Prepared by Dr.

Harish M S, AIT

Poisson’s and Laplace’s equation

Derivation of Poison’s and Laplace’s Equations
We know that using Coulomb’s law we can find the electric field intensity due to point charges.
If the charges are symmetrically distributed Gauss’s can be used to determine the electric field
intensity. If we know the potential field, we can find the electric field intensity using the
relation 𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗ V.
Laplace’s and poison’s equations are the tool, to find the potential function using boundary
conditions.
⃗ be the electric flux density and 𝜌𝑣 is the
Poison’s equation is obtained from Gauss’s law. Let 𝐷
⃗ • ⃗D = ρv .
volume charge density. These two can be related using the Maxwell’s first equation ∇
We know that
⃗ = 𝜖𝐸⃗
𝐷
⃗ = 𝜖(−∇
𝐷 ⃗ V)

⃗ •𝐷
Take the divergence on both the sides, we get ∇ ⃗ =∇
⃗ • 𝜖(−∇
⃗ V)

⃗ •𝐷
∇ ⃗ = − 𝜖∇
⃗ •∇
⃗V
⃗ •𝐷
∇ ⃗ = − 𝜖 ∇2 V = ρ v
ρv
∇2 V = −
ϵ

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This equation is known as Poison’s equation applicable to homogeneous media. It is a three

dimensional second order partial differential equation. For charge free region ρv = 0, the
Poison’s equation reduces to
∇2 V = 0
This equation is known as Laplace’s equation, this is also a three dimensional second order
partial differential equation, ∇2 is a Laplacian operator.
Laplace’s Equations in different coordinate system
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = + ∂y2 + ∂z2 = 0, In Cartesian coordinate system
∂x2

1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = ρ ( ) + ρ2 ∂ϕ2 + ∂z2 = 0, In cylindrical coordinate system
∂ρ ∂ρ

1 ∂ r2 ∂V 1 ∂ sinθ ∂V 1 ∂2 V
∇2 V = r2 ∂r ( ) + r2sinθ ∂θ ( ) + r2 sin2 θ ∂φ2 = 0, In spherical coordinate system
∂r ∂θ

Poison’s Equations in different coordinate system

∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V ρ
∇2 V = + ∂y2 + ∂z2 = − ϵv , In Cartesian coordinate system
∂x2

1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V ρv
∇2 V = ρ ( ) + ρ2 ∂ϕ2 + ∂z2 = − , In cylindrical coordinate system
∂ρ ∂ρ ϵ

1 ∂ r2 ∂V 1 ∂ sinθ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ρ
∇2 V = r2 ∂r ( ) + r2sinθ ∂θ ( ) + r2 sin2 θ ∂φ2 = − ϵv , In spherical coordinate system
∂r ∂θ

Examples of the solution of Laplace’s equation

The Laplace’s equation is a three dimensional second order partial differential equation, ∇2 is a
Laplacian operator. The simplest method to solve the Laplace’s equation is by direct integration
and boundary conditions. Using this technique we can solve the one dimensional potential
variations in various coordinate systems.
Example 1: Potential at any point between the plates of the capacitor and capacitance
between them
Consider a parallel plate connected across a voltage source 𝑉0 as shown in figure 39. The plates
of the capacitor are separated by a distance d with dielectric constant ‘Є’. Let ‘L’ be a height of
the plate and ‘W’ be the width of the plate. Assume that the region between the plates is free
from the electric charge, then the volume charge density between the plates ρv = 0. From figure
it is observed that, the system is in Cartesian co-ordinate system then the Laplace equation
∂2V ∂2V ∂2V
is ∇2 V = + + = 0,
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

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From the figure it is also observed that electric potential along x-axis and z-axis remains same
and it is varying along y-axis. Therefore the first and third term in the Laplace’s equation
vanishes.

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∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇ V= + + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂2 V
∴ ∇2 V = =0
∂y 2
∂2V
= 0……..(A)
∂y2

It is reduced to one dimensional second order partial differential equation; it can be solved by
method of direct integration and boundary conditions. If we solve this equation, we can find the
potential at any point between the two plates of the capacitor.
∂V
Integrate equation (A) with respect to y we get ∴ = 𝑘1
∂y

V = 𝑘1 𝑦 + 𝑘2 ……………… (B)
Where 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are constant of integration, can be determined using boundary conditions.
The boundary condition is, if 𝑦 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 , from equation (B) 𝑉0 = 𝑘2 …..(C)
If 𝑦 = 𝑑, 𝑉 = 0, from equation (B) 0 = 𝑘1 𝑑 + 𝑘2 …………. (D)
𝑉
From equation (C) and (D) we get 𝑘1 = − 𝑑0 ,

Now from equation (B), the potential at any point between the plates of the capacitor
V = 𝑘1 𝑦 + 𝑘2
𝑉0
V=− 𝑦 + 𝑉0 , This is the solution to the Laplace’s equation
𝑑

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To find the electric field intensity, consider the equation

𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗V
∂V ∂V ∂V 𝑉0 𝑉0
= −[ â x + â y + âz ] = − [− â y ] = ây
∂x ∂y ∂z 𝑑 𝑑
𝑉0
𝐸⃗ = â
𝑑 y
⃗ = 𝜖𝐸⃗ = 𝜖 𝑉0 â y
And electric flux density,𝐷
𝑑

⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
And charge on the plates of the capacitor is, from Gauss’s law 𝑄 = ∮𝑠 𝐷
𝑉0 𝑉0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = (𝜖
𝐷 â y ) • dxdzây = 𝜖 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝑑 𝑑
𝑊 𝐿
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝐿𝑊 𝑉0 𝐴
⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = ∫
𝑄=∮ 𝐷 ∫ 𝜖 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = 𝜖 =𝜖
𝑠 𝑥=0 𝑧=0 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑄
We know that, capacitance of the system 𝐶 = 𝑉
0

1 𝑉0 𝐴 𝐴
𝐶= (𝜖 )=𝜖
𝑉0 𝑑 𝑑
𝐴
𝐶=𝜖
𝑑
Example 2: Potential at any point between the two conductors of co-axial cable (co-axial
cylinder)
Consider a co-axial cable of inner conductor radius ‘a’, outer conductor radius ‘b’, length of the
conductor is ‘L’ and these two conductors are separated by dielectric with dielectric constant Є.
Let 𝑉0 be a voltage applied across the two conductors. The total charge on each conductor will be
Q as shown in figure 40. Assume that the region between the two conductors is free from the
electric charge, then the volume charge density between the conductors ρv = 0.

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Since the system is in cylindrical coordinate system, then the Laplace equation is
1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = ( )+ 2 2+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
From the diagram it is observed that, the potential is varying with respect to ρ, and along z and ϕ
remains constant. Therefore the second and third term in the above expression will be vanishes.
1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = ( )+ 2 2+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ ρ ∂V
∴ ( )=0……… (A)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ

It is reduced to one dimensional second order partial differential equation; it can be solved by
method of direct integration and boundary conditions. If we solve this equation, we can find the
potential at any point between the two conductors.
∂ ρ ∂V
( )=0 integrate with respect to ρ
∂ρ ∂ρ

ρ ∂V
= 𝑘1
∂ρ
∂V 𝑘1
=
∂ρ ρ
𝑉 = 𝑘1 𝑙𝑛ρ + 𝑘2 ……….. (B)

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Where 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are constant of integration, can be determined using boundary conditions.
The boundary condition is, if 𝜌 = 𝑎, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 , from equation (B) 𝑉0 = 𝑘1 𝑙𝑛a + 𝑘2 …..(C)
If 𝜌 = 𝑏, 𝑉 = 0, from equation (B) 0 = 𝑘1 𝑙𝑛𝑏 + 𝑘2 …………. (D)
𝑉0 −𝑉0 𝑙𝑛𝑏
From equation (C) and (D) we get 𝑘1 = 𝑎 , 𝑘2 = 𝑎
ln( ) ln ( )
𝑏 𝑏

Now from equation (B), the potential at any point between the plates of the capacitor
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑙𝑛𝑏
V= 𝑎 𝑙𝑛ρ − 𝑎
ln(𝑏 ) ln(𝑏 )
𝑉0 𝑉0 ln(𝜌/𝑏)
V= 𝑎 {𝑙𝑛ρ − 𝑙𝑛𝑏} = 𝑎
ln(𝑏 ) ln(𝑏 )

This is the solution to the Laplace’s equation, it is function of ρ.

