3

But f (3) is undefined

⇒ f is not continuous from the left at x = 3
Figure 2.37
Similarly, f is discontinuous from the right at x = 3.
We know that the polynomials x + 3 and – x – 3 are continuous on the entire intervals
(3, ∞) and (−∞, –3), respectively.
Definition 2.13
Continuity of a function on an interval.
1 Open interval
A function f is continuous on an open interval (a , b), if
lim f ( x ) = f ( c ) ∀c ∈ ( a , b ) .
x→c

y y

x x
a b b
a

a b
Figure 2.38
2 Closed interval
A function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] provided that
i f is continuous on (a, b)
ii f is continuous from the right at a, and
iii f is continuous from the left at b.
A function f is continuous, if it is continuous over its domain.

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Mathematics Grade 12

Some continuous functions

 Polynomial functions
 Absolute value of continuous functions
 The sine and cosine functions
 Exponential functions
 Logarithmic functions
Example 9 The following is the graph of a function f. Determine the intervals on
which f is continuous.
y
y = f (x)

x
a b c d e f

Figure 2.39

Solution It is continuous on (–∞, a), [a, b ], (b , c], (c, d), [d, e], (e, f), [f, ∞).
Example 10 Determine whether or not each of the following functions are continuous on
the given interval:
1 x2 − 4
a f ( x) = , ( 0,5) b f ( x) = , ( −3,3 )
x x+2
c f (x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + 7x + 11, (−∞, ∞).
Solution
a f is a rational function and x ≠ 0 for each x ∈ (0, 5). Hence, we conclude
that f is continuous on (0, 5).
b f is undefined at x = –2. Hence, f is discontinuous at x = –2 but f is
continuous at any other point on (–3, 3). Thus f is not continuous on (−3, 3).
c Every polynomial function is continuous on (–∞, ∞). Thus, f is continuous
on (−∞, ∞).
4 − x 2 , if x < 1

5, if 1 ≤ x < 4
Example 11 Let f ( x ) = 
−1, if x = 4
 x + 1,if x > 4
Determine the intervals on which f is continuous.
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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Solution
From the graph on Figure 2.40 you may see that f is continuous on (–∞, 1), [1, 4)
and (4, ∞). But it is discontinuous at x = 1 and x = 4.

Figure 2.40 Figure 2.41

x2 − x − 2
Example 12 Let f ( x) = . Find the intervals where f is continuous.
x2 − 1
x 2 − x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 1) x − 2
Solution = = , if x ≠ −1,1
x2 −1 ( x − 1)( x + 1) x − 1
f is discontinuous at x = –1 and x = 1.
f is continuous on (–∞, –1), (–1, 1) and (1, ∞) as it is shown in Figure 2.41.
 2− x , if x < −1

Example 13 Let f ( x ) =  2 x + 2, if − 1 ≤ x < 3
 4 − x, if x ≥ 3

Determine the intervals on which f f
is continuous.
Solution Look at the graph of f.
Are –1 and 3 in the domain of f ?
f is continuous on (–∞ ,–1) , [–1, 3), [3, ∞) Figure 2.42

Example 14 Determine the interval on which f ( x ) = x 2 − 1 is continuous.

Solution In f ( x ) = x 2 − 1, x 2 − 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 1

{
The domain of f is x : x ≥ 1 }
Explain why f is discontinuous on (–1, 1)!
f is continuous on (–∞, –1] ∪ [1, ∞). (Explain!)

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Mathematics Grade 12

1
Example 15 Let f ( x ) = . What is
9 − 4x2 y
the largest interval on which f is 1
f ( x) =
continuous? 9 − 4x2

Solution First determine the domain and x

sketch the graph of f.

Explain why f is continuous on  − ,  .

3 3
 2 2 Figure 2.43

 3 3
Is there an interval larger than  − ,  on which f is continuous?
 2 2
Example 16 Determine the value of a so that the piecewise defined function
 x + 3, if x > 2
f ( x) =  is continuous on (–∞, ∞).
ax −1, if x ≤ 2
Solution If f is continuous on (–∞, ∞), then f must be continuous at x = 2.
⇒ lim+ f ( x ) = f ( 2 ) ⇒ lim+ ( x + 3) = a ( 2 ) − 1 ⇒ 5 = 2a − 1 ⇒ a = 3
x→ 2 x→2

 x + 3,if x > 2
⇒ f ( x) = 
3x − 1,if x ≤ 2
 ax + b,if x ≤ −2

Example 17 Let f ( x ) =  2 x + a,if − 2 < x ≤ 3
 ax 2 − bx + 4,if x > 3

If f is a continuous function, find the values of a and b.
Solution f should be continuous at x = −2 and x = 3 because f is a continuous
function.
i f is continuous at x = −2
⇒ lim f ( x ) = f ( −2) ⇒ lim+ (2 × ( −2) + a ) = ( a ( −2) + b ) ⇒ −4 + a = −2 a + b
x → −2 + x→2

