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 Essential MATLAB
for Engineers and Scientists
This page intentionally left blank
 Essential MATLAB
for Engineers and Scientists
Sixth Edition

Brian H. Hahn
Daniel T. Valentine

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Copyright © 2017, 2013, 2010 Daniel T. Valentine. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2007, 2006, 2002 Brian D. Hahn and Daniel T. Valentine. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission.

The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book.
This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement
or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the
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Publisher: Todd Green

Acquisition Editor: Stephen Merken
Editorial Project Manager: Nate McFadden
Production Project Manager: Stalin Viswanathan
Designer: Matthew Limbert

Typeset by VTeX
Contents

PREFACE .............................................................................................................xv

Part 1 Essentials................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 1 Introduction............................................................................... 3
1.1 Using MATLAB..............................................................................5
1.1.1 Arithmetic .........................................................................5
1.1.2 Variables............................................................................7
1.1.3 Mathematical functions ...................................................8
1.1.4 Functions and commands ...............................................8
1.1.5 Vectors...............................................................................9
1.1.6 Linear equations.............................................................11
1.1.7 Tutorials and demos.......................................................12
1.2 The desktop ................................................................................13
1.2.1 Using the Editor and running a script ..........................13
1.2.2 Help, publish and view ...................................................16
1.2.3 Symbolics and the MuPAD notebook APP....................18
1.2.4 Other APPS .....................................................................23
1.2.5 Additional features .........................................................23
1.3 Sample program ........................................................................25
1.3.1 Cut and paste..................................................................25
1.3.2 Saving a program: script files .......................................27
Current directory ................................................................................28
Running a script from the current folder browser ..........................29
1.3.3 A program in action........................................................29
Summary ....................................................................................30
Exercises.....................................................................................31

CHAPTER 2 MATLAB Fundamentals ......................................................... 33

2.1 Variables .....................................................................................33
2.1.1 Case sensitivity ...............................................................34
2.2 The workspace ...........................................................................34
2.2.1 Adding commonly used constants to the workspace ..35
2.3 Arrays: Vectors and matrices....................................................36
2.3.1 Initializing vectors: Explicit lists ...................................36
v
vi Contents

2.3.2 Initializing vectors: The colon operator ........................37

2.3.3 The linspace and logspace functions.........................38
2.3.4 Transposing vectors .......................................................39
2.3.5 Subscripts .......................................................................39
2.3.6 Matrices ..........................................................................40
2.3.7 Capturing output ............................................................40
2.3.8 Structure plan.................................................................41
2.4 Vertical motion under gravity....................................................42
2.5 Operators, expressions, and statements .................................44
2.5.1 Numbers .........................................................................45
2.5.2 Data types .......................................................................45
2.5.3 Arithmetic operators......................................................46
2.5.4 Operator precedence .....................................................46
2.5.5 The colon operator .........................................................47
2.5.6 The transpose operator .................................................47
2.5.7 Arithmetic operations on arrays ...................................48
2.5.8 Expressions.....................................................................49
2.5.9 Statements......................................................................49
2.5.10 Statements, commands, and functions........................50
2.5.11 Formula vectorization ....................................................51
2.6 Output..........................................................................................54
2.6.1 The disp statement........................................................54
2.6.2 The format command ....................................................55
2.6.3 Scale factors ...................................................................56
2.7 Repeating with for.....................................................................57
2.7.1 Square roots with Newton’s method ............................58
2.7.2 Factorials! .......................................................................59
2.7.3 Limit of a sequence ........................................................59
2.7.4 The basic for construct .................................................60
2.7.5 for in a single line..........................................................61
2.7.6 More general for ...........................................................61
2.7.7 Avoid for loops by vectorizing!......................................62
2.8 Decisions.....................................................................................64
2.8.1 The one-line if statement ............................................64
2.8.2 The if-else construct...................................................66
2.8.3 The one-line if-else statement ..................................67
2.8.4 elseif .............................................................................67
2.8.5 Logical operators ...........................................................68
2.8.6 Multiple ifs versus elseif ...........................................69
2.8.7 Nested ifs ......................................................................70
2.8.8 Vectorizing ifs?..............................................................71
2.8.9 The switch statement....................................................71
2.9 Complex numbers......................................................................72
Summary ....................................................................................74
Exercises.....................................................................................76

CHAPTER 3 Program Design and Algorithm Development ..................... 83

3.1 The program design process.....................................................84
 Contents vii

3.1.1 The projectile problem ...................................................87

3.2 Programming MATLAB functions .............................................92
3.2.1 Inline objects: Harmonic oscillators.............................92
3.2.2 MATLAB function: y = f (x ).............................................93
Summary ....................................................................................96
Exercise.......................................................................................96

CHAPTER 4 MATLAB Functions and Data Import-Export Utilities.......... 99

4.1 Common functions.....................................................................99
4.2 Importing and exporting data..................................................104
4.2.1 The load and save commands....................................104
4.2.2 Exporting text (ASCII) data...........................................104
4.2.3 Importing text (ASCII) data ..........................................105
4.2.4 Exporting binary data...................................................105
4.2.5 Importing binary data...................................................106
Summary ..................................................................................106
Exercises...................................................................................106

CHAPTER 5 Logical Vectors ..................................................................... 109

5.1 Examples ..................................................................................110
5.1.1 Discontinuous graphs ..................................................110
5.1.2 Avoiding division by zero ..............................................111
5.1.3 Avoiding infinity.............................................................112
5.1.4 Counting random numbers .........................................113
5.1.5 Rolling dice ...................................................................114
5.2 Logical operators .....................................................................114
5.2.1 Operator precedence ...................................................116
5.2.2 Danger...........................................................................116
5.2.3 Logical operators and vectors.....................................117
5.3 Subscripting with logical vectors............................................118
5.4 Logical functions ......................................................................119
5.4.1 Using any and all ........................................................120
5.5 Logical vectors instead of elseif ladders.............................121
Summary ..................................................................................123
Exercises...................................................................................124

CHAPTER 6 Matrices and Arrays ............................................................. 127

6.1 Matrices ....................................................................................127
6.1.1 A concrete example......................................................127
6.1.2 Creating matrices.........................................................129
6.1.3 Subscripts .....................................................................129
6.1.4 Transpose......................................................................130
6.1.5 The colon operator .......................................................130
6.1.6 Duplicating rows and columns: tiling .........................133
6.1.7 Deleting rows and columns .........................................134
6.1.8 Elementary matrices....................................................135
6.1.9 Specialized matrices....................................................136
6.1.10 Using MATLAB functions with matrices .....................137
viii Contents

6.1.11 Manipulating matrices .................................................138

6.1.12 Array (element-by-element) operations on matrices138
6.1.13 Matrices and for ..........................................................139
6.1.14 Visualization of matrices .............................................140
6.1.15 Vectorizing nested fors: loan repayment tables .......140
6.1.16 Multi-dimensional arrays ............................................142
6.2 Matrix operations .....................................................................143
6.2.1 Matrix multiplication....................................................143
6.2.2 Matrix exponentiation ..................................................145
6.3 Other matrix functions.............................................................146
6.4 Population growth: Leslie matrices .......................................146
6.5 Markov processes ....................................................................150
6.5.1 A random walk..............................................................150
6.6 Linear equations ......................................................................152
6.6.1 MATLAB’s solution .......................................................153
6.6.2 The residual ..................................................................154
6.6.3 Over-determined systems ...........................................154
6.6.4 Under-determined systems ........................................155
6.6.5 Ill conditioning ..............................................................155
6.6.6 Matrix division...............................................................156
6.7 Sparse matrices .......................................................................158
Summary ..................................................................................160
Exercises...................................................................................161

CHAPTER 7 Function M-files.................................................................... 163

7.1 Example: Newton’s method again ..........................................163
7.2 Basic rules ................................................................................165
7.2.1 Subfunctions .................................................................170
7.2.2 Private functions ..........................................................170
7.2.3 P-code files ...................................................................170
7.2.4 Improving M-file performance with the profiler ........171
7.3 Function handles......................................................................171
7.4 Command/function duality......................................................173
7.5 Function name resolution .......................................................174
7.6 Debugging M-files....................................................................174
7.6.1 Debugging a script .......................................................174
7.6.2 Debugging a function ...................................................176
7.7 Recursion..................................................................................176
Summary ..................................................................................178
Exercises...................................................................................179

CHAPTER 8 Loops ..................................................................................... 181

8.1 Determinate repetition with for .............................................181
8.1.1 Binomial coefficient .....................................................181
8.1.2 Update processes .........................................................182
8.1.3 Nested fors ..................................................................184
8.2 Indeterminate repetition with while ......................................184
8.2.1 A guessing game ..........................................................184
 Contents ix

8.2.2 The while statement....................................................185

8.2.3 Doubling time of an investment ..................................185
8.2.4 Prime numbers ............................................................187
8.2.5 Projectile trajectory......................................................188
8.2.6 break and continue.....................................................190
8.2.7 Menus............................................................................190
Summary ..................................................................................191
Exercises...................................................................................192

CHAPTER 9 MATLAB Graphics................................................................. 197

9.1 Basic 2-D graphs......................................................................197
9.1.1 Labels............................................................................198
9.1.2 Multiple plots on the same axes .................................199
9.1.3 Line styles, markers and color....................................200
9.1.4 Axis limits......................................................................200
9.1.5 Multiple plots in a figure: subplot..............................202
9.1.6 figure, clf and cla.....................................................203
9.1.7 Graphical input .............................................................203
9.1.8 Logarithmic plots .........................................................203
9.1.9 Polar plots.....................................................................204
9.1.10 Plotting rapidly changing mathematical functions:
fplot .............................................................................205
9.1.11 The property editor.......................................................206
9.2 3-D plots ...................................................................................206
9.2.1 plot3 .............................................................................206
9.2.2 Animated 3-D plots with comet3 .................................207
9.2.3 Mesh surfaces ..............................................................207
9.2.4 Contour plots ................................................................209
9.2.5 Cropping a surface with NaNs ......................................211
9.2.6 Visualizing vector fields ...............................................211
9.2.7 Visualization of matrices .............................................212
9.2.8 Rotation of 3-D graphs.................................................213
9.3 Handle graphics .......................................................................214
9.3.1 Getting handles ............................................................214
9.3.2 Graphics object properties and how to change them215
9.3.3 A vector of handles.......................................................217
9.3.4 Graphics object creation functions .............................218
9.3.5 Parenting.......................................................................218
9.3.6 Positioning figures .......................................................219
9.4 Editing plots..............................................................................220
9.4.1 Plot edit mode...............................................................220
9.4.2 Property Editor .............................................................221
9.5 Animation..................................................................................222
9.5.1 Animation with Handle Graphics.................................222
9.6 Color etc....................................................................................225
9.6.1 Colormaps.....................................................................225
9.6.2 Color of surface plots...................................................226
9.6.3 Truecolor .......................................................................228
x Contents

9.7 Lighting and camera ................................................................228

9.8 Saving, printing and exporting graphs ...................................229
9.8.1 Saving and opening figure files ...................................229
9.8.2 Printing a graph............................................................229
9.8.3 Exporting a graph .........................................................229
Summary ..................................................................................230
Exercises...................................................................................231