To find the electric field intensity, consider the equation
𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗V
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V ∂ 𝑉0 ln(𝜌/𝑏)
= −[ âρ + â ø + âz ] = − ∂ρ ( 𝑎 )âρ
∂ρ ρ ∂ø ∂z ln( )
𝑏

∂ 𝑉0
𝐸⃗ = − ∂ρ ( 𝑎 {𝑙𝑛ρ − 𝑙𝑛𝑏})âρ
ln( )
𝑏

𝑉0 1 𝑉0
𝐸⃗ = − 𝑎 âρ = 𝑏
âρ
ln(𝑏 ) ρ ρ {ln(𝑎)}
𝑉0 𝜖
⃗ = 𝜖𝐸⃗ =
And electric flux density,𝐷 𝑏 âρ
ρ{ln( )}
𝑎

𝑄â
⃗ =
And we know that flux density 𝐷 ρ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝑄âρ 𝑉0 𝜖
⃗ =
𝐷 = â
2𝜋𝜌𝐿 ρ {ln(𝑏 )} ρ
𝑎
𝜖𝑉0 2𝜋𝐿
Charge on each conductor 𝑄 = 𝑏
ln( )
𝑎

𝑄 𝜖2𝜋𝐿
Capacitance of the coaxial cylinder is 𝐶 = 𝑉 = 𝑏
0 ln( )
𝑎

Example 3: Two conducting plates placed at ϕ=0 and ϕ=α, are separated by insulating media of
dielectric constant Є. Calculate V and E if the boundary condition of the system is if ϕ=0
V=0, and if ϕ=α V=𝑉0 .

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From the diagram it is observed that, the system is in cylindrical coordinate system. The
Laplace equation in cylindrical coordinate system is

2
1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇ V= ( )+ 2 2+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
The voltage is varying along ϕ only. Along ρ and z remains constant. Therefore the first and
third term in the above expression will be vanishes.

2
1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇ V= ( )+ 2 2+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂2 V
∴ =0
ρ2 ∂ϕ2

This is one dimensional second order partial differential equation. This can be solved using
direction integration technique and boundary conditions.
∂2 V
= 0…… (A)
∂ϕ2

∂V
= k1
∂ϕ
𝑉 = k 1 𝜙 + 𝑘2
k1 , and 𝑘2 are the constant of integration, can be calculated from the boundary condition.
ϕ=0 V=0, ∴ 𝑘2 = 0
𝑉0
And if ϕ=α V=𝑉0 , 𝑉0 = k1 𝛼, k1 = α

𝑉0
∴ 𝑉= 𝜙
α
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗ V = −[ âρ + â ø + â ]
∂ρ ρ ∂ø ∂z z
1 𝑉0
𝐸⃗ = − â
ρα ø

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𝜖 𝑉0
⃗ = 𝜖𝐸⃗ =
And electric flux density,𝐷 âø
ρ α
𝜋
Example 4: Semi-infinite conducting planes at ϕ=0 and ϕ= 6 are separated by an infinitesimal
𝜋
insulating gap. If ϕ=0, V =0 and if𝜙 = 6 , V =100 volts, calculate V and 𝐸⃗ in the region between

the plates.
Solution:

From the diagram it is observed that, the system is in cylindrical coordinate system. The
Laplace equation in cylindrical coordinate system is
1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = ( )+ 2 2+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
The voltage is varying along ϕ only. Along ρ and z remains constant. Therefore the first and
third term in the above expression will be vanishes.
1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇2 V = ( )+ 2 2+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂2 V
∴ =0
ρ2 ∂ϕ2

This is one dimensional partial differential equation. This can be solved using direction
integration technique and boundary conditions.
∂2 V
=0……… (A)
∂ϕ2

∂V
= k1
∂ϕ
𝑉 = k 1 𝜙 + 𝑘2
k1 and 𝑘2 are the constant of integration , can be calculated from the boundary conditions.
ϕ=0 V=0, ∴ 𝑘2 = 0

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𝜋 600 600
And if ϕ= 6 , V=100, ∴ k1 = , ∴ 𝑉= 𝜙
π π

∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗ V = −[ âρ + â ø + â ]
∂ρ ρ ∂ø ∂z z
1 𝑉0
𝐸⃗ = − â
ρα ø
Example 5: Given the potential field 𝑉 = (𝐴𝜌4 + 𝐵𝜌 −4 )𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜙: a) show that ∇2 V = 0, b)
Select A and B so that V=100 V and |𝐸⃗ |=500 v/m at 𝑃(1,22.5°, 2)
Solution: Since the system belongs to cylindrical coordinate system, the Laplace equation in
cylindrical coordinate system is

2
1 ∂ ρ ∂V 1 ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇ V= ( )+ 2 2+ 2 =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ ρ ∂(𝐴𝜌4 + 𝐵𝜌 −4 )𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜙 1 ∂2 (𝐴𝜌4 + 𝐵𝜌−4 )𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜙 ∂2 (𝐴𝜌4 + 𝐵𝜌 −4 )𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜙
( )+ 2 + =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ2 ∂z 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜙 ∂ρρ(4𝐴𝜌3 − 4𝐵𝜌−5 ) 4(𝐴𝜌4 + 𝐵𝜌 −4 ) ∂cos4ϕ
= + +0=0
ρ ∂ρ ρ2 ∂ϕ
16𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜙(𝐴𝜌3 + 𝐵𝜌−5 ) 16sin4ϕ(𝐴𝜌4 + 𝐵𝜌−4 )
= − =0
ρ ρ2
= 16𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜙(𝐴𝜌2 + 𝐵𝜌−6 ) − 16𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜙(𝐴𝜌2 + 𝐵𝜌−6 ) = 0
Hence ∇2 V = 0
d) Select A and B so that V=100V and |𝐸⃗ |=500 v/m at 𝑃(1,22.5°, 2)
100 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 )𝑠𝑖𝑛4 × 22.5°
∴ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 100
∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗ V = −[ âρ + â ø + â ]
∂ρ ρ ∂ø ∂z z
= −[4sin4ϕ(𝐴𝜌3 − 𝐵𝜌−5 )âρ + 4(𝐴𝜌4 + 𝐵𝜌 −4 )𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜙â ø ]

|𝐸⃗ | = √16𝑠𝑖𝑛2 4𝜙(𝐴𝜌3 − 𝐵𝜌 −5 )2 + 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝜙(𝐴𝜌3 + 𝐵𝜌 −5 )2

500 = √16𝑠𝑖𝑛2 4 × 22.5°(𝐴 − 𝐵 )2 + 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4 × 22.5°(𝐴 + 𝐵 )2

500 = 4√ (𝐴 − 𝐵 )2
500 = 4(A − B)
A − B = 125, B=-12.5 and A=112.5

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Example 6: Using the Laplace’s equation derive an expression for potential at any point
between the two concentric sphere of inner radius ‘a’ and outer radius ‘b’ and also for the
capacitance of the system

Consider a concentric spherical shell of inner sphere radius ‘a’ charged with ‘Q’ and outer sphere
radius ‘b’ charged with ‘-Q’, these two spherical shells are separated by a dielectric constant ‘Є’ .
The voltage between the two spheres is 𝑉0 as shown in figure 41. Assume that the region
between the two spheres is charged free, i.e.𝜌𝑣 = 0.
Since the system is in spherical coordinate system, then the Laplace equation is

2
1 ∂ r 2 ∂V 1 ∂ sinθ ∂V 1 ∂2 V
∇ V= 2 ( )+ 2 ( )+ 2 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
From the diagram it is observed that, the potential is varying with respect to r, and along 𝜭 and
ϕ remains constant. Therefore the second and third term in the above expression will be
vanishes.
1 ∂ r 2 ∂V 1 ∂ sinθ ∂V 1 ∂2 V
∇2 V = ( ) + ( ) + =0
r 2 ∂r ∂r r 2 sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ ∂φ2
1 ∂ r2 ∂V
∴ ∇2 V = ( )=0……… (A)
r2 ∂r ∂r

The above equation is a one dimensional second order partial differential equation; it can be
solved by method of direct integration and boundary conditions. If we solve this equation, we
can find the potential at any point between the two conducting spheres.
∂ r2 ∂V
( ) = 0 integrate with respect to r
∂r ∂r

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r 2 ∂V
= 𝑘1
∂r
∂V 𝑘1
=
∂r r 2
𝑘1
𝑉= − + 𝑘2 ……….. (B)
𝑟