⇒ 3a – b = 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . equation (1)
ii f is continuous at x = 3
⇒ lim+ f ( x) = f (3) ⇒ lim(
+
ax2 − bx + 4) = 2(3) + a
x→3 x →3
⇒ 9a – 3b + 4 = 6 + a
⇒ 8a – 3b = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . equation (2)
Solving the system of equations

{38aa −− 3bb==42 gives a = 10 and b = 26.

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Example 18 Discuss the continuity of the function f ( x) = 3 − x2 −16

Solution In x 2 − 16 , x 2 − 16 ≥ 0 ⇒ x 2 ≥ 16 ⇒ x ≥ 4

In, 3 − x 2 − 16 , 3 − x 2 − 16 ≥ 0 ⇒ 3 ≥ x 2 − 16 ⇒ 25 ≥ x2 ⇒ x  ≤ 5.
Thus, x  ≥ 4 and x  ≤ 5
⇒ f is continuous on [−5, −4] and [4, 5].
Example 19 A library that rents books allows its customers to keep a book up to
5 days at a fee of Birr 10. Customers who keep a book more than
5 days pay Birr 2 penalty plus Birr 1.25 per day for being late beyond the
first 5 days. If c(x) represents the cost of keeping a book for x days,
discuss the continuity of c on [0, 20].
Solution We first determine a formula for c(x). From
the given information, the fee for the first 5
days is Birr 10. y c (x) = 1.25x + 5.75
c
⇒ c (x) = 10, if 0 < x ≤ 5.
c (x) = 10 Figure 2.46
For x > 5, c (x) = 10 + 2 + (x – 5) (1.25). Explain!
+ 5.75 are continuous on (0, 5] and
= 1.25x + 5.75 c is continuous on (0, 5] and (5, 20].
10, if 0 < x ≤ 5 x
⇒ c ( x) = 
1.25x + 5.75, if x > 5 Figure 2.44
The constant 10, and the polynomial 1.25x + 5.75 are continuous on (0, 5] and
(5, 20] respectively. Thus, c is continuous on (0, 5] and (5, 20].
But lim+ c ( x ) = 1.25(5) + 5.75 = 12
x →5

lim c ( x ) = 10 ⇒ lim c ( x ) doesn't exist ⇒ c is not continuous at x = 5

x → 5− x →5

Properties of continuous functions

Suppose f and g are continuous at x = xo, discuss the continuity of the combinations of f
and g.
Is f + g continuous at x = xo?

lim ( f + g )( x ) = lim ( f ( x ) + g ( x ) ) = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x ) . Why?

x→ xo x→ xo x→ xo x → xo

= f (xo) + g (xo) = (f + g) (xo)

Hence, f + g is continuous at x = xo.
Explain that the continuity of the combinations of f and g is an immediate consequence
of the basic limit theorems.

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Mathematics Grade 12

Theorem 2.3 Properties of continuous functions

If f and g are continuous at x = xo, then the following functions are continuous at x = xo.
1 f+g 2 f–g 3 kg, k∈ ℝ
f
4 fg 5 , provided that g (xo) ≠ 0.
g

Example 20 Let f (x) = x, g (x) = sin x. Discuss the continuity of the combinations
of f and g at x = 0.
Solution f and g are continuous at x = 0. Hence, f + g, f – g, kf and fg are continuous
f ( x) x
at x = 0. lim = lim =1
x→0 g ( x) x → 0 sin x

f f
But, (0) is undefined. Hence, is not continuous at x = 0.
g g
Example 21 Discuss the continuity of the function given by
4 − 9 − x 2 , if x ≤ 3 y
f (x) = 
10 − 2 x,if x > 3 y = 4 − 9 − x2 ;
−3 ≤ x ≤ 3
Solution Can you determine the range y = 10 − 2 x;
of values of 9 − x ? What 2 x>3

is the curve represented by x

2
y = 4− 9−x ?