CHAPTER 10 Vectors as Arrays and Other Data Structures.................... 235

10.1 Update processes.....................................................................235
10.1.1 Unit time steps .............................................................236
10.1.2 Non-unit time steps .....................................................238
10.1.3 Using a function............................................................239
10.1.4 Exact solution ...............................................................241
10.2 Frequencies, bar charts and histograms ...............................242
10.2.1 A random walk..............................................................242
10.2.2 Histograms ...................................................................243
10.3 Sorting.......................................................................................244
10.3.1 Bubble Sort ...................................................................244
10.3.2 MATLAB’s sort .............................................................246
10.4 Structures .................................................................................247
10.5 Cell arrays ................................................................................249
10.5.1 Assigning data to cell arrays .......................................249
10.5.2 Accessing data in cell arrays.......................................250
10.5.3 Using cell arrays ..........................................................251
10.5.4 Displaying and visualizing cell arrays ........................252
10.6 Classes and objects .................................................................252
Summary ..................................................................................253

CHAPTER 11 Errors and Pitfalls ................................................................ 255

11.1 Syntax errors ............................................................................255
11.1.1 Incompatible vector sizes ............................................256
11.1.2 Name hiding..................................................................256
11.2 Logic errors ..............................................................................256
11.3 Rounding error .........................................................................257
Summary ..................................................................................258
Chapter exercises ....................................................................258

Part 2 Applications ..........................................................261

CHAPTER 12 Dynamical Systems .............................................................. 263
12.1 Cantilever beam .......................................................................265
12.2 Electric current ........................................................................266
12.3 Free fall .....................................................................................269
12.4 Projectile with friction..............................................................278
Summary ..................................................................................281
Exercises...................................................................................282

CHAPTER 13 Simulation ............................................................................. 283

 Contents xi

13.1 Random number generation ...................................................283

13.1.1 Seeding rand.................................................................284
13.2 Spinning coins ..........................................................................284
13.3 Rolling dice ...............................................................................285
13.4 Bacteria division.......................................................................286
13.5 A random walk .........................................................................286
13.6 Traffic flow ................................................................................288
13.7 Normal (Gaussian) random numbers ....................................291
Summary ..................................................................................291
Exercises...................................................................................292

CHAPTER 14 Introduction to Numerical Methods.................................... 295

14.1 Equations ..................................................................................295
14.1.1 Newton’s method .........................................................295
14.1.2 The Bisection method ..................................................297
14.1.3 fzero .............................................................................299
14.1.4 roots .............................................................................299
14.2 Integration ................................................................................300
14.2.1 The Trapezoidal rule ....................................................300
14.2.2 Simpson’s rule..............................................................301
14.2.3 quad ...............................................................................302
14.3 Numerical differentiation ........................................................302
14.3.1 diff ...............................................................................303
14.4 First-order differential equations ...........................................304
14.4.1 Euler’s method .............................................................304
14.4.2 Example: bacteria growth............................................305
14.4.3 Alternative subscript notation.....................................307
14.4.4 A predictor-corrector method .....................................307
14.5 Linear ordinary differential equations (LODEs) .....................308
14.6 Runge-Kutta methods .............................................................309
14.6.1 A single differential equation ......................................309
14.6.2 Systems of differential equations: chaos ...................310
14.6.3 Passing additional parameters to an ODE solver ......312
14.7 A partial differential equation .................................................314
14.7.1 Heat conduction............................................................314
14.8 Complex variables and conformal mapping ..........................317
14.9 Other numerical methods .......................................................319
Summary ..................................................................................320
Exercises...................................................................................321

CHAPTER 15 Signal Processing ................................................................. 325

15.1 Harmonic analysis ...................................................................326
15.2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)..................................................331

CHAPTER 16 SIMULINK Toolbox............................................................. 337

16.1 Mass-spring-damper dynamic system ..................................342
16.2 Bouncing ball dynamic system ...............................................345
16.3 The van der Pol oscillator........................................................347
xii Contents

16.4 The Duffing oscillator ..............................................................350

Exercises...................................................................................351

CHAPTER 17 Symbolics Toolbox ................................................................ 355

17.1 Algebra......................................................................................356
17.1.1 Polynomials ..................................................................357
17.1.2 Vectors...........................................................................359
17.1.3 Matrices ........................................................................360
17.2 Calculus ....................................................................................363
17.3 Laplace and Z transforms .......................................................366
17.4 Generalized functions..............................................................367
17.5 Differential equations ..............................................................369
17.6 Implementation of funtool, MuPAD and help.........................370
17.6.1 The funtool ....................................................................370
17.6.2 The MuPAD notebook∗ and Symbolic help.................370
Exercises...................................................................................373
APPENDIX A Syntax: Quick Reference ...................................................... 375
A.1 Expressions ..............................................................................375
A.2 Function M-files .......................................................................375
A.3 Graphics ....................................................................................375
A.4 if and switch...........................................................................376
A.5 for and while...........................................................................377
A.6 Input/output..............................................................................377
A.7 load/save..................................................................................378
A.8 Vectors and matrices ...............................................................378
APPENDIX B Operators .............................................................................. 381
APPENDIX C Command and Function: Quick Reference......................... 383
C.1 General-purpose commands ..................................................383
C.1.1 Managing variables and the workspace .....................383
C.1.2 Files and the operating system...................................383
C.1.3 Controlling the Command Window .............................384
C.1.4 Starting and quitting MATLAB.....................................384
C.2 Logical functions ......................................................................384
C.3 MATLAB programming tools...................................................384
C.3.1 Interactive input............................................................385
C.4 Matrices ....................................................................................385
C.4.1 Special variables and constants..................................385
C.4.2 Time and date ...............................................................385
C.4.3 Matrix manipulation .....................................................385
C.4.4 Specialized matrices....................................................386
C.5 Mathematical functions ...........................................................386
C.6 Matrix functions .......................................................................387
C.7 Data analysis ............................................................................387
C.8 Polynomial functions ...............................................................387
C.9 Function functions ...................................................................387
C.10 Sparse matrix functions ..........................................................388
C.11 Character string functions ......................................................388
 Contents xiii

C.12 File I/O functions ......................................................................388

C.13 2D graphics...............................................................................388
C.14 3D graphics...............................................................................389
C.15 General......................................................................................389
APPENDIX D Solutions to Selected Exercises .......................................... 391
INDEX ............................................................................................................... 403
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Preface

The main reason for a sixth edition of Essential MATLAB for Engineers and Scien-
tists is to keep up with MATLAB, now in its latest version (9.0 Version R2016a).
Like the previous editions, this one presents MATLAB as a problem-solving
tool for professionals in science and engineering, as well as students in those
fields, who have no prior knowledge of computer programming.
In keeping with the late Brian D. Hahn’s objectives in previous editions, the
sixth edition adopts an informal, tutorial style for its “teach-yourself” ap-
proach, which invites readers to experiment with MATLAB as a way of discov-
ering how it works. It assumes that readers have never used this tool in their
technical problem solving.
MATLAB, which stands for “Matrix Laboratory,” is based on the concept of
the matrix. Because readers will be unfamiliar with matrices, ideas and con-
structs are developed gradually, as the context requires. The primary audience
for Essential MATLAB is scientists and engineers, and for that reason certain ex-
amples require some first-year college math, particularly in Part II. However,
these examples are self-contained and can be skipped without detracting from
the development of readers’ programming skills.
MATLAB can be used in two distinct modes. One, in keeping the modern-age
craving for instant gratification, offers immediate execution of statements (or
groups of statements) in the Command Window. The other, for the more pa-
tient, offers conventional programming by means of script files. Both modes
are put to good use here: The former encouraging cut and paste to take full
advantage of Windows’ interactive environment. The latter stressing program-
ming principles and algorithm development through structure plans.
Although most of MATLAB’s basic (“essential”) features are covered, this book
is neither an exhaustive nor a systematic reference. This would not be in keep-
ing with its informal style. For example, constructs such as for and if are not
always treated, initially, in their general form, as is common in many texts, but
are gradually introduced in discussions where they fit naturally. Even so, they
xv
xvi Preface

are treated thoroughly here, unlike in other texts that deal with them only su-
perficially. For the curious, helpful syntax and function quick references can be
found in the appendices.
The following list contains other highlights of Essential MATLAB for Engineers
and Scientists, Sixth Edition:
 Warnings of the many pitfalls that await the unwary beginner
 Numerous examples taken from science and engineering (simulation, pop-
ulation modeling, numerical methods) as well as business and everyday
life
 An emphasis on programming style to produce clear, readable code
 Comprehensive chapter summaries
 Chapter exercises (answers and solutions to many of which are given in an
appendix)
 A thorough, instructive index
Essential MATLAB is meant to be used in conjunction with the MATLAB soft-
ware. The reader is expected to have the software at hand in order to work
through the exercises and thus discover how MATLAB does what it is com-
manded to do. Learning any tool is possible only through hands-on expe-
rience. This is particularly true with computing tools, which produce correct
answers only when the commands they are given and the accompanying data
input are correct and accurate.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Mary, Clara, Zoe Rae and Zach T. for their support and
encouragement. I dedicate the sixth edition of Essential MATLAB for Engineers
and Scientists to them.
Daniel T. Valentine
 1
Part 1 concerns those aspects of MATLAB that you need to know in order to
come to grips with MATLAB’s essentials and those of technical computing. Be-
cause this book is a tutorial, you are encouraged to use MATLAB extensively
while you go through the text.
PART

Essentials
This page intentionally left blank
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS CHAPTER ARE: CONTENTS

 To enable you to use some simple MATLAB commands from the Using MATLAB ...... 5
Command Window. Arithmetic ................. 5
 To examine various MATLAB desktop and editing features. Variables .................... 7
 To learn some of the new features of the MATLAB R2016a Desktop. Mathematical
 To learn to write scripts in the Editor and Run them from the Editor. functions.................... 8
 To learn some of the new features associated with the tabs (in particular, Functions and
the PUBLISH and APPS features). commands ................. 8
Vectors....................... 9
Linear equations ...... 11
Tutorials and demos 12
MATLAB is a powerful technical computing system for handling scientific and The desktop ......... 13
engineering calculations. The name MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory, be- Using the Editor and
cause the system was designed to make matrix computations particularly easy. running a script ....... 13
A matrix is an array of numbers organized in m rows and n columns. An exam- Help, publish and
ple is the following m × n = 2 × 3 array: view ......................... 16
Symbolics and the
  MuPAD notebook
1 3 5 APP .......................... 18
A= Other APPS.............. 23
2 4 6
Additional features .. 23
Any one of the elements in a matrix can be plucked out by using the row
and column indices that identify its location. The elements in this example Sample program . 25
Cut and paste .......... 25
are plucked out as follows: A(1, 1) = 1, A(1, 2) = 3, A(1, 3) = 5, A(2, 1) = 2,
Saving a program:
A(2, 2) = 4, A(2, 3) = 6. The first index identifies the row number counted from
script files................ 27
top to bottom; the second index is the column number counted from left to Current directory ....... 28
right. This is the convention used in MATLAB to locate information in an array. Running a script from
A computer is useful because it can do numerous computations quickly, so the current folder
operating on large numerical data sets listed in tables as arrays or matrices of browser .................... 29
rows and columns is quite efficient. A program in action . 29