Where 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are constant of integration, can be determined using boundary conditions.
𝑘1
The boundary condition is, if 𝑟 = 𝑎, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 , from equation (B) 𝑉 = − + 𝑘2 …..(C)
𝑎
𝑘1
If 𝑟 = 𝑏, 𝑉 = 0, from equation (B) 0= − + 𝑘2 …………. (D)
𝑏
𝑉 𝑏𝑉
From equation (C) and (D) we get 𝑘1 = 1 01 , 𝑘2 = 𝑎−𝑏0
−
𝑏 𝑎

Now from equation (B), the potential at any point between the plates two plate
𝑘1
+ 𝑘2 V= −
𝑟
𝑉0 𝑏𝑉0 𝑏𝑉0 ab𝑉0
V= − 1 1 + = −
r( − ) 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑏 r(𝑎 − 𝑏)
𝑏 𝑎

b𝑉0 a
V= (1− )
𝑎−𝑏 r
This is the solution to the Laplace’s equation; it is function of ‘r’.
To find the electric field intensity, consider the equation
∂V 1∂V 1 ∂V
𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗ V = −[ âr + â θ + â ]
∂r r ∂θ rsinθ ∂ø ø
b𝑉 a
∂ {𝑎−𝑏0 (1 − r ) b𝑉0 a
𝐸⃗ = − â r = − (0 + 2 ) â r
∂r 𝑎−𝑏 r
b𝑉 a 𝑎𝑏𝑉
𝐸⃗ = − 𝑎−𝑏0 0
âr = r2(b−a) â r
r2

Electric field intensity due to point charge

Q
𝐸⃗ = â
4πϵr 2 r
Q 𝑎𝑏𝑉0
a
̂ r = â
4πϵr 2 r 2 (b − a) r
Q 4𝜋𝜖𝑎𝑏
𝐶= =
𝑉0 (b − a)

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𝐵(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Example 7: Given the potential field 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙𝑛 [ ] a) show that V satisfies the Laplace’s
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

equation in spherical coordinate system. b) Find the value of A and B so that V=100 V and
|𝐸⃗ |=500 v/m at 𝑃(5,90°, 60°)
Solution: a) since the potential is in spherical coordinate system, the Laplace equation in
spherical coordinate system is
1 ∂ r 2 ∂V 1 ∂ sinθ ∂V 1 ∂2 V
∇2 V = ( ) + ( ) + =0
r 2 ∂r ∂r r 2 sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ ∂φ2

𝐵(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙𝑛 [ ] = 𝐴[𝑙𝑛𝐵(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳) − 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳)]
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉 = 𝐴[𝑙𝑛𝐵 + 𝑙𝑛(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳) − 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳)]
∂V 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝐴[0 + − [0 + ]
∂θ 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∂V 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝐴
= A [1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 [ ]= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
∂θ 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃

1 ∂ sinθ ∂V 1 ∂
( )= 2 (sin θ × 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃) = 0
r 2 sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r sinθ ∂θ
∴ ∇2 V = 0
b) If V=100 V and |𝐸⃗ |=500 v/m at 𝑃(5,90°, 60°) then value of A and B will be
∂V 1∂ V 1 ∂V 1
𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗ V = −[ âr + â θ + â ø ] = 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃âθ
∂r r ∂θ rsinθ ∂ø r
1 1
|𝐸⃗ | == 500 = 2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 2A
r 5sin90°
∴ A = 1250
B(1 − cosθ) 1 − cos90°
V = Aln [ ] = 100 = 1250ln[B( )]
1 + cosθ 1 + cos90°
100 = 1250𝑙𝑛𝐵
B=1.083
12
Example 8: Let 𝑉1 = and 𝑉2 = 3 are the solutions to the Laplace’s equation. i) State whether
𝑟

the electric scalar potential 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 satisfies the Laplace’s equation. ii) Evaluate 𝑉1 and 𝑉2
at 𝑟 = 4.

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Solution: i) If 𝑉1 is the solution to the Laplace’s equation, it has to satieties the Laplace’s
1 ∂ r2 ∂V 1 ∂ sinθ ∂V 1 ∂2 V
equation ∇2 V = r2 ∂r ( ) + r2sinθ ∂θ ( ) + r2 sin2 θ ∂φ2 = 0
∂r ∂θ

2
1 ∂ r 2 ∂𝑉1 1 ∂ sinθ ∂𝑉1 1 ∂2 𝑉1
∴ ∇ 𝑉1 = 2 ( )+ 2 ( )+ 2 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
2 12 2 12 12
2
1 ∂ r ∂( 𝑟 ) 1 ∂ sinθ ∂( 𝑟 ) 1 ∂ (𝑟)
∇ 𝑉1 = 2 ( )+ 2 ( )+ 2 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2

1 ∂ 2 −12
∇2 𝑉1 = (r ( 2 )) = 0
r 2 ∂r 𝑟
Thus the solution 𝑉1 satisfies the Laplace’s equation.
Similarly
1 ∂ r 2 ∂ 𝑉2 1 ∂ sinθ ∂ 𝑉2 1 ∂2 𝑉2
∇2 𝑉2 = ( ) + ( ) + =0
r 2 ∂r ∂r r 2 sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ ∂φ2
1 ∂ r 2 ∂2 1 ∂ sinθ ∂(2) 1 ∂2 (2)
∇2 𝑉1 = ( ) + ( ) + =0
r 2 ∂r ∂r r 2 sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin2 θ ∂φ2
Thus the solution 𝑉2 also satisfies the Laplace’s equation.
. ii) Evaluate 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 at 𝑟 = 4.
𝑉1 |𝑟=4 = 3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 |𝑟=4 = 3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Example 9: Derive the expression for potential between the two concentric cone with vertex
are insulated at 𝑟 = 0.
Solution:
Since the cone is the part of the sphere, the system is in spherical coordinate system as shown in
below figure, assume the region between the two cones is free from charges.

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The Laplace’s equation in spherical coordinate system is

2
1 ∂ r 2 ∂V 1 ∂ sinθ ∂V 1 ∂2 V
∇ V= 2 ( )+ 2 ( )+ 2 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
This is a three dimensional second order partial differential equation; this equation can be solved
by using direction integration and boundary conditions. From the above figure the boundary, the
boundary condition is, if 𝜃 = 𝜃1 𝑉 = 𝑉0 , if 𝜃 = 𝜃2 𝑉 = 0.
Since the potential is varying with reelect to 𝜃, and along radius r and ϕ, potential remains the
1 ∂ sinθ ∂V
same, thus ∇2 V = r2sinθ ∂θ ( ) = 0.
∂θ
∂ sinθ ∂V
This is a second order, one dimensional equation, ∂θ ( ) = 0 integrate with respect to 𝜃 we
∂θ
sinθ ∂V
get, = k1
∂θ

∂V
= k1 cosec𝛳
∂θ
𝜃
𝑉 = k1 ln(tan ( )) + 𝑘2
2
k1 , and 𝑘2 are constant of integration, determined from the boundary conditions
𝜃1
𝑉0 = k1 ln(tan ( ) + 𝑘2
2
𝜃2
0 = k1 ln(tan ( )) + 𝑘2
2
𝜃2
𝑘2 = −k1 ln(tan ( ))
2
𝜃1 𝜃2
𝑉0 = k1 ln(tan ( ) − k1 ln(tan ( ))
2 2
𝑉0
k1 = 𝜃 𝜃
ln(tan ( 21 ) − ln(tan ( 22 ))
𝜃2
𝑉0 ln(tan ( ))
2
k2 = − 𝜃1 𝜃2
ln(tan ( )) − ln(tan ( ))
2 2
𝜃 𝜃2
𝑉0 [ln(tan ( 2 )) − ln(tan ( ))]
2
𝑉= 𝜃1 𝜃2
ln(tan ( )) − ln(tan ( ))
2 2

Uniqueness theorem
Let us assume that, 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are the two solutions to the Laplace’s equation, then

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∇2 𝑉1 = 0,
and ∇2 𝑉2 = 0
∇2 𝑉1 = ∇2 𝑉2
∇2 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = 0
These two solutions 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 derived from the boundary conditions and each solution also
satisfies the boundary conditions. If we represent the given potential value on the boundaries
by 𝑉𝑏 , then the value of 𝑉1 on the boundary 𝑉1𝑏 and the value of 𝑉2 on the boundary 𝑉2𝑏 must both
be identical to 𝑉𝑏 ,
∴ 𝑉1𝑏 = 𝑉2𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏
⃗ • (𝑉𝐷
From the vector identity ∇ ⃗ ) = 𝑉(∇
⃗ •𝐷
⃗ )+𝐷
⃗ • (∇
⃗ 𝑉) which holds for any scalar V and any