Do you see that

1 ≤ 4 − 9 − x2 ≤ 4 ?
Figure 2.45
The function is continuous on
[−3, ∞) as it is shown in the figure.
Some of the above examples are the compositions of two or more simple functions.
In general, you have the following theorem on the continuity of the compositions of
functions.

Theorem 2.4 Continuity of compositions of functions

If a function f is continuous at x = xo and the function g is continuous at y = f (xo),
then the composition function gof is continuous at x = xo.
i.e., lim g ( f ( x ) ) = lim g ( y ) = g ( f ( xo ) ) = ( gof )( xo ) .
x→ xo y → f ( xo )

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Example 22 Let f (x) = x2 – 3x + 2 and g (x) = x.

Show that gof is continuous at x = −1.
Solution xo = −1, f is continuous at x = −1. Explain!
f (xo) = f (−1) = 6 ⇒ g is continuous at y = 6.

In short, lim ( gof )( x ) = xlim x 2 − 3 x + 2 = lim ( x 2 − 3 x + 2 )

x →− 1 →−1 x →−1

= 6

Maximum and minimum values

Maximum and minimum are common words in real life usage.
For example, Dalol Danakil Depression in Ethiopia has the maximum average annual
temperature in the world which is 35oC.
The minimum average annual temperature in the world is –57.2oC which is in Antarctic.
Discuss other minimum and maximum values that exist in real world phenomena.

Maximum and minimum values of a continuous

function on a closed interval
Example 23 Find the maximum and minimum values on the closed interval.
a f (x) = 3x – 1 on [−2, 3]. b f (x) = −x2 + 3x – 4 on [1, 5 ]
Solution

y y x
f (x) = 3x – 1

f (x) = –x2 + 3x – 4

Figure 2.46 Figure 2.47

7
–7 ≤ f (x) ≤ 8 ∀x∈ [–2, 3] −14 ≤ f (x) ≤ −
∀ x ∈ [1, 5]
4
3
The maximum value is 8. The maximum value is −1
4
The minimum value is –7 The minimum value is –14.

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Mathematics Grade 12

The intermediate value theorem

Theorem 2.5 The intermediate value theorem
y
Suppose f is a continuous function on the closed
f (b)
interval [a, b] and k is any real number with either k
f (a) ≤ k ≤ f (b) or f (b) ≤ k ≤ f (a), then there exists c
f (a)
in [a, b] such that f (c) = k.
x
a c b

Figure 2.48

Example 24 Show that f (x) = x3 + x + 1 has a zero between x = −1 and x = 0.

Solution Using the intermediate value theorem, k = 0, a = −1, b = 0,
f (−1) = (−1)3 – 1 + 1 = −1 < 0.
f (0) = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1 ⇒ f (−1) < 0 < f (0)
⇒ ∃c∈ [−1, 0] such that f (c) = 0.
Example 25 Show that the graph of g(x) = x5 – 2x3 + x – 7 crosses the line y = 7.3
Solution f (1) = 1 – 2 + 1 – 7 = −7
f (2) = 32 – 16 + 2 – 7 = 11
⇒ f (1) < 7.3 < f (2)
⇒ The graph crosses the line y = 7.3
Example 26 Use the intermediate value theorem to locate the zeros of the function
f (x) = x4 – x3 – 5x2 + 2x + 1.
Solution Every polynomial function is continuous.
f (0) = 1 > 0
f (1) = 1 – 1 – 5 + 2 + 1 = –2 < 0
⇒ f has a zero between x = 0 and x = 1. 3
y
f (2) = 16 – 8 – 20 + 4 + 1 = –7 < 0 and 2

f (3) = 81 – 27 – 45 + 6 + 1 = 16 > 0 1
x
⇒ f has a zero between x = 2 and x = 3 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5

f (–1) = 1 + 1 – 5 – 2 + 1 = –4 < 0 −2

⇒ f has a zero between x = 0 and x = –1 −

Figure 2.49
f (–2) = 16 + 8 – 20 – 4 + 1 = 1 > 0
⇒ f has a zero between x = –1 and x = –2

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Note:
 Discontinuous functions may not possess the intermediate value property. To see
1
this, consider f (x) = which is discontinuous at 0. f (−1) < 0 and f (1) > 0 but
x
there is no value of x in (–1, 1) such that f (x) = 0

Approximating real zeros by bisection

Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]. If f (a) and f (b) are opposite in
sign, then by the intermediate value theorem f has a zero in (a, b). In order to get an
a+b
interval I ⊂ (a, b), in which f has zero, bisect the interval [a, b] by the midpoint c = .
2
If f (c) = 0, stop searching a zero. If f (c) ≠ 0, then choose the interval (a, c) or (c, b) in
which f (c) has an opposite sign at the end point.
Repeat this bisection process until you get the desired decimal accuracy for the
approximation.
1
Example 27 Approximate the real root of f (x) = x3 + x – 1 with an error less than.
16
Solution Using a calculator, you can fill in the following table and get a number
as required.