This book assumes that you have never used a computer before to do the sort
of scientific calculations that MATLAB handles, but are able to find your way
3
Essential MATLAB for Engineers and Scientists. DOI:10.1016/B978-0-08-100877-5.00002-5
Copyright © 2017 Daniel T. Valentine. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
4 CHAPTER 1: Introduction

Summary .............. 30 around a computer keyboard and know your operating system (e.g., Windows,
UNIX or MAC-OS). The only other computer-related skill you will need is
Exercises ............... 31
some very basic text editing.
Supplementary
material ................. 31 One of the many things you will like about MATLAB (and that distinguishes
it from many other computer programming systems, such as C++ and Java) is
that you can use it interactively. This means you type some commands at the
special MATLAB prompt and get results immediately. The problems solved in
this way can be very simple, like finding a square root, or very complicated, like
finding the solution to a system of differential equations. For many technical
problems, you enter only one or two commands—MATLAB does most of the
work for you.
There are three essential requirements for successful MATLAB applications:
 You must learn the exact rules for writing MATLAB statements and using
MATLAB utilities.
 You must know the mathematics associated with the problem you want to
solve.
 You must develop a logical plan of attack—the algorithm—for solving a
particular problem.
This chapter is devoted mainly to the first requirement: learning some basic
MATLAB rules. Computer programming is a precise science (some would also
say an art); you have to enter statements in precisely the right way. There is a
saying among computer programmers: Garbage in, garbage out. It means that if
you give MATLAB a garbage instruction, you will get a garbage result.
With experience, you will be able to design, develop and implement compu-
tational and graphical tools to do relatively complex science and engineering
problems. You will be able to adjust the look of MATLAB, modify the way you
interact with it, and develop a toolbox of your own that helps you solve prob-
lems of interest. In other words, you can, with significant experience, customize
your MATLAB working environment.
As you learn the basics of MATLAB and, for that matter, any other computer
tool, remember that applications do nothing randomly. Therefore, as you use
MATLAB, observe and study all responses from the command-line operations
that you implement, to learn what this tool does and does not do. To begin
an investigation into the capabilities of MATLAB, we will do relatively simple
problems that we know the answers because we are evaluating the tool and its
capabilities. This is always the first step. As you learn about MATLAB, you are
also going to learn about programming, (1) to create your own computational
tools, and (2) to appreciate the difficulties involved in the design of efficient,
robust and accurate computational and graphical tools (i.e., computer pro-
grams).
 1.1 Using MATLAB 5

In the rest of this chapter we will look at some simple examples. Don’t be
concerned about understanding exactly what is happening. Understanding will
come with the work you need to do in later chapters. It is very important for
you to practice with MATLAB to learn how it works. Once you have grasped
the basic rules in this chapter, you will be prepared to master many of those
presented in the next chapter and in the Help files provided with MATLAB.
This will help you go on to solve more interesting and substantial problems.
In the last section of this chapter you will take a quick tour of the MATLAB
desktop.

1.1 USING MATLAB

Either MATLAB must be installed on your computer or you must have access
to a network where it is available. Throughout this book the latest version at
the time of writing is assumed (Version R2016a).
To start from Windows, double-click the MATLAB icon on your Windows desk-
top. To start from UNIX, type matlab at the operating system prompt. To start
from MAC-OS open X11 (i.e., open an X-terminal window), then type mat-
lab at the prompt. The MATLAB desktop opens as shown in Figure 1.1. The
window in the desktop that concerns us for now is the Command Window,
where the special >> prompt appears. This prompt means that MATLAB is
waiting for a command. You can quit at any time with one of the following
ways:
 Click the X (close box) in the upper right-hand corner of the MATLAB desk-
top.
 Type quit or exit at the Command Window prompt followed by pressing
the ‘enter’ key.
Starting MATLAB automatically creates a folder named MATLAB in the user’s
Documents Folder. This feature is quite convenient because it is the default
working folder. It is in this folder that anything saved from the Command
Window will be saved. Now you can experiment with MATLAB in the Com-
mand Window. If necessary, make the Command Window active by placing
the cursor in the Command Window and left-clicking the mouse button any-
where inside its border.

1.1.1 Arithmetic
Since we have experience doing arithmetic, we want to examine if MATLAB
does it correctly. This is a required step to gain confidence in any tool and in
our ability to use it.
Type 2+3 after the >> prompt, followed by Enter (press the Enter key) as
indicated by <Enter>:
>> 2+3 <Enter>
6 CHAPTER 1: Introduction

FIGURE 1.1 MATLAB desktop illustrating the Home task bar (version 2016a).

Commands are only carried out when you enter them. The answer in this case
is, of course, 5. Next try
>> 3-2 <Enter>
>> 2*3 <Enter>
>> 1/2 <Enter>
>> 23 <Enter>
>> 2\11 <Enter>
What about (1)/(2) and (2)^(3)? Can you figure out what the symbols *,
/, and ^ mean? Yes, they are multiplication, division and exponentiation. The
backslash means the denominator is to the left of the symbol and the numer-
ator is to the right; the result for the last command is 5.5. This operation is
equivalent to 11/2.
Now enter the following commands:
>> 2 .* 3 <Enter>
>> 1 ./ 2 <Enter>
>> 2 .ˆ 3 <Enter>
A period in front of the *, /, and ^, respectively, does not change the results
because the multiplication, division, and exponentiation is done with single
numbers. (An explanation for the need for these symbols is provided later
when we deal with arrays of numbers.)
 1.1 Using MATLAB 7

Here are hints on creating and editing command lines:

 The line with the >> prompt is called the command line.
 You can edit a MATLAB command before pressing Enter by using various
combinations of the Backspace, Left-arrow, Right-arrow, and Del keys.
This helpful feature is called command-line editing.
 You can select (and edit) commands you have entered using Up-arrow and
Down-arrow. Remember to press Enter to have the command carried out
(i.e., to run or to execute the command).
 MATLAB has a useful editing feature called smart recall. Just type the first few
characters of the command you want to recall. For example, type the charac-
ters 2* and press the Up-arrow key—this recalls the most recent command
starting with 2*.
How do you think MATLAB would handle 0/1 and 1/0? Try it. If you insist
on using ∞ in a calculation, which you may legitimately wish to do, type the
symbol Inf (short for infinity). Try 13+Inf and 29/Inf.
Another special value that you may meet is NaN, which stands for Not-a-
Number. It is the answer to calculations like 0/0.

1.1.2 Variables
Now we will assign values to variables to do arithmetic operations with the
variables. First enter the command (statement in programming jargon) a = 2.
The MATLAB command line should look like this:
>> a = 2 <Enter>
The a is a variable. This statement assigns the value of 2 to it. (Note that this
value is displayed immediately after the statement is executed.) Now try enter-
ing the statement a = a + 7 followed on a new line by a = a * 10. Do you
agree with the final value of a? Do we agree that it is 90?
Now enter the statement
>> b = 3; <Enter>
The semicolon (;) prevents the value of b from being displayed. However, b
still has the value 3, as you can see by entering without a semicolon:
>> b <Enter>
Assign any values you like to two variables x and y. Now see if you can assign
the sum of x and y to a third variable z in a single statement. One way of doing
this is
>> x = 2; y = 3; <Enter>
>> z = x + y <Enter>
8 CHAPTER 1: Introduction

Notice that, in addition to doing the arithmetic with variables with assigned
values, several commands separated by semicolons (or commas) can be put
on one line.

1.1.3 Mathematical functions

MATLAB has all of the usual mathematical functions found on a scientific-
electronic calculator, like sin, cos, and log (meaning the natural logarithm).
See Appendix B.5 for many more examples.
√
 Find π with the command sqrt(pi). The answer should be 1.7725. Note
that MATLAB knows the value of pi because it is one of its many built-in
functions.
 Trigonometric functions like sin(x) expect the argument x to be in radians.
Multiply degrees by π/180 to get radians. For example, use MATLAB to cal-
culate sin(90◦ ). The answer should be 1 (sin(90*pi/180)).
x
 The exponential function e is computed in MATLAB as exp(x). Use this

information to find e and 1/e (2.7183 and 0.3679).

Because of the numerous built-in functions like pi or sin, care must be taken
in the naming of user-defined variables. Names should not duplicate those
of built-in functions without good reason. This problem can be illustrated as
follows:
>> pi = 4 <Enter>
>> sqrt(pi) <Enter>
>> whos <Enter>
>> clear pi <Enter>
>> whos <Enter>
>> sqrt(pi) <Enter>
>> clear <Enter>
>> whos <Enter>
Note that clear executed by itself clears all local variables in the workspace;
>>clear pi clears the locally defined variable pi. In other words, if you de-
cide to redefine a built-in function or command, the new value is used! The
command whos is executed to determine the list of local variables or com-
mands presently in the workspace. The first execution of the command pi = 4
in the above example displays your redefinition of the built-in pi: a 1-by-1 (or
1x1) double array, which means this data type was created when pi was assigned
a number (you will learn more about other data types later, as we proceed in
our investigation of MATLAB).

1.1.4 Functions and commands

MATLAB has numerous general functions. Try date and calendar for starters.
It also has numerous commands, such as clc (for clear command window). help
is one you will use a lot (see below). The difference between functions and
 1.1 Using MATLAB 9

commands is that functions usually return with a value (e.g., the date), while
commands tend to change the environment in some way (e.g., clearing the
screen or saving some statements to the workspace).

1.1.5 Vectors
Variables such as a and b that were used in Section 1.1.2 above are called scalars;
they are single-valued. MATLAB also handles vectors (generally referred to as
arrays), which are the key to many of its powerful features. The easiest way
of defining a vector where the elements (components) increase by the same
amount is with a statement like
>> x = 0 : 10; <Enter>
That is a colon (:) between the 0 and the 10. There is no need to leave a space
on either side of it, except to make it more readable. Enter x to check that x
is a vector; it is a row vector—consisting of 1 row and 11 columns. Type the
following command to verify that this is the case:
>> size(x) <Enter>
Part of the real power of MATLAB is illustrated by the fact that other vectors
can now be defined (or created) in terms of the just defined vector x. Try
>> y = 2 .* x <Enter>
>> w = y ./ x <Enter>
and
>> y = sin(x) <Enter>
(no semicolons). Note that the first command line creates a vector y by multi-
plying each element of x by the factor 2. The second command line is an array
operation, creating a vector w by taking each element of y and dividing it by
the corresponding element of x. Since each element of y is two times the cor-
responding element of x, the vector w is a row vector of 11 elements all equal
to 2. Finally, z is a vector with sin(x) as its elements.
To draw a reasonably nice graph of sin(x), simply enter the following com-
mands:
>> x = 0 : 0.1 : 10; <Enter>
>> z = sin(x); <Enter>
>> plot(x,z), grid <Enter>
The graph appears in a separate figure window. To draw the graph of the sine
function illustrated in Figure 1.2 replace the last line above with
>> plot(x,y,’-rs’,’LineWidth’,2,’MarkerEdgeColor’,’k’,’MarkerSize’,5),grid
<Enter>
10 CHAPTER 1: Introduction

FIGURE 1.2 Figure window.