⃗ . For the present application we shall select 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 as a scalar and ∇

vector 𝐷 ⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) as the
vector.
⃗ • (𝑉𝐷
∇ ⃗ ) = 𝑉(∇
⃗ •𝐷
⃗ )+𝐷
⃗ • (∇
⃗ 𝑉)

⃗ • [(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )∇
∇ ⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )] = (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )[∇
⃗ •∇
⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )] + ∇
⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) • ∇
⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
Take volume integral on both the side
⃗ • [(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )∇
∫𝑣 (∇ ⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )]) 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )[∇
⃗ •∇
⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ])𝑑𝑣 + ∫ [ ∇(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )]2 𝑑𝑣
𝑣 𝑣

………………… (A)
Apply divergence theorem to LHS

⃗ • [(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )∇
∫ (∇ ⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )]) 𝑑𝑣 = ∮ [(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )∇
⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )] • 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 𝑠

Since the surface integral is a closed surface integral, it is surrounds volume. This surface
consists of boundaries already specified on which 𝑉1𝑏 = 𝑉2𝑏 and therefore
⃗ • [(𝑉1𝑏 − 𝑉2𝑏 )∇
∴ ∫𝑣 (∇ ⃗ (𝑉1𝑏 − 𝑉2 )]) 𝑑𝑣 = ∮ [(𝑉1𝑏 − 𝑉2𝑏 )∇
⃗ (𝑉1𝑏 − 𝑉2𝑏 )] • 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑠

⃗ •∇
Since the first term in RHS of (A) ∇ ⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ] = ∇2 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) which is zero by hypothesis.

∴ ∫ [ ∇(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )]2 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑣

This integral is zero for two reasons

i. The integrand (the quantity under the integral sign) is zero everywhere.
ii. The integrand is positive in some region and negative in some region and net contribution
cancels algebraically.

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In this case the first reason must hold, because [ ∇(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )]2 cannot be negative.
⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) • ∇
∴ [ ∇(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )]2 = ∇ ⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = 0
⃗ (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = 0
∇
This is the gradient of 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 . If gradient is zero, then 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 cannot change along any
coordinate. Therefore
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 =Constant
If we show this constant is zero, then we will have the proof for uniqueness theorem. Hence, to
prove the uniqueness theorem 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 0,𝑉1𝑏 − 𝑉2𝑏 = 0, 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
Therefore uniqueness theorem states that, “any solution to Laplace’s or Poisson’s equation which
satisfies the boundary condition is the only solution and it is unique and no other method can
ever give a different solution”.
Steady magnetic field
Introduction
We know that electric charges are at rest produces static electric field. Similarly electric charges
are in motion produces current, the current carrying conductor produces magnetic field. The
direction of the magnetic field in the current carrying conductor is given by crock screw rule or
right hand thumb rule as shown in figure 42. The permanent magnates also produces steady
magnetic field.

⃗ at a point in the magnetic field is

Similar to electric field intensity, the magnetic field intensity 𝐻
defined as the force experienced by unit North Pole placed at that point. The magnetic flux
⃗ is related with magnetic field intensity 𝐻
density 𝐵 ⃗ using the relation 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇𝐻
⃗ . Where 𝜇 is the
property of the media called permeability, 𝜇=𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 . For free space 𝜇𝑟 = 1,𝜇0 = 4𝜋 ×
⃗ is in Ampere/mt and 𝐵
10−7 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦/𝑚𝑡 , 𝐻 ⃗ is in Weber per square mt ( 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2).

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Biot-Savart’s law

Consider a conductor with negligible radius carrying a direct current I as shown in figure 43. Let
𝑑𝐿 is an elemental length of the conductor. Let the vector distance 𝑅⃗12 locates the point P. The
Biot-Savarts law states that, the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity at point P due to
differential current element 𝐼𝑑𝐿 is proportional to
1. Current I
2. Magnitude of the differential length 𝑑𝐿
3. Sine of the angle between the conductor element 𝑑𝐿, and the line connecting 𝑑𝐿 and point 2.
4. And inversely proportional to the square of the distance between 𝑑𝐿 and point 2. Mathematically
the magnetic field intensity at point 𝑃2 in A/m
𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐻 ∝ 2
𝑅12
𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑘 2
𝑅12
1
The proportionality constant k is replaced by 4𝜋 then
𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐻 = 2
4𝜋𝑅12

The direction of the magnetic field intensity at point 2 is normal to the plane containing the two
⃗ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎
vector 𝑑𝐿 and 𝑅12 . Therefore the vector expression of Biot Savart’s law is 𝑑𝐻
̂𝑁
4𝜋𝑅 212

⃗ ×𝑎̂12
𝐼𝑑𝐿
⃗ =
𝑑𝐻 2 𝐴/𝑚
4𝜋𝑅12

And the magnetic flux density at point 𝑃2 in Weber/ 𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎

⃗ ×𝑎̂12
𝜇𝐼𝑑𝐿
⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 2
4𝜋𝑅12

The magnetic field intensity at 𝑃2 for entire loop is

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⃗ = ∮ 𝑑𝐻
𝐻 ⃗
𝑙

1 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ × 𝑎̂12
⃗ =
𝐻 ∮ 2
4𝜋 𝑙 𝑅12
And the magnetic flux density
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ × 𝑎̂12
⃗ =
𝐵 ∮ 2
4𝜋 𝑙 4𝜋𝑅12
The Biot-Savart’s law may also be expressed in terms of distributed sources. Consider a surface
carrying a uniform current I over its surface as shown in figure 44. The surface current density is
𝐼
defined as 𝐾 = 𝑏 A/m. Where ‘b’ is the width measured to the direction in which the current is

flowing.

We know that, 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ = ⃗Kb𝑑𝐿 = ⃗Kds, 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐽𝑑𝑠𝑑𝐿 = 𝐽𝑑𝑣 where 𝐽 is the current density. Now
the alternate expressions for Biot-Savart’s laws are
1 𝐼𝑑𝐿⃗ × 𝑎̂12
⃗ =
𝐻 ∮ 2
4𝜋 𝑙 𝑅12
1 ⃗ × 𝑎̂12 𝑑𝑠
𝐾
⃗ =
𝐻 ∮ 2
4𝜋 𝑠 𝑅12
1 𝐽 × 𝑎̂12 𝑑𝑣
⃗ =
𝐻 ∮ 2
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑅12
Magnetic field intensity at point due to infinite long filament carrying current I

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Let us consider infinite long filament (conductor) carrying direct current I placed along z-axis as
shown in figure 45. Let 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 be a small elemental length of conductor at point 1.
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic field intensity at point 2 due to elemental length at
⃗ ×𝑎̂12
𝐼𝑑𝐿
⃗ =
point 1 is given by 𝑑𝐻 2
4𝜋𝑅12

𝑅⃗12 = 𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ = 𝜌𝑎̂𝜌 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧

|𝑅⃗12 | = √𝜌2 + 𝑧′2

𝜌𝑎̂𝜌 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑎̂12 =
√𝜌2 + 𝑧′2
𝐼 𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 × (𝜌𝑎̂𝜌 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 ) 𝐼 𝜌𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 × 𝑎̂𝜌 𝐼𝑧 ′ 𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 × 𝑎̂𝑧 𝐼 𝜌𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝜑
⃗ =
𝑑𝐻 3 = 3 − 3 = 3
4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2
{Since the angle between 𝒂 ̂ 𝝆 is 𝟗𝟎𝟎
̂ 𝒛 and 𝒂 𝒂 ̂ 𝝆 = |𝒂
̂𝒛 × 𝒂 ̂ 𝒛 ||𝒂
̂ 𝝆 |𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒂
̂𝝋 = 𝒂
̂ 𝝋 , and angle
̂ 𝒛 and 𝒂
between 𝒂 ̂ 𝒛 is zero, thus ̂𝒂𝒛 × 𝒂
̂ 𝒛 = 𝟎}
⃗ = ∫∞ 𝑑𝐻
The total magnetic field intensity at point 2 due to infinite current conductor is 𝐻 ⃗
−∞
∞
𝐼 𝜌𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝜑
⃗ =∫
𝐻 3
−∞ 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2
𝑧′
From the figure 45 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = , 𝑧 ′ = 𝜌𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼, 𝑑𝑧 ′ = 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼
𝜌