Opposite sign Sign of f

Mid-point c
interval (a, b) f (a) f (c) f (b)
(0, 1) 0.5 – – +
(0.5, 1) 0.75 – + +
(0.5, 0.75) 0.625 – – +
(0.625, 0.75) 0.6875 – + +
1
f (0.6875) = 0.012451172 < 0.0625 =
16
1
⇒ 0.6875 is a root of f with an error less than
16
Example 28 Use the bisection method to find an approximation of 3 7 with an error
1
less than .
20
Solution Let x = 3 7 , then x3 = 7 ⇒ x3 – 7 = 0. Define a function f by
f (x) = x3 – 7, f (1) = –6 < 0 and f (2) = 1 > 0
⇒ f has a real root in (1, 2).

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Mathematics Grade 12

Look at the following table.

Opposite sign Sing of f
Mid-point c
interval (a, b) f (a) f (c) f (b)
(1, 2) 1.5 – – +
(1.5, 2) 1.75 – – +
(1.75, 2) 1.875 – – +
(1.875, 2) 1.9375 – + +
(1.875, 1.9375) 1.90625 – – +
(1.90625, 1.9375) 1.921875 – + +
(1.90625, 1.921875) 1.9140625 – + +
1
f (1.9140625) = 0.01242685 < 0.05 =
20
1
⇒ 3 7 ≈ 1.9140625 with an error less than
20

Theorem 2.6 Extreme value theorem

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b]. Then there are two numbers x1 and x2 in [a, b]
such that f (x1) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x2) ∀x ∈ [a, b].
f (x2) is the maximum value and f (x1) is the minimum value.
y

(x2 , f (x2))
f (x2)

(x1, f (x1))
f (x1) x
a x2 x1 b
Figure 2.50

Group Work 2.1

1 Discuss the following points by drawing graphs and
producing examples.
Are there maximum and minimum values, if
i the function on [a, b] is not continuous?
ii the function is continuous on (a, b)?
iii the function is not continuous but defined on an open interval?

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

2 Let f be continuous on [a, b]. Answer the following points in terms of f (a) and
f (b). Use graphs to illustrate your answers.
i Find the minimum and the maximum values of f (x) when f is an increasing
function.
ii Find the minimum and maximum values of f (x) when f is decreasing.
3 Discuss the following statements using the intermediate value theorem.
i Among all squares whose sides do not exceed 10 cm, is there a square
whose area is 11 7cm 2 , 11 17 cm 2 ?
ii Among all circles whose radii are between 10cm and 20 cm, is there a circle
whose area is 628 cm2?
iii There was a year when you were half as tall as you are on today.

Exercise 2.8
1 Determine whether or not each of the following functions is continuous at the
given number.
a f (x) = 3, x = 5 b f (x) = 2x2 – 5x + 3; x = 1
2
( x − 3) ( x − 4 ) ; x = −1
c f (x) = ;x=3 d f (x) = 2
x−3 x +1

sin x, x > 0  x −1, if x > 1
 
e f ( x ) = 1, x = 0 ; x =0 f f ( x ) = 0,if x = ± 1 ; x= ± 1
1 1 − x , if x < 1
 ,x <0 
x
2 If the piecewise defined functions below are continuous, determine the values of
the constants.
 ax 2 + bx + 1, if 2 ≤ x ≤ 3
ax − 3, if x > 2 
a f ( x) =  b f ( x ) =  ax − b, if x < 2
2x + 5, if x ≤ 2 bx + 4, if x > 3

 2 1 3
 x − 2 x + a , if ≤ x ≤
2 2
c f ( x) = 
 − − x 2 + 2 x − 3 , if x < 1 or x > 3
 4 2 2
 k ( x − 5)
2 , if x > 4
x −c
 2 , x ≠ ±5
d f ( x) =  x − 25 e f ( x) = 
5 if x = ±5 2 x, if x ≤ 4