>> xlabel(’ x ’), ylabel(’ sin(x) ’) <Enter>

>> whitebg(’y’) <Enter>
You can select the Command Window or figure windows by clicking anywhere
inside them. The Windows pull-down menus can be used in any of them.
Note that the first command line above has three numbers after the equal sign.
When three numbers are separated by two colons in this way, the middle num-
ber is the increment. The increment of 0.1 was selected to give a reasonably
smooth graph. The command grid following the comma in the last command
line adds a grid to the graph.
Modifying the plot function as illustrated above, of the many options available
within this function, four were selected. A comma was added after the variable
y followed by ’-rs’. This selects a solid red line (-r) to connect the points at which
the sine is computed; they are surrounded by square (s) markers in the figure.
The line width is increased to 2 and the marker edge color is black (k) with
size 5. Axis labels and the background color were changed with the statements
following the plot command. (Additional changes in background color, object
colors etc. can be made with the figure properties editor; it can be found in the
pull-down menu under Edit in the figure toolbar. Many of the colors in the
figures in this book were modified with the figure-editing tools.)
If you want to see more cycles of the sine graph, use command-line editing to
change sin(x) to sin(2*x).
Try drawing the graph of tan(x) over the same domain. You may find aspects
of your graph surprising. To help examine this function you can improve the
graph by using the command axis([0 10 -10 10]) as follows:
 1.1 Using MATLAB 11

>> x = 1:0.1:10; <Enter>

>> z = tan(x); <Enter>
>> plot(x,z),axis([0 10 -10 10]) <Enter>
An alternative way to examine mathematical functions graphically is to use the
following command:
>> ezplot(’tan(x)’) <Enter>
The apostrophes around the function tan(x) are important in the ezplot
command. Note that the default domain of x in ezplot is not 0 to 10.
A useful Command Window editing feature is tab completion: Type the first
few letters of a MATLAB name and then press Tab. If the name is unique, it is
automatically completed. If it is not unique, press Tab a second time to see all
the possibilities. Try by typing ta at the command line followed by Tab twice.

1.1.6 Linear equations

Systems of linear equations are very important in engineering and scientific
analysis. A simple example is finding the solution to two simultaneous equa-
tions:

x + 2y = 4
2x − y = 3

Here are two approaches to the solution.

Matrix method. Type the following commands (exactly as they are):
>> a = [1 2; 2 -1]; <Enter >
>> b = [4; 3]; <Enter >
>> x = a\b <Enter >
The result is

x =
2
1

i.e., x = 2, y = 1.
Built-in solve function. Type the following commands (exactly as they are):
>> [x,y] = solve(’x+2*y=4’,’2*x - y=3’) <Enter >
>> whos <Enter >
>> x = double(x), y=double(y) <Enter >
>> whos <Enter >
12 CHAPTER 1: Introduction

FIGURE 1.3 The Help documentation on MATLAB Examples.

The function double converts x and y from symbolic objects (another data type
in MATLAB) to double arrays (i.e., the numerical-variable data type associated
with an assigned number).
To check your results, after executing either approach, type the following com-
mands (exactly as they are):
>> x + 2*y % should give ans = 4 <Enter >
>> 2*x - y % should give ans = 3 <Enter >
The % symbol is a flag that indicates all information to the right is not part of
the command but a comment. (We will examine the need for comments when
we learn to develop coded programs of command lines later on.)

1.1.7 Tutorials and demos

If you want a spectacular sample of what MATLAB has to offer, type the com-
mand demo on the command line. After entering this command the Help
documentation is opened at MATLAB Examples (see Figure 1.3). Left-click on
“Getting Started”. This points you to the list of tutorials and demonstrations of
MATLAB applications that are at your disposal. Click on any of the other top-
ics to learn more about the wealth of capabilities of MATLAB. You may wish to
review the tutorials appropriate to the topics you are examining as part of your
technical computing needs. Scroll down to the “New Features Video” to learn
more about the Desktop and other new features, some of which are introduced
next.
Another Random Scribd Document
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Appletons' Popular
Science Monthly, May 1899
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE

MONTHLY, MAY 1899 ***
 Established by Edward L. Youmans

APPLETONS'
POPULAR SCIENCE
MONTHLY

EDITED BY
WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS

VOL. LV
MAY TO OCTOBER, 1899

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1899

Copyright, 1899,
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
 WILLIAM PENGELLY.

APPLETONS' POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

FEBRUARY, 1899.
 ALASKA AND THE KLONDIKE.
A JOURNEY TO THE NEW ELDORADO.

By ANGELO HEILPRIN,
professor of geology at the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia, fellow of the royal
geographical society of london.

I.—IN BY THE WHITE PASS AND OUT BY THE CHILKOOT.

Hardly two years ago the names Dawson and Klondike were entirely unknown to
the outside world, and geographers were as ignorant of their existence as was at
that time the less learned laity. To-day it may be questioned if any two localities of
foreign and uncivilized lands are as well known, by name at least, as these that
mark the approach to the arctic realm in the northwest of the American continent.
One of those periodic movements in the history of peoples which mark epochs in
the progress of the world, and have their source in a sudden or unlooked-for
discovery, directed attention to this new quarter of the globe, and to it stream and
will continue to stream thousands of the world's inhabitants. Probably not less than
from thirty-five thousand to forty thousand people, possibly even considerably
more, have in the short period following the discovery of gold in the Klondike region
already passed to or beyond the portals of what has not inaptly been designated
the New Eldorado. To some of these a fortune has been born; to many more a hope
has been shattered in disappointment; and to still more the arbiter of fate, whether
for good or for bad, has for a while withheld the issue.
In its simplest geographical setting Dawson, this Mecca of the north, is a settlement
of the Northwest Territory of Canada, situated at a point thirteen hundred miles as
the crow flies northwest of Seattle. It is close to, if not quite on, the Arctic Circle,
and it lies the better part of three hundred miles nearer to the pole than does St.
Petersburg in Russia. By its side one of the mighty rivers of the globe hurries its
course to the ocean, but not too swiftly to permit of sixteen hundred miles of its
lower waters being navigated by craft of the size of nearly the largest of the
Mississippi steamers, and five hundred miles above by craft of about half this size.
In its own particular world, the longest day of the year drawls itself out to twenty-
two hours of sunlight, while the shortest contracts to the same length of sun
absence.
During the warmer days of summer the heat feels almost tropical; the winter cold
is, on the other hand, of almost the extreme Siberian rigor. Yet a beautiful
vegetation smiles not only over the valleys, but on the hilltops, the birds gambol in
the thickets, and the tiny mosquito, either here or near by, pipes out its daily
sustenance to the wrath of man. The hungry forest stretches out its gnarled and
ragged arms for still another hundred or even three hundred miles farther to the
north.
Up to within a few years the white man was a stranger in the land, and the Indian
roamed the woods and pastures as still do the moose and caribou. To-day this has
largely changed. The banks of the once silent river now give out the hum of the
sawmill, the click of the hammer, and the blast of the time-whistle, commanding
either to rest or to work. A busy front of humanity has settled where formerly the
grizzly bear lapped the stranded salmon from the shore, and where at a still earlier
period—although perhaps not easily associated with the history of man—the
mammoth, the musk ox, and the bison were masters of the land. The red man is
still there in lingering numbers, but his spirit is no longer that which dominates, and
his courage not that of the untutored savage.
The modern history of Dawson begins with about the middle of 1896, shortly after
the "public" discovery of gold in the Klondike tract. Three or four months previous
there was hardly a habitation, whether tent or of logs, to deface the landscape, and
the voice of animate Nature was hushed only in the sound of many waters. At the
close of the past year, as nearly as estimate can make it, there were probably not
less than from fourteen thousand to fifteen thousand men, women, and children,
settled on the strip of land that borders the Yukon, both as lowland and highland,
for about two miles of its course near the confluence of the Klondike. Many of these
have located for a permanence, others only to give way to successors more
fortunate than themselves. Some of the richest claims of the Bonanza, now a famed
gold creek of the world, are located hardly twelve miles distant, and the wealth of
the Eldorado is discharged within a radius of less than twenty miles. Over the
mountains that closely limit the head springs of Bonanza and Eldorado, Hunker,
Dominion, and Sulphur Creeks thread their own valleys of gold in deep hollows of
beautiful woodland—fascinating even to-day, but already badly scarred by the work
that man has so assiduously pressed in the region. This is the Klondike, a land full
of promise and of equal disappointment, brought to public notice in the early part
of 1897, when intelligence was received by the outside world regarding the first
important gold location on Bonanza Creek in August of the year previous.
 Looking down the Lynn Canal—Skaguay River, with Skaguay on the
Left.
On the 24th of July of the past year I found myself on the principal thoroughfare of
Skaguay, the ubiquitous Broadway, contemplating a journey to the new north. The
route of travel had been determined for me in part by the non-arrival at Seattle of
the expected steamers from the mouth of the Yukon River, and by that woeful lack
of knowledge regarding "conditions" which so frequently distinguishes steamship
companies. It was to be, therefore, the overland route, and from Skaguay it was
merely the alternative between the White Pass and the Chilkoot Pass or Dyea trails.
The two start from points barely four miles apart, cross their summits at very nearly
the same distance from one another, and virtually terminate at the same body of
inland water, Lake Lindeman, the navigable head of the great Yukon River. A more
than generous supply of summer heat gave little warning of that bleak and severe
interior with which the world had been made so well familiar during the last
twelvemonth, and from which we were barely six hundred miles distant; nor did the
character of the surroundings betray much of an approach to the Arctic Circle.
Mountains of aspiring elevations, six thousand to seven thousand feet, most
symmetrically separated off into pinnacles and knobs, and supporting here and
there enough of snow to form goodly glaciers, look down upon the narrow trough
which to-day is the valley of the Skaguay River. At the foot of this ancient fiord lies
the boom town of Skaguay. Charming forests, except where the hand of man has
leveled the work of Nature to suit the requirements of a constructing railway, yet
clothe the mountain slopes and fill in the gap that lies between them, shadowing
the dense herbage and moss which almost everywhere form an exquisite carpeting
to the underlying rock. The ear may catch the strains of a few mosquitoes, or the
mellow notes of the robin or thrush, but rising far above these in the majesty of
tone and accent is the swish of the tumbling cataracts which bring the landscape of
Norway to America. Man, it is claimed, is much the same the world over; but there
is a limitation. The second habitation of white man in Skaguay was established less
than a year before my visit; yet at that time, presumably to meet the demands of a
resident population of nearly five thousand, and of the wandering hordes pressing
to the interior, the destructive hand of the advertiser had already inscribed on the
walls of rock, in characters twenty feet or more in height, and sufficiently elevated
to make them nearly the most conspicuous elements of the landscape, the glories
of cigars, the value of mental and physical specifics, and of other abominations
which were contrived to fatten the Yankee pocket.

A Summer Day on the Skaguay.