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𝜋 𝜋
If 𝑧’ = −∞, 𝛼 = − 2 , if z’=∞ 𝛼 = 2
𝜋 𝜋
2 𝐼 𝜌 (𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼) 𝑎̂𝜑 2 𝐼 𝜌2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼 𝑎̂𝜑
⃗ =∫
∴𝐻 3 = ∫ 3
𝜋 𝜋
−
2 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝜌2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼)2 −
2 4𝜋 𝜌3 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝛼)2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 𝐼 𝜌2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼 𝑎̂𝜑 2 𝐼 𝑑𝛼 𝑎̂𝜑 𝐼𝑎̂𝜑 2 𝐼𝑎̂𝜑 𝜋
⃗𝐻 = ∫ =∫ = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑑𝛼 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) 2 𝜋
𝜋 4𝜋 𝜌 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝛼 𝜋 4𝜋 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 4𝜋𝜌 𝜋 4𝜋𝜌 −
− − − 2
2 2 2

Iâφ
⃗⃗ =
H A/m
2πρ

Thus the magnetic field intensity is a function of ρ and direction is circumferential, and
magnetic flux density is
μIâ φ
⃗B = Wb/ 𝑚2
2πρ
If we consider a finite length of filament conductor place d along z-axis carrying current I as
shown in figure 46, the magnetic field intensity analysis as follows

According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic field intensity at point 2 due to elemental length at
⃗ ×𝑎̂12
𝐼𝑑𝐿
⃗ =
point 1 is given by 𝑑𝐻 2
4𝜋𝑅12

𝑅⃗12 = 𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ = 𝜌𝑎̂𝜌 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧

|𝑅⃗12 | = √𝜌2 + 𝑧′2

𝜌𝑎̂𝜌 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧
𝑎̂12 =
√𝜌2 + 𝑧′2

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𝐼 𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 × (𝜌𝑎̂𝜌 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 ) 𝐼 𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 × 𝜌𝑎̂𝜌 𝐼 𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 × 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝑧 𝐼 𝜌𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝜑

⃗ =
𝑑𝐻 3 = 3 − 3 = 3
4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2
⃗ = ∫𝑧′2 𝑑𝐻
The total magnetic field intensity at point 2 due to infinite current conductor is 𝐻 ⃗
𝑧′ 1
𝑧′2
𝐼 𝜌𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑎̂𝜑
⃗ =∫
𝐻 3
𝑧 ′ =𝑧′1 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝑧′2 )2
𝑧′
From the figure 46 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = , 𝑧 ′ = 𝜌𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼, 𝑑𝑧 ′ = 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼
𝜌
𝑧′1 𝑧′2
If 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 = , 𝑧′1 = 𝜌𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 , then 𝛼 = 𝛼1 and if 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 = , 𝑧′2 = 𝜌𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛼 = 𝛼2
𝜌 𝜌
𝛼2
𝐼 𝜌 (𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼) 𝑎̂𝜑 𝛼2
𝐼 𝜌2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼 𝑎̂𝜑
⃗ =∫
∴𝐻 3 = ∫ 3
𝛼=𝛼1 4𝜋 (𝜌2 + 𝜌2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼)2 𝛼1 4𝜋 𝜌3 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝛼)2
𝛼2
𝐼 𝜌2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼 𝑎̂𝜑 𝛼2
𝐼 𝑑𝛼 𝑎̂𝜑 𝐼𝑎̂𝜑 𝛼2 𝐼𝑎̂𝜑 𝛼
⃗ = ∫
𝐻 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑑𝛼 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)𝛼21
3
4𝜋 𝜌 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼3
𝛼1 𝛼1 4𝜋 𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 4𝜋𝜌 𝛼1 4𝜋𝜌
𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 )
⃗ =
𝐻 𝑎̂𝜑
4𝜋𝜌

If 𝛼1 is negative and 𝛼2 positive with respect to y-axis as shown in 47, then the magnetic field
intensity at point 2 due to filament is
𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 )
⃗ =
𝐻 𝑎̂𝜑
4𝜋𝜌
If booth 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 are negative with respect to y-axis as shown in 48, then the magnetic field
intensity at point 2 due to filament is

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𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 )
⃗ =
𝐻 𝑎̂𝜑
4𝜋𝜌
𝜋 𝜋 Iâφ
If 𝑧′1 is at −∞ and 𝑧′2 is at ∞ then 𝛼1 = − 2 and 𝛼2 = 2 , then ⃗⃗H = A/m
2πρ

⃗ at point 𝑃(0.4,0,3,0), If the 8 Amps current in a conductor inward from

Example: Determine 𝐻
infinity to origin on the x-axis and outward to infinity along y-axis.
Solution:

The current loop has two line segments, thus ⃗H

⃗ = ⃗H
⃗ x + ⃗H
⃗ y,

⃗⃗ x = 𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 ) (−𝑎̂𝑧 ), is the magnetic field intensity at point P due to conductor on the
Let H 4𝜋𝜌

x-axis. From the above figure 𝛼1 = 90° and 𝛼2 = 53.13°, ρ=0.3

8(𝑠𝑖𝑛53.13° + sin( 90°)) 12
⃗⃗ x =
H (− 𝑎̂𝑧 ) = − 𝑎̂
4𝜋 × 0.3 𝜋 𝑧

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𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 )
⃗⃗ y =
Let H (− 𝑎̂𝑧 ), is the magnetic field intensity at point P due to conductor on y-
4𝜋𝜌

axis. From the above figure 𝛼1 = 36.9°, 𝛼2 = 90° and 𝜌 = 0.4

⃗ y = 𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 ) (− 𝑎̂𝑧 ) = 8(𝑠𝑖𝑛90°+𝑠𝑖𝑛36.9°) (− 𝑎̂𝑧 ) = −
⃗H 8
𝑎̂𝑧
4𝜋𝜌 4𝜋×0.4 𝜋

12 8
⃗⃗ = H
H ⃗⃗ x + H
⃗⃗ y = − 𝑎̂𝑧 − 𝑎̂𝑧 = −6.37𝑎̂𝑧 𝐴𝑚𝑝/𝑚
𝜋 𝜋
Example: A rectangular loop carrying 10 Amps current placed at 𝑧 = 0 as shown in below
⃗ at (4,2,0) .
figure. Find 𝐻

Solution:

The current loop having four line segments, thus the magnetic field intensity at point P due to
current carrying loop is
⃗ =𝐻
𝐻 ⃗ 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐻
⃗ 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐻
⃗ 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐻
⃗ 𝐷𝐴
𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 )
⃗ 𝐴𝐵 =
The magnetic field intensity due to line segment AB is 𝐻 ( 𝑎̂𝑧 )
4𝜋𝜌

2 2
𝛼1 = tan−1 4 = 26.56°,𝛼2 = tan−1 4 = 26.53°, ρ=4

⃗ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 ) ( 𝑎̂𝑧 )

The magnetic field intensity due to line segment BC is 𝐻
4𝜋𝜌

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4 4
𝛼1 = tan−1 2 = 63.43°,𝛼2 = tan−1 2 = 63.53°,ρ=2

⃗ 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 ) ( 𝑎̂𝑧 )

The magnetic field intensity due to line segment CD is 𝐻
4𝜋𝜌

2 2
𝛼1 = tan−1 4 = 26.56°,𝛼2 = tan−1 4 = 26.56°,𝜌 = 4

⃗ 𝐷𝐴 = 𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 ) (𝑎̂𝑧 )

The magnetic field intensity due to line segment DA is 𝐻 4𝜋𝜌

4 4
𝛼1 = tan−1 2 = 63.43°,𝛼2 = tan−1 2 = 63.43°,ρ=2

The magnetic field intensity at point P due to current carrying loop

4.47
⃗ =−
𝐻 𝑎̂𝑧 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠/𝑚2
𝜋
Ampere’s circuital law
Ampere’s circuital sometimes called as Ampere’s woks law. Ampere’s circuital law states that
⃗ about any closed path exactly equal to the direct
“line integral of the magnetic field intensity 𝐻
current enclosed by the path”. Mathematically

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
∮𝐻

⃗ be a magnetic field around

Proof: Consider an infinitely long conductor carrying current I, let 𝐻
the conductor as shown figure 49. We know that magnetic field intensity due to in finite long
⃗ = Iâφ = Hφ â φ
filament carrying current I is 𝐻 2πρ

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⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = Hφ âφ • ρdϕâφ = Hφ ρdϕ

𝐻
2𝜋
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ Hφ ρdϕ = Hφ ρ2π = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
∮𝐻
0
I
∴ Hφ = ρ2π

Application of Ampere’s circuital law

The Gauss’s involves finding total charge enclosed by the closed surface. The application of
Ampere’s circuital law involves finding the total current enclosed by a closed path.
i. Obtain the expression for magnetic field intensity ⃗⃗⃗
𝑯 inside the conductor and out side
the conductor carries a current I
Consider a conductor of radius ‘a’ carries a current I as shown in figure 50. Let 𝑐1 is imaginary
closed path inside the conductor and 𝑐2 be an imaginary closed path outside the conductor as
shown in figure 50.