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Mathematics Grade 12

3 Find the maximum possible interval(s) on which these functions are continuous.
 x2 − 4
 , if x ≠ 2 2
a f ( x) =  x − 2 b f ( x) = e− x
8, if x = 2

 x2 − 1

c f ( x ) = 4 x − 1 , if x ≠ 1 d f (x) = 1 − 4x2
5, if x = 1

 5 ( x 3 + 1)
1 
e f (x) = f f ( x ) =  x + 1 , if x ≠ −1
9 − 4x 2 10, if x = −1

g f (x) = 2 − 5 − x2
4 The monthly base salary of a shoes sales person is Birr 900. She has a commission
of 2% on all sales over Birr 10,000 during the month. If the monthly sales are Birr
15,000 or more, she receives Birr 500 bonus. If x represents the monthly sales in
Birr and f (x) represents income in Birr, express f (x) in terms of x and discuss the
continuity of f on [0, 25000].

2.4 EXERCISES ON APPLICATIONS OF LIMITS

ACTIVITY 2.10
1 Let x be a real number. Fill in the table below with appropriate
values.

x 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006

sin x

sin x
x

sin x
2 Use the table to predict lim .
x→0 x

sin x sin x
3 Use the following graph of f ( x) = todetermine lim .
x x→0 x

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

sin x
f ( x) =
x

x
−2π −π
−π π 2π

Figure 2.51

Theorem 2.7
sin x
lim = 1 , where x is in radians.
x →0 x
Example 1 Evaluate each of the following limits.
sin ( 3 x ) 1  1 
a lim b lim x sin   c lim x 2 sin  2 
x→0 x x→∞
x x →∞
x 
x tan x sin(3 x)
d lim e lim f lim
x → 0 sin x x →0 sin x x→0 sin(4 x)

sin 3 x 1 − cos x sin ( x − 1)

g lim 3 h lim i lim
x→0 x x →0 x2 x →1 1 − x + x 2 − x3
Solution
sin ( 3 x ) 3sin ( 3 x ) sin ( 3 x )
a lim = lim = 3lim =3
x →0 x x→ 0 (3x ) x →0 3x
1
sin  
b
1
lim x sin   = lim  x  = lim  sin y  = 1, where y = 1
1  
x →∞
 x x →∞ y →0
 y  x
x
 1 
 1   sin 2   sin ( y ) 2 
x
 = lim   = 1. Why?
2
c lim x sin  2  = lim 
 x  x →∞  1  y → 0  y 
x →∞ 2

 x  2

 
x  1 
d lim = lim   = 1. Why?
x →0 sin x x →0   sin x  
 x 
 

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Mathematics Grade 12

 tan x  tan x
  lim
= lim  =
tan x x x → 0 x = 1 = 1. Why?
e lim
x → 0 sin x x → 0  sin x  sin x 1
  lim
 x  x → 0 x
 sin ( 3 x ) 
3 
sin ( 3 x ) 3x  3
f lim = lim  = . Why?
x → 0 sin ( 4 x ) x → 0  sin 4 x  4
( )
4 
 4x 
3
sin 3 x  sin x 
g lim 3 =  lim =1
x →0 x  x → 0 x 
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos 2 x
h lim = lim ⋅ = lim
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 1 + cos x x→ 0 x 2 (1 + cos x )
2
 sin x  1 1 1
= lim   ⋅ lim = 1× =
x →0
 x  x → 0 (1 + cos x ) 2 2
sin ( x − 1) − sin (1 − x ) − sin (1 − x )
i lim 2 3
= lim 2
= lim
x →1 1 − x + x − x x →1 (1 − x ) + x (1 − x )
( ) ( x2 + 1)
x →1 1 − x

sin (1 − x )  1  1
= − lim ⋅ lim  2  = −
x →1 1− x 
x →1 x + 1
 2
Example 2 The area A of a regular n-sided polygon
inscribed in a circle of radius r is given by
180o 180o
A = nr 2 cos sin
n n r
Using the fact that the circle is the limiting
position of the polygon as n → ∞ , show that Figure 2.52
2
the area A of the circle is A = π r .
Proof:
180 o 180 o π π
A = lim nr 2 cos sin = r 2 lim n cos .sin
n →∞ n n n →∞ n n
π 
sin  
π
= r 2 lim cos . lim  n  = r 2 × 1× π = π r 2
n→∞ n n →∞ 1
n

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

Computation of e using the limit of a sequence

 H
HIISSTTO
ORRIIC
CAALL N
NOOTTE
E

Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)

Swiss mathematician, whose major work was done in the field
of pure mathematics. Euler was born in Basel and studied at the
University of Basel under the Swiss mathematician Johann
Bernoulli, obtaining his master's degree at the age of 16.
In his Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite (1748), Euler gave the first full
analytical treatment of algebra, the theory of equations, trigonometry, and
analytical geometry. In this work he treated the series expansion of functions and
formulated the rule that only convergent infinite series can properly be evaluated.
k
 1
He computed e to 23 decimal places using 1 +  .
 k
In Grade 11, you have used the irrational number e in expressions and formulae that
model real world phenomena.