Had it not been for the kindly advice of one who had just returned from the
Klondike, and who claimed to have crossed both passes fifty times, I should almost
unhesitatingly have taken the White Pass trail; but the representation that beyond
the summit the mud would be neck-deep and virtually impenetrable for a distance
of twenty miles or more, cast the decision in favor of the Chilkoot. The fortunate or
unfortunate circumstance that a billowy sea made a landing of passengers at Dyea
impossible on that day threw me back upon my first resource, and about two hours
before midday of the 30th I was mounted on a horse following out the Skaguay
trail. By seven o'clock in the evening of the following day I had reached Lake
Lindeman, and about a half hour later Lake Bennett, the starting point of the lines
of Upper Yukon steamers which had just recently been established. We had made
the forty miles of the dreaded White Pass trail without serious hindrance or delay,
up over the summit of 2,860 feet elevation, and down over a course which was
depicted in colors of hardship that would have done more truthful service in
describing a pass in the Himalayas. There was no mud, not a trace of snow or ice
except on the mountain declivities, and had it not been for a horse that was both
stiff and lame, and required my attention as pedestrian to an extent that had not
been bargained for, the journey would have been an exceptionally delightful one.

Coming down the White Pass—Winter.

It is true that an unfortunate fall at one time almost deprived me of my animal, but
the service of tackle soon put him to rights and to his feet, and but few blood
marks were left on the rocks to tell of the struggle. The most disagreeable incident
of the journey was a dense and shifting fog, which so blocked out the landscape of
early evening as to necessitate "feeling" the brokenness of a glaciated country in
order to ascertain wherein lay the trail. But beyond this there was a perpetual
delight in the landscape—in the narrow rocky defile, the bursting torrent, the open
meadows, with their carpet of green and variegated with fireweed, gentian, rose,
and forget-me-not, which more than compensated for the little vexations that allied
themselves with the journey.
It is not often that the selection of a route of travel is determined by the odorous or
malodorous qualities which appertain thereto. Such a case was, however, presented
here. It was not the depth of mud alone which was to deter one from essaying the
White Pass route; sturdy pioneers who had toiled long and hard in opening up one
or more new regions, laid emphasis upon the stench of decaying horse-flesh as a
factor of first consideration in the choice of route. So far as stench and decaying
horse-flesh were concerned, they were in strong evidence. The Desert of Sahara,
with its lines of skeletons, can boast of no such exhibition of carcasses. Long before
Bennett was reached I had taken count of more than a thousand unfortunates
whose bodies now made part of the trail; frequently we were obliged to pass
directly over these ghastly figures of hide, and sometimes, indeed, broke into them.
Men whose veracity need not be questioned assured me that what I saw was in no
way the full picture of the "life" of the trail; the carcasses of that time were less
than one third of the full number which in April and May gave grim character to the
route to the new Eldorado. Equally spread out, this number would mean one dead
animal for every sixty feet of distance! The poor beasts succumbed not so much to
the hardships of the trail as to the inhuman treatment, or lack of care and
assistance, which they received on the part of their owners. Once out of the line of
the mad rush, perhaps unable to extricate themselves from the holding meshes of
soft snow and of quagmires, they were allowed to remain where they were, a food
offering to the army of carrion eaters which were hovering about, only too certain
of the meal which was being prepared for them. Oftentimes pack saddles, and
sometimes even the packs, were allowed to remain with the struggling or sunken
animal—such was the mad race which the greed of gold inspired.
On October 9th I was again at Bennett, this time returning from my journey into
the interior, and full of experience of what steam navigation on the upper six
hundred miles of Yukon waters might mean. There was now a change in the
sentiment regarding the quality of the two passes. The Pacific and Arctic Railway,
the pioneer of Alaska steam railways, was operating twelve miles of track, and had
thus materially reduced the "hardships" of the Skaguay trail; the Chilkoot, on the
other hand, was represented to be in the worst of mood, and prepared to put the
passing traveler into the same condition. It was more than late in the season, but
the winter's blasts had been stayed off by a full month, and there were still no signs
of their coming. A little ice had begun to form along the river's margin and over
sheltered pools, and an occasional cool night made demands for moderately warm
clothing proper; but, on the whole, the temperature was mild and balmy, and to its
influence responded a vegetation which in its full glory might easily have called to
mind the region of the Juniata.
Although strongly warned against taking the Chilkoot Pass so late in the season,
many of the outgoers, whose recollections of events in the early part of the year
were still vividly fresh, and who could not be persuaded that the period of a few
months had so effaced the conditions of the past as to permit a steam railway to
enter for twelve miles into the region, chose it in preference to the White Pass. My
own mind had been cast in the same direction; not, however, from a point of
judicious preference, but merely because I was anxious to see for myself that which
had become historic in the movement of 1898, and of instituting a direct
comparison of the physical features and general characteristics of the two routes.
With no serious hindrance, the journey from Bennett out was that of a full day only,
and there was no particular reason to suspect that there would be delay. Snow had
fallen on the summit and whitened all the higher points, but seemingly it hung in
only a measurably thin crust, and with not enough to necessitate breaking a trail.
 A crude steam ferry across Lake
Lindeman cuts off about six miles
from the first part of the trail, after
which a rapidly rising path,
sufficiently distinct to permit it to be
easily followed, winds over the rocks
and among rock débris to Long
Lake, situated at an elevation of
some twenty-six hundred feet,
where night shelter is found in a
fairly comfortable tent. Up to this
point we had encountered but little
snow, and the condition of the trail
was such as to allow of rapid travel.
A wise caution detained us here for
the night, and the incoming of a
solitary traveler warned us that a
blizzard had struck the summit of
the pass, and buried it beneath a
heavy mantle of snow. Had we been
a day earlier we might have crossed
dry shod, a very exceptional
condition at this time of the year,
but now the possibilities of a
struggle gravely presented
Cutting Grade for the Pacific and Arctic themselves. A light frost of the night
Railway—Tunnel Mountain, White Pass had fairly congealed the soil, but the
Route. lake did not carry enough surface
ice to interfere with the progress of
a scow, and we reached the farther end without difficulty. The two-mile portage to
Crater Lake was largely a snow traverse, but an easy one; at this time, however, it
began to snow heavily, and the immediate prospect was anything but cheerful. A
low fog hung over the waters, but not so low or so dense as to prevent us from
occasionally catching glimpses of the rocks which projected with disagreeable
frequency from an assumed bottomless pit or "crater." The ascent from Crater Lake
to the summit, somewhat less than three hundred and fifty feet, was made in about
half an hour, and then began the steep and sudden plunge which marks the
southern declivity of this famous mountain pass. Some little caution was here
required to keep a foothold, and a too sudden break might have led to an
exhilarating, even if not anxiously sought after, glissade; but in truth, to any one
only moderately practiced in mountaineering, even this steep face, which descends
for a thousand feet or more from a summit elevation of thirty-four hundred feet,
presents little difficulty and hardly more danger. What there is of a trail zigzags in
wild and rapid courses over an almost illimitable mass of rock débris, at times
within sheltered or confined hollows, but more generally on the open face of the
declivity. This it is more particularly that carries to many a certain amount of fear in
the making of the passage, but, with proper caution and the right kind of boots,
nothing of danger need be apprehended.
Unfortunately for the enjoyment of the scenery of the pass, I could see but a
modest part of it. Although snow was no longer falling, and the atmosphere had
settled down to a condition of almost passive inactivity—much to the surprise, if not
disappointment, of a few who had prophesied a stiff and biting wind the moment
we passed the divide—heavy cloud banks hovered about the summits, and only at
intervals did they afford glimpses of the majestic mountain peaks by which we were
surrounded. Enough, however, could be seen to justify for the pass the claims of
most imposing scenery, and its superiority in this respect over the White Pass. The
temperature at the time of our crossing was a few degrees below freezing, perhaps
25° or 27° F., but our rapid walk brought on profuse perspiration, and it would have
been a pleasure, if a sense of proper caution had permitted, to divest ourselves of
mackinaws and travel in summer fashion. We made Sheep Camp, with its
surroundings of beautiful woodland, shortly after noon, and Cañon City, which, as
the terminus of a good coach road to Dyea, virtually marks the end or beginning of
the Chilkoot trail, at two o'clock.
To a mountaineer or traveler of ordinary resource neither the White Pass nor the
Chilkoot Pass will appear other than it actually is—i. e., a mountain pass, sufficiently
rough and precipitous in places, and presenting no serious obstacle to the passage
of man, woman, or child. True, I did not see them at their worst, but they were
both represented to be frightfully bad even at the time of my crossing. The
seasonal effects, doubtless, do much to modify the character of the trails, and even
local conditions must mold them to a very considerable extent. It is not difficult to
conceive of miry spots along the White Pass trail, or of snow-swept areas on the
Chilkoot, and there certainly must be times when both trails are in a measure or
way impassable. All trails are, however, subject to modifications in character, and
even the best is at times sufficiently bad. Trains of pack animals cross the White
Pass both winter and summer, and, even with the great loss to their "forefathers,"
their testimony of steady work is a recommendation of the class of service in which
they are engaged. A limited number of cattle and horses have also found their way
over the summit of the Chilkoot Pass—some crossing immediately after us—but the
trail is too steep on the ocean side to fit it for animal service, although I strongly
suspect that were the location in Mexico instead of in Alaska, there would be a
goodly number of caballeros and arrieros to smile at the proposition of presented
difficulties. Indian women seem to consider it no hardship to pack a fifty-pound
sack of flour and more over the summit, and there are many men who do not
hesitate to take double this load, and make several journeys during the same day.
It is the load that kills, and it was, doubtless, this influence, united to a cruel
method, which so strongly impressed the pioneers with the notion of extreme
hardship. The most level and perfect road, to one carrying for miles a pack of from
sixty to eighty pounds, soon begins to loom up a steep incline.

The Final Ascent to Chilkoot Summit—Winter.

Both the northern and southern slopes of the Chilkoot Pass are largely surfaced
with shattered rocks, over which, with occasional deflections across more pleasant
snow banks, a fairly well-defined trail mounts on either side to the summit. In its
grim landscape effects, more particularly on the inner face, where a number of
rock-bound tarns—Crater Lake, Long Lake, Deep Lake—afford a certain relief to the
degree of desolation which the scene carries, it reminded me much of the famous
Grimsel Pass, and here as well as there the modeling of the surface through glacial
action was strongly in evidence. The vastly towering Alpine peaks were, however,
wanting, and the glaciers that still appeared showed that they had long since
passed their better days. The actual summit is trenched by a narrow rocky gap,
roughly worn through walls of granite, and by it have passed the thousands who
have pressed to the interior. There is no timber growth at or near this summit, nor
is there soil sufficient to give support to an arboreal vegetation. Nearest to the top
line a prostrate form of scrubby hemlock (Tsuga Pattoniana) alone makes pretense
to being a tree, but below it of itself grows to majestic proportions, and about
"Sheep Camp," with Menzie's spruce, a birch, and cottonwood (Populus
balsamifera), forms part of the beautiful woodland, which with ever-increasing
freshness descends to the lower levels.
Lest I be accused of too freely seeing the beauties of the northern landscape, I
venture in my defense the following graphic description of the Dyea Valley from the
pen of another traveler and geologist, Prof. Israel Russell: "In the valley of the Taiya
the timber line is sharply drawn along the bordering cliffs at an elevation of about
twenty-five hundred feet. Above that height the mountain sides are stern and
rugged; below is a dense forest of gigantic hemlocks, festooned with long
streamers of moss, which grows even more luxuriantly than on the oaks of Florida.
The ground beneath the trees and the fallen monarchs of the forest are densely
covered with a soft, feathery carpet of mosses, lichens, and ferns of all possible
tints of brown and green. The day I traversed this enchanted valley was bright and
sunny in the upper regions, but the valley was filled with drifting vapors. At one
minute nothing would be visible but the somber forest through which the white mist
was hurrying; and the next the veil would be swept aside, revealing with startling
distinctness the towering mountain spires, snowy pinnacles, and turquoise cliffs of
ice towering heavenward. These views through the cloud rifts seemed glimpses of
another world. Below was a sea of surging branches that filled all the valley bottom
and dashed high on the bordering cliffs. Much space could be occupied with
descriptions of the magnificent scenery about Lynn Canal, and of the wonderful
atmospheric effects to be seen there, but the poetry of travel is foreign to these
pages, and must be left for more facile pens."