Let 𝜌 be any radius, if 𝜌 < 𝑎 , it is inside the conductor. According to Ampere’s circuital law
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
∮𝑐 𝐻
1

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𝐼 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Since the current density is same in inside the conductor and on the conductor i.e. 𝜋𝑎2 = 𝜋𝜌 2
𝜌
∴ 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝐼( )2 = Hφ 2𝜋𝜌
𝑎
𝐼𝜌
Hφ =
2𝜋𝑎2
On the surface of the conductor 𝜌 = 𝑎
𝐼
Hφ =
2𝜋𝑎
If 𝜌 > 𝑎 , it is outside the conductor,

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝐼
∮ 𝐻
𝑐2

Hφ 2𝜋𝜌 = 𝐼
𝐼
∴ Hφ =
2𝜋𝜌
The variation of magnetic field intensity with respect to ρ as shown in figure 51

ii. Obtain the expression and plot the magnetic field intensity ⃗𝑯
⃗ due to infinite long coaxial
cable carrying current I
Consider a infinite long coaxial cable inner conductor radius ‘a’ carries a current I. and outer
conductor inner radius ‘b’ outer radius ‘c’ carries a current –I as shown in figure 52 .

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𝐼𝜌
If 𝜌 < 𝑎 Hφ = 2𝜋𝑎2
𝐼
If 𝜌 = 𝑎 Hφ = 2𝜋𝑎

If 𝑎 < 𝜌 < 𝑏
𝐼
Hφ =
2𝜋 𝜌
𝐼
If 𝜌 = 𝑏 Hφ = 2𝜋𝑏

If 𝜌 > 𝑐 Hφ = 0
If 𝑏 < 𝜌 < 𝑐

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝐼 + 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜋𝜌2 − 𝜋𝑏2

∮𝐻

–𝐼
The current density in the region in the region 𝜋𝑐 2 − 𝜋𝑏2 is given by 𝜋(𝑐 2 −𝑏2 )

𝜋(𝜌2 − 𝑏2 )
∴ 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = Hφ 2𝜋𝜌 = 𝐼 − 𝐼
𝜋(𝑐 2 − 𝑏2 )
𝑐 2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝜌2 + 𝑏 2 𝑐 2 − 𝜌2
Hφ 2𝜋𝜌 = 𝐼 ( ) = 𝐼( )
𝑐 2 − 𝑏2 𝑐 2 − 𝑏2
𝐼 𝑐 2− 𝜌2
Hφ = 2𝜋𝜌 ( 𝑐 2 −𝑏2 ) 𝑏 < 𝜌 < 𝑐

The variation of magnetic field intensity with respect to ρ as shown in figure 53

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Ampere’s circuital law in point form, CURL

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 is one of the
We know that Ampere’s circuital law in integral form is ∮ 𝐻
Maxwell’s equation in integral form. To derive an expression for Ampere’s circuital law in point
form, consider a small closed loop whose sides are ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 and it is placed in x-y plane as
shown in figure 54. Assume that some unspecified current producing a magnetic field. The
⃗ 0 = 𝐻𝑥0 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦0 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐻𝑧0 𝑎̂𝑧 A/m.
magnetic field at the centre of loop is 𝐻

⃗ about this path is approximately the sum of the four values of 𝐻

The closed line integral of 𝐻 ⃗ •

𝑑𝐿⃗ on each side. The current due to line segment 1-2 is (𝐻

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗)
1−2
= 𝐻𝑦,1−2 ∆𝑦. The value of

𝐻𝑦,1−2 on this path is the sum of 𝐻𝑦0 and the rate of change of 𝐻𝑦 with respect to x and distance
𝜕𝐻𝑦 ∆𝑥
from from the centre, i.e. 𝐻𝑦,1−2 = 𝐻𝑦0 + ×
𝜕𝑥 2

∆𝑥 𝜕𝐻𝑦
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗)
∴ (𝐻 = 𝐻𝑦,1−2 ∆𝑦 = (𝐻𝑦0 + )∆𝑦
1−2 2 𝜕𝑥
∆𝑥 𝜕𝐻
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗)
Similarly for the path 2-3 (𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥,2−3 (−∆𝑥) = −(𝐻𝑥0 + 2 𝜕𝑦𝑥 )∆𝑥
2−3

Continuing this for the remaining two segments and adding the result, we get

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𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝐼𝑧 = (
∮𝐻 − )∆𝑥∆𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥
( − )∆𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐽𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
∮𝐻⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥
∴ = − = 𝐽𝑧
∆𝑥∆𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
This gives the more accurate result, if the closed path shrinks to zero i.e. ∆𝑥∆𝑦 area tends to
zero.
⃗ •𝑑𝐿
∮𝐻 ⃗ ⃗ •𝑑𝐿
∮𝐻 ⃗ 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥
∴ lim = lim ∆𝑆 = − = 𝐽𝑧
∆𝑥∆𝑦 →0 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 ∆𝑆𝑁 →0 𝑁 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Similarly, if we consider a small closed path in y-z plane, we get the current density in x-
∮𝐻⃗ •𝑑𝐿
⃗ ∮𝐻⃗ •𝑑𝐿
⃗ 𝜕𝐻𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑦
direction i.e. lim = lim = − = 𝐽𝑥
∆𝑦∆𝑧 →0 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 ∆𝑆𝑁 →0 ∆𝑆𝑁 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

And if we consider a small closed path in z-x plane, we get the current density in the y-direction
∮𝐻⃗ •𝑑𝐿
⃗ ⃗ •𝑑𝐿
∮𝐻 ⃗ 𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕𝐻𝑧
i.e. lim = lim ∆𝑆 = − = 𝐽𝑦
∆𝑧∆𝑥 →0 ∆𝑧∆𝑥 ∆𝑆𝑁 →0 𝑁 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

We know that current density in Cartesian coordinate system 𝐽 = 𝐽𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐽𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐽𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 A/𝑚2 .
𝐼
𝐽 = 𝐽𝑥 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐽𝑦 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐽𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 = ∆𝑆 , where I is the current in all the direction
𝑁

𝜕𝐻𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕𝐻𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥 ⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗

∮𝐻
∴𝐽=( − ) 𝑎̂𝑥 + ( − ) 𝑎̂𝑦 + ( − ) 𝑎̂𝑧 = lim
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ∆𝑆𝑁 →0 ∆𝑆𝑁
𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎̂𝑧
∂ ∂ ∂ ⃗ •𝑑𝐿
∮𝐻 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
This can be represented in matrix form as 𝛻 ⃗ =| | = lim =𝐽
∂x ∂y ∂z ∆𝑆𝑁 →0 ∆𝑆𝑁
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑯
𝜵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑱 This is the point form of Ampere’s circuital law, this also one of the
Maxwell’s equations in point form.
⃗ • 𝒅𝑳
For static electric field, static electric field is conservative field, thus ∮ 𝑬 ⃗ = 𝟎 . This also
⃗⃗⃗ ×
one of the Maxwell’s equations in integral form, for this static electric field we can write 𝜵
⃗⃗𝑬 = 𝟎
𝑎̂𝜌 𝜌 𝑎̂ø 𝑎̂𝑧
∂ ∂ ∂
In cylindrical coordinate system ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
𝛻 ⃗ = 𝐽 = 𝟏|
⃗ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 |
𝝆 ∂ρ ∂ø ∂z
𝐻𝜌 𝜌𝐻ø 𝐻𝑧
In spherical coordinate system

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𝑎̂𝑟 𝑟 𝑎̂𝜃 𝑎̂ø

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
𝛻 ⃗ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻
⃗ =𝐽= | |
2
r sinθ ∂r ∂θ ∂ø
𝐻𝑟 𝑟𝐻𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐻ø
⃗ •𝑑𝐿
∮𝐻 ⃗
Curl ⃗⃗⃗
𝛻 ×𝐻⃗ = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻
⃗ = 𝐽 = lim , Curl is a closed line integral per unit area as area
∆𝑆𝑁 →0 ∆𝑆𝑁

shrinks to point or circulation per unit area. In general, if there is no circulation (rotation), there
is no curl. For large angular velocity means greater value of Curl. Curl is a vector quantity; it
gives the direction which is along the axis through a point at which curl is defined.
The magnetic field lines produced by the current carrying conductor are rotating in the form of
concentric circle around the conductor. Thus there exists a curl of magnetic field intensity ⃗⃗⃗
𝛻 ×
⃗ = 𝐽. The direction of curl is along axis about which the rotation of vector field. Thus curl of
𝐻
vector field exists then the field is called rotational field or solenoid field. For irrotational field
curl is zero.
Stokes’ theorem
⃗ to the line integral of 𝐻
Statement: Stokes theorem relates the open surface integral of curl 𝐻 ⃗