ACTIVITY 2.11
 1  k 
1 Consider the sequence  1 +  
 k  k ≥1
a Is the sequence monotone?
Justify your answer by filling up the values in the following table.

k 1 2 3 4 5 10 100 1000 10000

k
 1
1 + 
 k
k
 1
b Find the smaller positive integer k such that  1 +  is greater than 2.5, 2.7,
 k
2.8.
c What do you see from the table as k increases?
k
 1
d Find a positive integer n such that n < lim 1 +  < n + 1
k →∞
 k

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Mathematics Grade 12

x y
 1
2 Let f (x) =  1 + 
 x
f
a What is the domain of f ? Yy ==e e
b Look at the graph of f. Is f continuous on
(−1, 0]? Why?
c Use the graph to evaluate lim f ( x ) and x
x →∞

lim f ( x). Figure 2.55

x →−∞ Figures 2.53

Theorem 2.8
x x
 1  1
lim  1 +  = e and lim  1 +  = e.
x→∞
 x x→−∞
 x
x + 100
 1
Example 3 Evaluate lim 1 + 
x →∞
 x
x +100 x 100 100
 1  1  1   1 
Solution lim 1 +  = lim 1 +  .lim 1 +  = e  lim 1 +   = e. Why?
x→∞
 x x →∞
 x  x→∞  x   x→∞  x  
x+c
 1
In general, you can show that lim  1 +  = e for c ∈ ℝ.
x →∞
 x
x
 9
Example 4 Evaluate lim  1 + 
x→∞
 x
1 9
Solution Let = , then x = 9y.
y x
9
 9
x
 1
9y
  1 y 
Thus, lim  1 +  = lim 1 +  =  lim 1 +   = e9. Why?
x→∞
 x y →∞
 y  y →∞  y  
x
 c
In general, we can show that lim  1 +  = ec for c ∈ ℝ
x →∞
 x
x
 x 
Example 5 Evaluate lim   .
x→∞
3− x
 
x  
 x  1  1 3
Solution lim   = lim  = −3 =e
x→∞ 
 3  e
x
x→∞
 x −3
 1 −  
 x 

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

1− 4 x
 5x + 1 
Example 6 Evaluate lim  
x→−∞
 5x − 3 
4 x −1 4
 −3   −53 
 1+ 5x 
1− 4 x 4 x −1
 5x + 1   5x − 3  e  −3.2
Solution lim   = lim   =   = 1  =e

x →−∞ 5 x − 3
 
x →−∞ 5 x + 1
  1+ 1   e5 
 5x   
(Explain!)

Exercise 2.9
1 Evaluate each of the following limits.
tan(4 x ) sin ( x + 2)
a lim b lim
x →0 tan(3 x) x→−2 x + 2x 2 + x + 2
3

π
x−
2 sin x
c lim d lim
x→
π cos x x→0 x3 − x
2

sin x sin x
e lim f lim
x→π − 1− cosx x →∞ x
x+5 8−5 x
 1  x 
g lim 1 −  h lim  
x→∞
 x x →∞
 x + 3
3 x −1 x+1
 x + 4  2x + 5 
i lim   j lim  
x →∞
 x − 1 x →∞
 2 x − 11 
1
lim+ 1
k ( 5x + 1) x l lim sin  
x→0 x→0
x
1
m lim tan  
x →∞
x
2 Continuous compounding formula
nt
 r 
Consider the compound interest formula. A = P 1 + 
 100n 
If the length of time period for compounding of the interest decreases from yearly to
semi annually, quarterly, monthly, daily, hourly, etc, then the amount A increases
r
but the interest rate for the period decreases. That is, as n → ∞, → 0 . In this
100n
case, the interest is said to be compounded continuously. Find a formula for the
amount A obtained when the interest is compounded continuously.
3 If Birr 4500 is deposited in an account paying 3% annual interest compounded
continuously, then how much is in the account after 10 years and 3 months?