The Chilkoot Trail—Power House of the Aërial Tramway.

In its present condition the Chilkoot trail has the advantage over the Skaguay in its
shorter length, the distance from Dyea to the head of Lake Lindeman, the virtual
head of river navigation, being about twenty-four miles; from Skaguay to Bennett,
along the usual White Pass trail, the distance is fully ten or twelve miles longer,
although a cut-off by way of the summit lakes reduces the traverse considerably. At
intervals along both routes fairly good accommodation can now be had. One
condition of the Chilkoot Pass, and that a not altogether light one, places it during
certain months at a disadvantage as compared with the White Pass. I refer to the
dangers from avalanches. These are of the true Alpine type, having their source in
the heavy beds of snow which cling with bare support to the steeply pitching
mountain walls, in places along some of the narrowest parts of the pass. The
appalling catastrophe of April, 1898, which caused the loss of sixty-three lives, and
followed closely upon an earlier event of like nature, had its seat in the steep, rocky
ledges of the east wall between Sheep Camp and the Scales. It is claimed that the
Indians along the trail clearly foresaw the impending event, and announced it in
unmistakable language, but their warnings were allowed to go unheeded. They
themselves did not make the traverse on that day. The minor disaster of the
following December (9th), when but six lives were sacrificed, took place on the
steep declivity which faces Crater Lake, not far from the service house of the
Chilkoot Pass Aërial Tramway Company. Here the mountain face is very precipitous
and gives but insecure lodgment to the snow. The Indians carefully watch all
natural signals and urge a rapid journey. However useful these trails may have been
in the past, how well or how indifferently they may have met the wants of the
pioneers of 1897 and 1898, they are destined before long to be thrown into that
same obscurity which they held when the Indians and a few adventurous trappers
and traders alone made use of them as avenues of communication between the
inner and outer worlds. The advance of the iron horse is now an assured fact, and
the Pacific and Arctic Railway, whose construction is engineered by some of the
most experienced mechanical talent of Great Britain and America, will minister
before many months not alone to the professional interlopers in the new land, but
to hosts of tourists as well. The road, which in reaching White Pass summit will
have a maximum gradient of a little more than five per cent, is of narrow-gauge
construction, solidly supported on dressed ties brought from the forests of Oregon.
No terminal appears to have been as yet definitely determined upon, although the
charter act recites Fort Selkirk on the Yukon, about one hundred and sixty miles
above Dawson, as such. Operating as it now does sixteen miles or more of road, it
is already an extensive freight carrier; but until its completion to Bennett or to some
point close to a navigable part of the Yukon River, the Chilkoot Pass tramway, a
remarkable construction which crosses over the summit and deposits at Crater
Lake, must continue to handle a large part of the business intended for the interior.
 Summit of the Chilkoot Pass, with Impedimenta of Prospectors,
April, 1898.
It is safe to say that the stirring scenes which were enacted on the passes during
the winter of 1897-'98, when the impedimenta of travel and occupation were
packed together in the manner of an army camp, will not be repeated again. The
past history was a short one, and it gives way to one of greater promise.

Note.—For most of the photographic illustrations the author is indebted to the

work of Curtis, Barley, and E. A. Hegg; especially to the last-named gentleman,
of Skaguay and Dawson, is he under obligations for permission to use several
of the copyrighted views.
 THE ORIGIN OF EUROPEAN CULTURE.[1]
By WILLIAM Z. RIPLEY, Ph. D.,
assistant professor of sociology, massachusetts institute of technology, boston, lecturer in
anthropology at columbia university, new york.

Prehistoric archæology is possessed of a distinct advantage over linguistics in the

investigation of racial problems; for human remains are often discovered in
connection with the implements, utensils, or trinkets by which the civilization of an
extinct people is archæologically determined. To attempt even an outline of the
cultural history of Europe would be obviously impossible in this place. It would fill a
complete volume by itself alone. Furthermore, the short span of forty years since
the inception of archæological science has not sufficed to produce complete
unanimity of opinion among the leading authorities. Many important questions,
especially concerning eastern Europe, are still awaiting settlement. All that we can
hope to do is to describe what may be termed a few fixed points in European
cultural history. This, as in our discussion of physical origins,[2] we shall attempt to
do by means of definite propositions, concerning which there is now substantial
agreement.
I. In western and southern Europe an entirely indigenous culture gradually evolved
during the later stone age. This was characterized by great technical advance in
fashioning implements, carvings, and designs in stone, bone, ivory, and copper; by
the construction of dolmens and habitations of stone; by pottery-making; and
possibly even by a primitive system of writing.
A marked reaction has taken place during the last ten years among archæologists
respecting the course of cultural development in France. It was long believed that
after the first crude attempts of the palæolithic epoch an extended hiatus ensued,
followed by the sudden appearance of a more highly developed civilization, brought
by an immigrant broad-headed race from the East. Two waves of invasion were
described: the first bringing polished stone, a later one introducing bronze, cereals,
agriculture, and the domestication of animals. Not even credit for the construction
of the great stone dolmen tombs was granted to the natives in Gaul, for these were
all ascribed to an invasion from the North. The undoubted submergence of the
primitive long-headed population of France by a brachycephalic type from the East,
to which we have already adverted, was held accountable for a radical advance in
civilization. Even the existence of a bronze age was denied to this country, it being
maintained that the introduction of bronze was retarded until both metals came in
together from the Orient in the hands of the cultural deliverers of the land. The
absence of a distinct bronze age was speedily disproved; but the view that France
and western Europe were saved from barbarism only by a new race from the East
still held sway. It is represented by the classical school of G. de Mortillet, Bertrand,
Topinard, and a host of minor disciples. The new school, holding that a steady and
uninterrupted development of culture in situ was taking place, is represented
notably by Reinach[3] in France and by Sergi[4] in Italy. Their proof of this seems to
be unanswerable. Granting that it is easier to borrow culture than to evolve it, a
proposition underlying the older view, it seems nevertheless that the West has too
long been denied its rightful share in the history of European civilization.

Neolithic Ivory Carving. Mas d'Azil.