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Mathematics Grade 12

Key Terms

continuity function lower bound null sequence

convergence glb lub one side limit
decreasing increasing maximum sequence
discontinuity infinity minimum upper bound
divergence limit monotonic

Summary
1 Upper bound and lower bound
i A number m is called an upper bound of a sequence {a n}, if and only if
m ≥ ai ∀ai ∈ {an }
ii A number k is called a lower bound of a sequence {a n}, if and only if
k ≤ ai ∀ai ∈ {an }

2 Least upper bound (lub) and greatest lower bound (glb).

i A number ℓ is said to be the least upper bound (lub), if and only if ℓ is an
upper bound and if y is an upper bound, then ℓ ≤ y.
ii A number g is said to be the greatest lower bound (glb), if and only if g is
a lower bound and if x is a lower bound, then g ≥ x.
3 A sequence {an} is said to be monotonic, if it is either increasing or decreasing.
4 A sequence {an} is said to be a null sequence, if and only if lim an = 0.
n →∞

5 Convergence properties of sequences

If lim an = L and lim bn = M, then
n →∞ n→∞

i lim ( an ± bn ) = L ± M
n →∞

ii lim can = cL; where c is a constant.

n→∞

iii lim (anbn ) = LM

n→∞

an L
iv lim = , provided that M ≠ 0, and b n ≠ 0 for any n.
n→∞ bn M

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

6 Limit of a function
 A number L is the limit of a function f at x = a, if and only if f (x) approaches to L
as x - approaches a but f need not be defined at a. This is expressed by
lim f ( x ) = L
x→ a

7 One side limits

i A number L is said to be the right side limit of a function f at x = a, if and
only if f (x) approaches to L as x approaches to a from the right. This is
expressed as: lim+ f ( x) = L.
x→ a

ii Likewise, we can define the left hand side limit and express it as:
lim− f ( x) = L.
x→ a

Iii lim f ( x ) = L , if and only if lim+ f ( x ) = lim− f ( x ) = L.

x→ a x→ a x→a

8 Basic limit theorems

If lim f ( x ) = L and lim g ( x) = M , then
x→ a x →a

i lim ( f ( x) ± g ( x) ) = L ± M ii lim cf ( x ) = cL for a constant c.

x →a x→a

f ( x) L
iii lim ( f ( x) ⋅ g ( x) ) = LM iv lim = provided that M ≠ 0.
x →a x→ a g ( x) M
9 Continuity
i A function f is said to be continuous at x = x0, if the following three
conditions are met.
a f (xo) is defined b lim f ( x) exist c lim f ( x) = f ( xo )
x → x0 x→ xo

ii A function is continuous on an open interval (a, b), if it is continuous at

each number in the interval.
iii A function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], if it is continuous on
(a, b) and lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) and lim f ( x ) = f (b ) .
x → a+ x →b −

iv A function f is said to be continuous, if it is continuous on its entire domain.

10 Properties of continuous functions
If f and g are functions that are continuous at x = xo and c is a real number, then
the following functions are continuous at xo.
i scalar multiple: cf ii sum and difference f ± g
f
iii product: fg iv quotient: provided that g (xo) ≠ 0.
g

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Mathematics Grade 12

11 Continuity of composite functions

If g is continuous at x = xo and f is continuous at y = g (xo), then the composite
function given by (fog) (x) = f (g (x)) is continuous at x = xo.
12 Intermediate value theorem
If f is continuous on [a, b] and k is any real number between f (a) and f (b), then
there is at least one number c between a and b such that f (c) = k.
13 Extreme value theorem
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]. Then there exist two
real numbers x1 and x2 in [a, b] such that f (x2) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x1) for all x ∈[a, b]. In
this case f (x2) is the minimum value of the function f on [a, b] and f (x1) is the
maximum value of f on [a, b].
14 Two important limits
x

lim
sin x
= 1  1
i ii lim  1 +  = e
x→0 x x →±∞
 x

Review Exercises on Unit 2

1 Evaluate each of the following limits.
x +1 x −3
a lim ( 2 x − 1) b lim 2
c lim 2
x→0 x→−1 x + 7 x + 6 x→9 x − 81
x + 4 −2 cos x
d lim e lim
x →0 x x →0 x
x x − 5
2 Let f (x) = , evaluate
x 2 − 25
a lim+ f ( x ) b lim f ( x ) c lim f ( x ) d lim f ( x )
x→5 x →−5+ x →5− x →−5−