(By special permission. Further reproduction prohibited.)
A notable advance in the line of culture entirely indigenous to southwestern Europe
has been lately revealed through the interesting discoveries by Piette at the station
of Brassempuoy and in the grotto of Mas d'Azil. Carvings in ivory, designs upon
bone, evidence of a numerical system, of settled habitations, and, most important
of all, of a domestication of the reindeer, of the horse, and the ox in the pure stone
age have been found; and that, too, in the uttermost southwestern corner of
Europe. In the lake dwellings of Switzerland, as also in Scandinavia, a knowledge of
agriculture, pottery, and the domestication of animals is evinced, likewise as a
native discovery. From other quarters of the continent in the stone age comes
similar testimony to a marked advance of man culturally. The justly celebrated
carving of a reindeer from Thayngen, almost worthy of a modern craftsman,
betrays no mean artistic ability. The man who drew it was far from being a savage,
even if he knew no metals, and buried his dead instead of cremating them. The
evidence as to early domestication of animals is perhaps the most startling. Carved
horses' heads, with halters and rude bridles, have been surely identified by Piette
and others.
 Bone Carving. Thayngen. (After Bertrand, 1891.)
A system of writing seems also to have been invented in western Europe as far
back as the stone age.[5] Letourneau and Bordier have advanced good evidence to
this effect, although it is not yet incontestably proved. The Phœnicians were
perhaps antedated in their noted invention by the dolmen builders, by the lake
dwellers of the earliest times, and, according to Sergi, also by the people of the
Villanova pre-Etruscan culture in Italy. In an earlier time still in the Po Valley, as far
back as the stone-age Terramare period, pottery was made, and that, too, of a very
decent sort. And all this time there is not the slightest evidence of contact with or
knowledge of the East. As Reinach says, in no dolmen, no lake station, no
excavation of the stone age is there any trace of an Assyrian or Babylonian cylinder,
or even an Egyptian amulet. Even the jade and nephrite found in western Europe
from Switzerland to Norway, which has so long been regarded as evidence of early
commerce with the East, he denies as proof of such contact. The case thus put may
perhaps be over-strenuously stated, yet one can not but realize from it that western
Europe has too long been libeled in respect of its native aptitude for civilization.
This is not constituted of bronze alone, nor is its trade-mark cremation. Thus, while
an intensive outbreak of culture of a high order may not have arisen west of the
Alps, it can no longer be denied that the general standard of intelligence was surely
rising of its own native volition.
II. Throughout the eastern Alpine highlands, a culture far more highly evolved than
the neolithic one in the West, and betraying certain Oriental affinities, appears at a
very early time, a thousand years or more before the Christian era. This prehistoric
civilization represents a transitional stage between bronze and iron.
In a secluded valley in upper Austria, close to the border line of Salzburg, by the
little Alpine hamlet of Hallstatt, a remarkable necropolis was discovered more than a
half century ago, which marked an epoch in archæological research. Excavations at
this place alone, far from any present considerable seat of population, have already
revealed more than three thousand graves. The primitive culture here unearthed,
represented by all kinds of weapons, implements, and ornaments, bore no
resemblance to any of the then known classical ones of the Mediterranean basin.
Its graves contained no Roman coins or relics. There was nothing Greek about it. It
contained no trace either of writing or chronology. It was obviously prehistoric;
there was no suggestion of a likeness to the early civilizations in Scandinavia. It was
even more primitive than the Etruscan, and entirely different from it, especially in
its lack of the beautiful pottery known to these predecessors of the Romans. Little
wonder that von Sacken, who first adequately described it in 1868, and Hochstetter,
who worthily carried on his researches, believed that Hallstatt represented an
entirely indigenous and extinct Alpine civilization. On the other hand, so exceedingly
rich and varied were the finds in this out-of-the-way corner of Europe, that another
and quite different view seemed justifiable. Might this not be an entirely exotic
culture? products gained by trade from all parts of the world, being here deposited
with their dead by a people who controlled the great and very ancient salt mines
hereabouts? Neither of these interpretations of this find at Hallstatt have been
exactly verified by later researches, and yet its importance has not lessened in the
least. By later discoveries all over eastern Europe south of the Danube, from the
Tyrol over to the Balkan peninsula, as well as throughout northern Italy,
Würtemberg, and even over into northeastern France, the wide extension of this
civilization[6] proves that it must in a large measure have developed upon the spot,
and not come as an importation from abroad. On the other hand, its affinity in
many details with the cultures both of Italy and Greece proved that it had made
heavy drafts upon each of these, profiting greatly thereby. The best opinion to-day
is, that it constitutes a link in the chain of culture between eastern and western
Europe. As such it is of primary importance in any study of European origins.
The primitive stage of European civilization, to which the term Hallstatt is
specifically applied by archæologists, is characterized by a knowledge both of
bronze and iron, although the latter is relatively insignificant. Its rarity indicates that
we have to do with the very beginnings of its use. In this early combination of
bronze and iron the Hallstatt culture is in strong contrast with the rest of Europe.
Almost everywhere else, as in Hungary for example, a pure bronze age—sometimes
one even of copper also—intervenes between the use of stone and iron. Here,
however, the two metals, bronze and iron, appear simultaneously. There is no
evidence of a use of bronze alone.
Bearing in mind, what we shall
subsequently emphasize in the case
of Scandinavia, that in that remote
part of Europe man had to put up
with the inferior metal for close
upon a thousand years before the
acquisition of a better substitute, it
will be seen that at Hallstatt a
remarkable foreshortening of
cultural evolution had ensued. Iron,
as we have said, was still
comparatively rare. Only in the case
of small objects, less often in the
blades of bronze-handled swords,
does this more precious metal
appear. But it is far more common
than in the earliest Greek
civilizations made known to us by
Schliemann and others.
Pages of description would not give
so clear an idea of this early
civilization as the pictures of their
lives, which the Hallstatt people
have fortunately left to us. These
are found in repoussé upon their
bronzes, and particularly upon their
little situlæ, or metallic pails. These
situlæ are, in fact, the most Bronze Situla.
distinctive feature among all the Watsch, Austrian Tyrol.
objects which they have left to us. [Larger Image]
By means of them their civilization
has been most accurately traced and identified geographically. On the opposite
page we have reproduced the design upon the most celebrated of these situlæ,
discovered by Deschmann in 1882, at Watsch in the Tyrol. Another from Bologna,
typical of the pre-Etruscan Italian time, will be found upon a later page. Upon each
of these, the skill manifested in the representation of men and animals is no less
remarkable than the civilization which it depicts. The upper zone of this situla from
Watsch apparently shows a festal procession, possibly a wedding, for a lady rides in
the second chariot. The grooms and outriders betoken a party of distinction. As for
the second zone, doubt as to its exact interpretation prevails. Hochstetter declares
it to be a banquet, food and entertainment being offered to the personages seated
upon chairs at the left. Bertrand is disposed to give it more of a religious
interpretation. As for the contest between gladiators armed with the cestus, all is
plain. The spectators, judges, even the ram and the helmet for reward of the victor,
are all shown in detail. It is not necessary for us to cite more evidence. A civilization
already far from primitive is surely depicted. As for its date, all are agreed that it is
at least as early as ten centuries before Christ;[7] not far, that is to say, from the
supposed Homeric epoch in Greece.
The Hallstatt civilizations betray unmistakable affinities with three other prehistoric
European cultures, widely separated from one another. It contains many early
Greek elements; it is very similar to a notable prehistoric culture in the Caucasus
Mountains; and it resembles most nearly of all perhaps the pre-Etruscan civilization
in Italy. With the third of these—the Italian—it seems to have been most nearly
upon terms of equality, each borrowing from the other, after a fashion of which we
shall have occasion to speak shortly. On the other hand, the relation of the Hallstatt
culture to that of Greece and Caucasia seems to be somewhat more filial rather
than fraternal. In describing the area of this civilization, we have seen how firmly it
is intrenched all through the southern part of Austria-Hungary and well over into
the north of the Balkan peninsula. A comparison of Furtwaengler's magnificent
collection of objects from Olympia with those of Hallstatt instantly reveals their
similarities. To make this clear, we have reproduced one of the Olympian
breastplates, ornamented with figures, which at once suggest those upon the situla
from Watsch above described. This design is doubly interesting. It shows us a
slightly higher stage of the art of figural representation, as well as of conventional
design. Not only the men and horses, but the borders, are far better drawn. More
than this, we begin to detect a distinctly Oriental motive in other details. The bulls
and the lions—lions are not indigenous to Europe nowadays—at once remind us of
their Babylonian and Assyrian prototypes. We have entered the sphere of Asiatic
artistic influence, albeit very indistinctly. This design here represented, it should be
said, is rather above the average of the Olympian finds of the earlier epoch. Many
of the other objects, especially the little votive figures of beasts and men, are much
more crude, although always characteristic and rudely artistic in many ways.
Through this Olympian stage of culture we pass transitionally on to the Mycenæan,
which brings us into the full bloom of the classic Greek.
 Bronze Breastplate from Olympia.
(After Furtwaengler's Olympia, 1892.)
[Larger Image]
The Oriental affinities of the Hallstatt culture have been especially emphasized by
recent archæological discoveries at Koban, in the Caucasus Mountains. A stage of
culture transitional between bronze and iron, almost exactly equivalent to that of
the eastern Alps, is revealed. Similarities in little objects, like fibulæ, might easily be
accounted for as having passed in trade, but the relationship is too intimate to be
thus explained. Hungary forms the connecting link between the two. In many
respects its bronze age is different from that of Hallstatt, notably in that the latter
seems to have acquired the knowledge of iron and of bronze at about the same
time. In Hungary the pure bronze age lasted a long time, and attained a full
maturity. A characteristic piece is represented herewith. In respect of the
representation of figures of animals such as these, Hallstatt, Hungary, and Koban
are quite alike.
 Hungarian Bronze Vessel. (After Hampel, 1876.)
Have we proved that bronze culture came from Asia by reason of these recent finds
in the Caucasus? Great stress has been laid upon them in the discussion of
European origins. Are we justified in agreeing with Chantre that two currents of
culture have swept from Asia into Europe—one by the Caucasus north of the Black
Sea and up the Danube; the other across Asia Minor and into the Balkan peninsula,
thence joining the first in the main center of Hallstatt civilization, east of the Alps?
The point seems by no means established. Relationship does not prove parentage.
Far more likely does it appear that the Koban culture is a relic or an offshoot rather
than a cradle of bronze civilization. And even Chantre, ardent advocate as he is of
Oriental derivations, seems to feel the force of this in his later writings, for he
confesses that Koban is rather from Mediterranean European sources than that
Europe is from Koban. Most probable of all is it, that both Hallstatt and Koban are
alike derived from a common root in the neighborhood of Chaldea.
III. The Hallstatt (or Celtic?) civilization of bronze and iron roughly overlies the
present area occupied by the broad-headed Alpine race; yet this type is not always
identified with the Oriental culture. It seems to have appeared in Europe in a far
lower stage of civilization, and to have subsequently made progress culturally upon
the spot.
To trace any definite connection between race and civilization in Europe is rendered
extremely hazardous scientifically by reason of the appearance along with bronze of
the custom of burning instead of burying the dead, their ashes being disposed in
cinerary urns, jars, or other receptacles. By this procedure all possible clew to the
physical type of the people is, of course, annihilated at once. It has become almost
an axiom among archæologists that bronze culture and incineration are constant
companions. Wherever one appears, the other may confidently be looked for.
Together they have long been supposed to be the special and peculiar attributes of
a new broad-headed immigrant race from the East. To prove this conclusively is, of
course, absolutely impossible for the above-mentioned reason. Of the two, it seems
as if incineration would be a more reliable test of race than a knowledge of bronze;
for burial customs, involving as they do the most sacred instincts and traditions of a
people, would be most persistently maintained, even throughout long-continued
migrations. The use of bronze, on the other hand, being a matter of obvious utility,
and capable of widespread dissemination commercially, is seemingly of far less
ethnic significance.
To indicate the uncertainty of proof in these matters, let us suppose that the
Hallstatt civilization, for example, is the result of an immigration of a brachycephalic
Oriental civilized race overlying a primitive native long-headed one. That seems best
to conform to the data, which northern Italy at least affords. Suppose the new
people—call them Celts with the best authorities, if you please—brought not only
bronze and iron, but the custom of incineration. Prior to their appearance
inhumation was the rule. What would be the result if one attempted to determine
the physical character of that people from a study of the remains in their necropoli?
All the crania to be found in the graves with the precious objects of bronze would in
no wise represent the people who brought that bronze. They burned their bridges
behind them at death, and disappeared for good and all. And the remains left to
the archæologist would represent precisely that class in the population which had
nothing to do with the main characteristics of its civilization. And then, again, we
must bear in mind that the interments in these necropoli as a whole, both with
burned or buried dead, constitute a selected type. Neither Hallstatt, Watsch, nor
any of the burial places of their type were open to the great mass of the common
people. They were sacred spots, far removed among the mountains from any
centers of population. Only the rich or powerful presumably had access to them.
They are no more typical of the Hallstatt people, therefore, than interments in
Westminster Abbey are representative of the English masses. All our data are
necessarily drawn from a class within a class. Inductions from them must be very
gingerly handled.
The situation above described seems to prevail almost everywhere in the Hallstatt
cultural area. Two distinct burial customs denote possibly two separate peoples, the
inhumers being certainly the older. In the Hallstatt necropolis, for example, about
one third of the graves once contained human remains, all the others containing
mere ashes. So ancient are these graves that only eight crania from the hundreds
of interments of the first class are available for study. These are of a pronounced
long-headed type.[8] The modern populations of this part of Europe are, as we have
seen, among the broadest-headed people in the world, as are also all the modern
Illyrians. Yet from the great necropolis at Glasinac in Bosnia, with its twenty
thousand tumuli, the meager Hallstatt returns are amply corroborated.[9] The
ancient inhabitants were as long-headed as they are pronouncedly of the opposite
type to-day. Up in Bohemia and Moravia also, according to Niederle, the first
bronze-age people, such as we know them, were still dolichocephalic quite like their
predecessors in the pure stone age. And here also is incineration just about
frequent enough to make it uncertain whether the human remains are typical or
not.
Under these circumstances, three suppositions are open to us. We may hold that
these long-headed crania of the Hallstatt people are worthless for any
anthropological purposes whatever. This one would certainly be tempted to do were
the testimony, such as it is, not so unanimous. Or, secondly, we may assume that
these long-headed Hallstatt people belonged to a period subsequent to the
appearance of the brachycephalic type in western Europe. If we do so, we place
them in the same class with the Teutonic race which so certainly appears to overlie
this one in the later iron age in Switzerland and throughout southern Germany; for
the Helvetians and the Reihengräber conquerors from the north surely imposed a
novel culture, albeit a militant one, upon the long-settled Alpine people, racially
speaking. The Hallstatt civilization is immeasurably too early to permit of this
hypothesis. At this time the long-headed Teutonic peoples about Scandinavia were
certainly vastly inferior in culture, as we shall attempt to prove shortly. Thus we are
forced to the third conclusion if we admit the competency of our cranial evidence—
namely, that the Hallstatt people in this early bloom of civilization in Europe were
allied to the Mediterranean type of the south. No other source for such a
dolichocephalic population is possible. Our stock of types of this kind is exhausted.
It does not require a great credulity to admit of this hypothesis, that the Hallstatt
people were of Mediterranean type. Were not the Greeks, the Phœnicians, and the
Egyptians all members of this same race? One single difficulty presents itself. Over
in Italy, throughout the valley of the Po, an entirely analogous civilization to that of
the eastern Alps occurs. Hallstatt and Villanova, Watsch and Bologna, are almost
identical culturally. And yet over here in Italy the new culture of bronze and of
incineration seems to be borne by a broad-headed people of the same type as the
modern one. Thus, for example, at Novilara so long as the bodies were all inhumed,
the people were of the long-headed Mediterranean type once indigenous to the
whole of Italy, now surviving, as we have seen, only in the southern half. On the
other hand, when incineration begins to appear in this place, the human remains
still left to us are of a mixed and far more broad-headed type. It would seem
admissible to assume that when the modern brachycephalic Alpine race submerged
the native one it brought new elements of civilization with it. Many Italian
authorities, at all events, agree in ascribing the new culture—call it Umbrian with
Sergi, or proto-Etruscan with Helbig—to a new race of Veneto-Illyrian or Alpine
physical proclivities. What they have not definitely proved, however, is that any
necessary connection between race and culture exists. There is much to show that
the broad-headed race came in some time before the introduction of the new arts.
Even in the later Terramare period, preceding the Italian Hallstatt culture, when
stone and copper only are in evidence, a change of physical type in the people
apparently begins, just as also in France in the neolithic period.
The most indubitable testimony that the Alpine race did not appear in western
Europe, armed cap-à-pie with bronze and other attributes of culture, is afforded by
the lake dwellings of Switzerland. Here in the pile-built villages of the Swiss lakes
we can trace an uninterrupted development of civilization from the pure stone age
through bronze and into iron. Beginning at a stage of civilization about equal to that
of the ancient Aryan-speaking peoples, judged by the root words known to us; not
only knowledge of the metals, but of agriculture, of the domestication of animals,
and of the finer arts of domestic life, have little by little been acquired. Equally
certain is it that no change of physical type has occurred among these primitive
Swiss, at least until the irruptions of the Teutonic Helvetians and others at the
opening of the historic period. From the very earliest times in the stone age a
broad-headedness no less pronounced than that of the modern Swiss prevailed
among these people.[10] Here would seem to be pretty conclusive proof that the
Alpine race entered Europe long before the culture with which its name has been all
too intimately associated.
In the outlying parts of Europe, perhaps even in Gaul, it is extremely doubtful
whether any closer connection between race and culture exists than in the Alps. It
has long been maintained that the brachycephalic people of the Round Barrows
introduced bronze into Britain. Surely, as we have already shown, things point to
that conclusion.[11] Beddoe, Dawkins, and other authorities maintain it at all
events. Yet Canon Taylor makes it pretty evident that the new race arrived in
Britain, as it certainly did in Gaul, considerably in advance of any knowledge of the
metals. As for Scandinavia, much the same relation holds true. Both race and
culture, as we shall see, came from the south, but it is by no means clear that they
arrived at the same time or that one brought the other. In Spain, Siret has asserted
that bronze came in the hands of a new immigrant broad-headed race, but the
authoritative opinion of Cartailhac discovers no direct evidence to this effect.
The final conclusions which would seem to follow from our tedious summary is this:
That the nearly contemporaneous appearance of a brachycephalic race and the first
knowledge of metals indicative of Oriental cultural influences in western Europe, is
more or less a coincidence. The first civilized peoples of the Hallstatt period seem to
have been closely allied, both in physical type and culture, with the Greeks and
other peoples of the classic East. Among them, perhaps over them, swept the
representatives of our broad-headed Alpine type who came from the direction of
Asia. These invaders may have been the Scythians, although the matter is incapable
of proof. Pressure from this direction set both culture and population in motion
toward the west, in much the same way that the fall of Constantinople in the
fifteenth century induced the Renaissance in Italy.
IV. The remarkable prehistoric civilization of Italy is due to the union of two
cultures: one from the Hallstatt region having entered Europe by way of the
Danube, the other coming from the southeast by sea being distinctly
Mediterranean. From these evolved the Umbrian and the Etruscan civilizations,
followed in the historic period by the early Latin.
The earliest culture in Italy worthy the name is found in the palafitte or pile
dwellings, in the northern lakes, and in the so-called terramare settlements in the
valley of the Po. The former are not distinguishable from similar structures in the
Swiss lake dwellings, but the terramare are entirely peculiar to Italy. Their like is not
found anywhere else in Europe. Briefly described, they are villages built upon raised
platforms of earth, encircled by a moat, and generally having a ditch or small pond
in the middle, in which an altar is erected. These complicated structures are built
upon the low, marshy, alluvial plains along the Po, but show many points of
similarity with the true pile dwellings. The people of this early period were in the
pure stone age, with few arts save that of making the coarser kinds of pottery.
From their osseous remains, they seem to have been of a long-headed type, quite
like their predecessors, who were cave dwellers. After a time, without any
modification of the modes of construction of their settlements, new elements
appear among these terramare people, bringing bronze and introducing cremation.
At about the same period, as we have said, the Alpine broad-headed race began its
submergence of the primitive Ligurian type, leading to the formation of the north
Italian population as we see it to-day. This type surely invaded Italy from the north
and northeast.
From the foregoing considerations it will appear that there were two constituent
streams of culture and also of men here uniting in the valley of the Po and on the
northern slopes of the Apennines. Possibly, as Chantre affirms, these two streams
were from a common Oriental source, here being reunited after long and
independent migrations. At all events, a remarkable advance in culture speedily
ensued, superior to either of those from which its elements were derived. For the
civilization unearthed at Villanova, in the Certosa at Bologna, at Este, and
elsewhere, while in much of its bronze work similar to the Hallstatt types, contained
a number of added features, obviously either indigenous or brought directly from
the south. The Hallstatt affinities are especially revealed in the situlæ to which we
have already called attention. That of Arnoaldi, discovered at Bologna, betrays
much the same grade of skill in manufacture as the one from Watsch. Its flat
development is shown by the accompanying cut. The scenes represented are not
dissimilar. The boxers armed with the cestus, the chariots, and horses closely
resemble one another. No doubt of a close intercourse between the two regions of
Bologna and Austria can possibly exist.
 Arnoaldi Situla, Bologna.
(From Revue Archéologique, 1885, vol. ii, Plate XXV.)
[Larger Image]
The influence of the second or native element in prehistoric Italian civilization
appears most clearly in the Etruscan period. Etruria, lying south of the Apennines,
was more essentially Italian, as we might expect, than the region about Bologna,
where the Umbro-Hallstatt or continental culture flourished. It is easy to note the
superiority in the former case. It is most clearly indicated in the pottery. Here we
find an art which is truly indigenous to the climate and soil of the Mediterranean.
Popularly, the word "Etruscan" at once suggests the ceramic art; the progress
effected in a short time was certainly startling. To give an idea of the sudden
change, we have reproduced upon page 30 illustrations of typical bits of Italian
pottery.[12] The first vase, prior to the full Etruscan culture, shows its crudity at
once, both in its defects of form and the plainness and simplicity of its
ornamentation. Such a vessel might have been made in Mexico or even by our own
Pueblo Indians. In a century or two some teacher made it possible to produce the
sample depicted in the next cut. Perfect in form, superb in grace of outline, its
decoration is most effective; yet it betrays greater skill in geometrical design than in
the representation of animate life. The dog drawn on the girdle is still far from
lifelike. Then come—probably after inspiration from Greek art—the possibilities in
complex ornamentation represented by our third specimen. Not more pleasing in
form, perhaps less truly artistic because of its ornateness, it manifests much skill in
the delineation of human and animal forms. The culture culminates at this point.
From profusion of ornament and overloaded decoration, degeneracy begins. It is
the old story of the life and decay of schools of art, time in and time out, the world
over.
 Early Etruscan. Later Etruscan. Greek Etruscan.
[Larger Image]

The advance in culture typified by our vases was equaled in all the details of life.
The people built strongly walled cities; they constructed roads and bridges; their
architecture, true predecessor of the Roman, was unique and highly evolved. All the
plain and good things of life were known to these people, and their civilization was
rich in its luxury, its culture and art as well. In costumes, jewelry, the paraphernalia
of war, in painting and statuary they were alike distinguished. Their mythology was
very complex, much of the Roman being derived from it. Most of our knowledge of
them is derived from the rich discoveries in their chambered tombs, scattered all
over Italy from Rome to Bologna. There can be no doubt of a very high type of
civilization attained long before the Christian era. Roman history is merged in the
obscurity of time, five or six hundred years later than this. The high antiquity of the
Etruscan is therefore beyond question. But its highly evolved art and culture show
that we have no longer to do with European origins; to discuss it further would lead
us to trench upon the field of classical rather than prehistoric archæology.
V. The northwestern corner of Europe, including Scandinavia, Denmark, and the
Baltic plain of Germany, throughout the prehistoric period has been characterized
by backwardness of culture as compared with the rest of Europe. It was populated
from the south, deriving a large part of such primitive civilization as it possessed
from the south and the southeast as well.
That this region was necessarily uninhabited during the Glacial epoch, long after the
advent of man in southern Europe, is indubitable. It is proved by the extent of the
glaciated area, which extends on the mainland as far south as Hamburg, Berlin, and
Posen, and over the entire British Isles at the same time.[13] It was by the melting
of this vast sheet of ice that those high level river terraces in France and Belgium
were formed, in which the most ancient and primitive implements of human
manufacture occur. In the area beneath this ice sheet no trace of human occupation
until long after this time occurs. This fact of itself, is not absolutely conclusive, for
glaciation would have obliterated all traces of anterior habitation or activity. As to
the possibility of a tertiary population before the Glacial epoch, it presents too
remote a contingency for us to consider, although we do not deny its possibility. It
too far antedates prehistory, so to speak.
At the notable International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archæology
at Stockholm in 1874 a landmark in these sciences was established by substantial
agreement among the leading authorities from all over Europe upon the proposition
now before us.[14] First of all, every one subscribed to the view that the palæolithic
or oldest stone age was entirely unrepresented in Sweden. The earliest and
simplest stone implements discovered in the southern part of that country betray a
degree of skill and culture far above that so long prevalent in France and Germany.
Stone is not only rubbed and polished into shape, but the complicated art of boring
holes in it has been learned. Norway also seems to be lacking in similar evidence of
a human population in the very lowest stage of civilization. Stone implements
anterior to the discovery of the art of rubbing or polishing are almost unknown.
Only about Christiania have any finds at all been made. In Denmark some few very
rude implements have been found. They are so scarce as to suggest that they are
mere rejects or half-finished ones of a later type. The kitchen middens, or shell
heaps, of Jutland, for which the region is most notable, as described by Steenstrup,
abound in stone implements. They all represent man in the neolithic age. Polished
stones are as abundant as the rudely hammered ones are rare. From the absence
of all the very early stone implements, and from the sudden appearance of others
of a far more finished type, the possibility of a gradual evolution of culture about
Scandinavia in situ is denied on all hands. The art of working stone has surely been
introduced from some more favored region. The only place to look for the source of
this culture is to the south.
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