3, if x = −5
−0.6, if − 5 < x ≤ −2

3 Let f ( x) =  2
 x − 4, if − 2 < x < 3
 x + 2, if x ≥ 3
Sketch the graph of f and evaluate each of the following limits.
a lim f (x) b lim f ( x) c lim f ( x )
x→−5 x→−2 x →3

4 Evaluate each of the following limits.

a lim ( x3 − 4 x2 + 5x − 11) b lim x 2 − 5x

x →3 x →2

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 Unit 2 Introduction to Limits and Continuity

x 2 − 49 3x − 4 x
c lim d lim
x →−7 x 2 + 6 x − 7 x→0 5x
x 3 + 125 sin ( x − 1) + x 2 − 1
e lim f lim
x →−5 x+5 x →1 x −1
π 
g lim sin   h lim cos x
x →∞
x x →∞

sin x sin 3 (5 x )
i lim j lim
x→0 x cos x x →0 sin (4 x 3 )
5 Test whether or not each of the given functions is continuous at the indicated
number.

 x 2 − x , if x ≥ 1 x2 9 − x2
a f (x) =  ;x = 1 b f (x) = ; x=3
 x + 1, if x < 1 3− x
 sin x 1
 ,if x ≠ 0  , if x ∉ Z 1
c f ( x) =  x ;x = 0 d f ( x) =  4 ;x =
1,if x = 0 4x , if x ∈ Z 2

 cos x
 , if x > 0
e f ( x) =  ex ;x = 0
ex , if x ≤ 0

6 Determine the values of the constants so that each of the given functions is
continuous.
 x2 − ax
ax − 1,if x ≤ 2  , if x ≠ a
a f ( x) =  2 b f (x) =  x − a
 x + 3x, if x > 2  2, if x = a

 x 2 + 1, if x < a
sin ( k +x ) , if x ≤ 0 
c f (x) = f ( x ) =  d f (x) = 15 − 5 x, if a ≤ x ≤ b
1 , if x > 0  5 x − 25, if x > b

7 Evaluate each of the following limits.
3 x 3 + 5 x 2 − 11 x 2 + 1 − 10
a lim b lim
x →∞ 2 x3 − 1 x →∞
x2 + 1 + 9
8 Evaluate each of the following one side limits.
a lim x − 3x b lim 3− x c lim 3x − 9
x → 0+ x→3+ x →3−
x
d lim+ ln x e lim+ 3
f lim 1 − x −1
x →2 +
x →0 x →5
( x − 5)
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Mathematics Grade 12

sin x x 2 x 2 − 49
g lim h lim− 25 − x2 i lim−
x → 0+ x x →−5 x→ 7 x−7
9 Determine the largest interval on which each of the given functions is continuous.
1− x
a f ( x) = b f ( x) = ln x
x
 x  4x − 3
c f ( x ) = ln  x  d f ( x) =
 e −1  x−4
10 Determine the maximum and minimum values of each of the functions defined on
the indicated closed interval.
a f (x) = 3x + 5 ; [ –3, 2] b g (x) = 1 – x2 ; [–2, 3]
1
c h (x) = x4 – x2 ; [–2, 2 ] d f ( x) = ;[−2, 2]
x
 x , if x ≤ 1
2
2
e h (x) = 4x – 5x + 1 ; [-1.5, 1.5] f f ( x) = 
 2 − x , if x > 1; [ −3,2 ]
11 Locate the zeros of each of the following functions using the intermediate value
theorem.
a f (x) = x2 – x – 1 b g (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5
c h (x) = x3 – x + 2 d f (x) = x4 – 2x3 – x2 + 3x – 2
e g (x) = x4 – 9x2 + 14
12 Evaluate each of the following limits.
x
sin  
π  sin ( x 3 ) 1
a lim b lim c lim x tan  
x →0 tan x x→ 0 x3 x →∞
x
x+6
x − tan x  3 
d lim e lim 1 + 
x →0 x x →∞
 x + 11 
13 In a certain country, the life expectancy for males x-years from now is given by
210 x + 116
the formula f ( x) = years. What will be the life expectancy of males
3x + 4
in this country as time passes? Discuss whether or not the life expectancy in the
country is increasing.
60 ( x + 1)
14 A girl enrolling in typing class types words per minute after x weeks of
x+9
lessons. Determine the maximum possible number of words the girl can type as
time passes.

102