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
along the closed path i. e ∫𝑆 (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = ∮ 𝐻⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗
𝐶

Proof: Consider open surface S having closed path C as shown in figure 55. The surface is
broken up into incremental surface. Let ∆𝑆 is one of the incremental surface area with closed
path 𝑐1 .
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑙 . For path 𝑐1 is
Let 𝑎̂𝑛 is a unit vector normal to the surface ∆𝑆, we know that ∮𝐶 𝐻
for small closed path, the current enclosed by this small closed path is given by

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∆𝐼 = 𝐽 • ∆𝑆 = (𝛻
∮ 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) • ∆𝑆
𝑐1

Here, ∆𝐼 is the current enclosed by small closed path 𝑐1 ,

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For entire open surface S,

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ (𝛻
∮ 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ 𝐽 • 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑠 𝑠

⃗⃗ • 𝐣 = 𝟎
Prove that 𝛁
⃗ • (𝛻
We know that divergence of curl is scalar quantity. Therefore ∇ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) = 𝑇 , where T is any

scalar, take volume integral to the above expression we get

⃗ • (𝛻
∫ ∇ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ )𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑇𝑑𝑣
𝑣 𝑣

Apply divergence theorem to LHS we get

⃗ • (𝛻
∫ ∇ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ )𝑑𝑣 = ∮ (𝛻
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 𝑠

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
∴ ∮ (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑇𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑣

The left hand side is for the surface integral for closed surface surrounding the volume. If we
consider a laundry bag and the open surface as the surface of the bag itself, we see that as we
gradually approach a closed surface by pulling on the drawstrings, the closed path becomes
smaller and smaller and finally disappears as the surface becomes closed surface. Therefore the
Stokes’s theorem for closed surface produces zero result,
Therefore

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
∮ (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑠 = 0 = ∫ ∇
⃗ • (𝛻
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ )𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑇𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑣 𝑣

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We have ∫𝑣 𝑇𝑑𝑣 = 0
This is true for any volume; it is true for the differential volume,
𝑇𝑑𝑣 = 0
Therefore
T=0
Or
⃗ • (𝛻
∇ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗)=0

⃗ • 𝑗=0
∇
Example: Consider a portion of the sphere surface is specified by 𝑟 = 4,0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 0.1𝜋, 0 ≤
⃗ = 6𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑎̂𝑟 + 18𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝜑 𝐴/𝑚. Verify both the
𝜑 ≤ 0.3𝜋, if magnetic field intensity 𝐻
sides of the Stokes theorem.
Solution: Consider the Stokes theorem for the open surface of cloth path C

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ (𝛻
∮ 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑠

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ 𝐻
Consider LHS ∮𝐶 𝐻 ⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫ 𝐻⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫ 𝐻⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ , since the closed loop having
1 2 3

three segments.
For the segment 1,𝑟 = 4, 𝜙 = 0,0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 0.1𝜋,𝜃 is the variable , therefore 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑟𝑑𝛳𝑎̂𝛳
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = (6𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑎̂𝑟 + 18𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝜑 ) • (𝑟𝑑𝛳𝑎̂𝛳 ) = 0
∴ 𝐻
For the segment 2,𝑟 = 4, 𝛳 = 0.1𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 0.3𝜋, 𝜙 is the variable , therefore
𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳𝑑𝜙𝑎̂𝜙

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⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = (6𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑎̂𝑟 + 18𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝜑 ) • ( 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳𝑑𝜙𝑎̂𝜙 ) = 18 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛳𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑑𝜙

∴ 𝐻
0.3𝜋 0.3𝜋
∫ ⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫
𝐻 18 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛳𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑑𝜙 = 18 × 16 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛18 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛18 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙|0.3𝜋
0 = 22.24
0 0

For the segment 3,𝑟 = 4, 𝜙 = 0.3𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 0.1𝜋, 𝜃 is the variable , therefore

𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝑟𝑑𝛳𝑎̂𝛳
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = (6𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑎̂𝑟 + 18𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝜑 ) • (𝑟𝑑𝛳𝑎̂𝛳 ) = 0
∴ 𝐻

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ 𝐻
LHS ∮𝐶 𝐻 ⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫ 𝐻⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫ 𝐻⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 0 + 22.24 + 0 = 22.24 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
1 2 3

𝑎̂𝑟 𝑟 𝑎̂𝜃 𝑎̂ø

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
RHS ∫𝑠 (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 , 𝛻 ⃗ = 21 |
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻 ∂ ∂ ∂
|
r sinθ ∂r ∂θ ∂ø
𝐻𝑟 𝑟𝐻𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐻ø
1 ∂ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐻ø ∂ 𝑟𝐻𝜃 ∂ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐻ø ∂ 𝐻𝑟 ∂ 𝑟𝐻𝜃
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
𝛻 ⃗ = {( − ) 𝑎
̂ 𝑟 − ( − ) 𝑟 𝑎
̂ 𝜃 + (
r 2 sinθ ∂θ ∂ø ∂r ∂ø ∂r
∂ 𝐻𝑟
− )𝑎̂ø }
∂θ
1 ∂ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐻ø 𝑎̂𝑟 ∂ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐻ø ∂ 𝐻𝑟 ∂ 𝐻𝑟
⃗⃗⃗
𝛻 ×𝐻 ⃗ = {( )−( − ) 𝑟 𝑎̂𝜃 − )𝑎̂ø }
2
r sinθ ∂θ ∂r ∂ø ∂θ
1 ∂ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 18𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑎̂𝑟 ∂ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 18𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 ∂ 6𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
⃗⃗⃗
𝛻 ×𝐻 ⃗ = {( ) − ( − ) 𝑟 𝑎̂𝜃
r 2 sinθ ∂θ ∂r ∂ø
∂ 6𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑎̂𝑟
− )𝑎̂ø }
∂θ
1
⃗⃗⃗
𝛻 ×𝐻 ⃗ = {(r 2 18 × 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cos𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝑟 ) − (2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 18𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − 6𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑)𝑟 𝑎̂𝜃
r 2 sinθ
36 6
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
𝛻 ⃗ = 36 cos𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝑟 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑎̂𝜃
𝑟 rsinθ
6
(𝛻⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = (36cos𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝑟 − 36𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑎̂𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑎̂𝜃 ) • r 2 sinθd𝜭𝒅𝝓𝑎̂𝑟
sinθ
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
(𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = 36cos𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑r 2 sinθd𝜭𝒅𝝓 = 36r 2 sinθcos𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑d𝜭𝒅𝝓

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
(𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = 36 × 16sinθcos𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑d𝜭𝒅𝝓 = 576 sinθcos𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑d𝛳𝑑𝜙
0.3𝜋 0.1𝜋
576 0.3𝜋 0.1𝜋
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
∫ (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = 576 ∫ ∫ sinθcos𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑d𝛳𝑑𝜙 = ∫ ∫ sin2𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑d𝛳𝑑𝜙
𝑠 0 0 2 0 0

∫𝑠 (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = 576 × −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃|0.1𝜋
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻 0 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑|0.3𝜋
0 = 22.13𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
2 2
SinA cosB =1/2(sin (A+B) + sin
(A-B))

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⃗ = 6𝑥𝑦𝑎̂𝑥 − 3𝑦 2 𝑎̂𝑦 A/m

Example: Verify both the sides of the Stokes theorem for the field 𝐻

for the rectangular path around the region 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5,−1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1, 𝑧 = 0, assume direction of 𝑑𝑆
is in positive z-direction.
Solution: Consider the Stokes theorem for the open surface of closed path C as shown in below
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ (𝛻
figure ∮𝐶 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆
𝑠

There are four line segments in the closed path C, therefore the closed loop integration is divided
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫𝑁 𝐻
into four integrations i.e. ∮𝐶 𝐻 ⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫𝑂 𝐻
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫𝑃 𝐻
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ + ∫𝑀 𝐻
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗
𝑀 𝑁 𝑂 𝑃
𝑁 5
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ 6𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 = −63 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
∫ 𝐻
𝑀 2
𝑂 1
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ −3𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 2 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
∫ 𝐻
𝑁 −1
𝑃 2
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ −6𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 = −63𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
∫ 𝐻
𝑂 5
𝑀 −1
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = ∫ 3𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = −2𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
∫ 𝐻
𝑃 1

⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = −126
∮ 𝐻
𝐶

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
Consider the RHS of Stokes’s theorem ∫𝑠 (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆

𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎̂𝑧 𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎̂𝑧

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
𝛻 ⃗ = || || = || || = −6𝑥𝑎̂𝑧
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 0

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⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
(𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = −6𝑥𝑎̂𝑧 • 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎̂𝑧 = −6𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
5 1
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
∫ (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∫ −6𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = −126 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝑠 2 −1

Therefore LHS=RHS
⃗ = 10𝜌2 𝑎̂𝜙 A/m .Determine current
Example: The magnetic field intensity in free space is 𝐻

density and current over the circular surface ρ=1 all𝜙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 0, Assume direction of 𝑑𝑆 is in
positive z-direction.
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
Solution: We know that (𝛻 ⃗)=𝐽

𝑎̂𝜌 𝜌 𝑎̂ø 𝑎̂𝑧

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
𝐽 = 𝜌| ∂ρ ∂ø ∂z
|=
𝐻𝜌 𝜌𝐻ø 𝐻𝑧
𝑎̂𝜌 𝜌 𝑎̂ø 𝑎̂𝑧
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
| ∂ρ ∂ø ∂z
| = 30𝜌2 𝑎̂𝑧 𝐴/𝑚2
𝜌
0 10𝜌3 0
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
Current 𝐼 = ∫𝑠 (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
(𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = 30𝜌2 𝑎̂𝑧 • 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎̂𝑧 = 30𝜌3 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙
1 2𝜋
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
𝐼 = ∫ (𝛻 ⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∫ 30 𝜌3 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 = 20𝜋𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝑠 0 0

⃗ at the centre of a square current

Problem: Derive an expression for magnetic field intensity 𝐻
carrying loop of I amps with side L meters using Biot Savart’s law.
Solution:

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⃗ = 𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 +𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 )(−𝑎̂𝑧 ) =

The magnetic field intensity for the line segment AB 𝐻 4𝜌𝜋

𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛45+𝑠𝑖𝑛45)(−𝑎̂𝑧 )
𝐿
4𝜋
2

𝐼(𝑠𝑖𝑛45 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛45)(−𝑎̂𝑧 ) 𝐼𝑎̂𝑧

= 𝐿 =−
4𝜋 2 √2𝜋𝐿

⃗ = − 2√2𝐼𝑎̂𝑧
For all four line segments 𝐻 𝜋𝐿

⃗ = 𝑥+2𝑦
Problem: Given 𝐻
2
𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑎̂𝑧 𝐴/𝑚, find 𝐽. Use 𝐽 to find total current passing through the
𝑧2

surface𝑧 = 4, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, 3 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 5.
𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎̂𝑧 𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎̂𝑧
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
Solution: We know that 𝐽 = 𝛻 ⃗ =| | = || ∂x ∂y ∂z || =
∂x ∂y ∂z
𝑥+2𝑦 2
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧 0 𝑧2 𝑧

2(𝑥 + 2𝑦) 1
𝐽= 𝑎
̂ 𝑥 + 𝑎̂
𝑧3 𝑧2 𝑧
2 5
1𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 1
𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽 • 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ ∫ = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
1 3 𝑧2 8

Prove that ⃗⃗⃗

𝜵 × ⃗𝑬 = 𝟎
We know that, the static electric field is a conservative field, it is an irrotational field and
hence ∮ 𝐸⃗ • dL
⃗ = 0. According to Stokes’s theorem

∮ 𝐸⃗ • dL
⃗ = 0 = ∫ (𝛻
𝑠
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆 .

∴ ⃗⃗⃗
𝛻 × 𝐸⃗ = 0
This is also one of the Maxwell’s equations in point form

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Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density

Let us define the magnetic flux density as
⃗ = 𝜇𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ Webers per square meter (Wb/m) or Tesla
Where 𝜇 permeability of the media, it is defined as 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 , for free space relative
permeability 𝜇𝑟 = 1 and 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚.
According to Gauss’s law for electric field

⃗ • 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄 = 𝜓
∮ 𝐷
𝑠

Similarly for steady magnetic field, the magnetic flux ϕ=Flux density×flux passing through
designated area, therefore
⃗ • 𝑑𝑆 Webers
𝜙 = ∫𝑆 𝐵
This equation is known as Gauss’s law in magnetic field
Since the magnetic filed lines are closed lines, and the field is rotational field, thus

⃗ • 𝑑𝑆 = 0
∮ 𝐵
𝑆

If we apply the divergence theorem then

⃗ • 𝑑𝑆 = 0 = ∫ (∇
∮ 𝐵 ⃗ •𝐵
⃗ ) 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑉

⃗ •𝐵
∴ ∇ ⃗ =0
This is also one of the Maxwell’s equations in point form
List of Maxwell’s equation for steady electric and steady magnetic field in point form and
integral form
Point form (Differential form) Integral form
⃗ •𝐷
1) ∇ ⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 ⃗ • 𝑑𝑆
1) ∮𝑆 𝐷 = 𝑄 = ∫𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = 0
2) ∇ 2) ∮ 𝐸⃗ • dL
⃗ =0

⃗ ×𝐻
3) ∇ ⃗ = 𝐽 ⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼 = ∫ (𝛻
3) ∮𝐶 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗ ) • 𝑑𝑆
𝑠

⃗ •𝐵
4) ∇ ⃗ =0 ⃗ • 𝑑𝑆 = 0
4)∮𝑆 𝐵
Scalar and vector magnetic potential
In magnetic fields, there are two types of potentials

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1. The scalar magnetic potential denoted as 𝑉𝑚 (Amps)

2. The vector magnetic potential denoted as 𝐴(Wb/mt)
The scalar magnetic potential 𝑉𝑚
In static electric fields, the electric potential depends on the charge which establishes the field.
Since the charge is a scalar quantity, the electric potential is scalar quantity it is single valued.
The electric field intensity and potential is related using a relation
𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗𝑉
In steady magnetic field, we have a similar relation
⃗ = −∇
𝐻 ⃗ 𝑉𝑚
If we take curl on both the side we get
⃗ ×𝐻
∇ ⃗ =𝐽=∇
⃗ × (−∇
⃗ 𝑉𝑚 ) = 0,

Since curl of gradient is zero, thus the scalar magnetic potential exists if 𝐽 = 0
⃗ = −∇
Therefore 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑉𝑚 , provided 𝐽 = 0
We know that
⃗ •𝐵
∇ ⃗ =0
⃗ • 𝜇𝐻
∇ ⃗ =0
⃗ • 𝜇(−∇
∇ ⃗ 𝑉𝑚 ) = 0
∇2 𝑉𝑚 = 0
This is the Laplace’s equation in magnetic field. This shows that scalar magnetic field satisfies
the Laplace’s equation provided 𝐽 = 0
The difference between scalar electric potential V and scalar magnetic potential 𝑉𝑚 is, 𝑉𝑚 is not
a single valued function of position. The electric potential V is singled valued function.

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Consider a coaxial cable, inner conductor radius a carries a current I, the outer conductor having
inner surface radius b and outer surface radius c carries current –I as shown in figure 56. For the
region 𝑎 < 𝜌 < 𝑏, 𝐽 = 0, the value of magnetic field intensity for this region is
𝐼
⃗ =
𝐻 𝑎̂
2𝜋 𝜌 𝜙
The total current I flowing in 𝑎̂𝑧 direction in the inner conductor, let us find 𝑉𝑚 using the
⃗ = −∇
relation 𝐻 ⃗ 𝑉𝑚
𝜕𝑉𝑚𝑎
̂
⃗ = − (1
Therefore 𝐻 𝜙
)=
𝐼
𝑎̂𝜙
𝜌 𝜕𝜙 2𝜋𝜌

𝐼 1 𝜕𝑉𝑚
=−
2𝜋𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙
𝐼 𝜕𝑉𝑚
=−
2𝜋 𝜕𝜙
Integrate with respect to 𝜑, we get
𝐼
𝑉𝑚 = − 𝜙
2𝜋
If we set 𝑉𝑚 be zero at ϕ=0 and proceed counterclockwise around the circle, the magnetic
potential goes negative linearly. When we made one circle (𝜙 = 2π), the potential is –I, but that
𝜋 𝐼
was the point at which the said potential was zero a moment ago. At P, if 𝜙 = 4 ,𝑉𝑚𝑃 = − 8,
9𝜋 9𝐼
if 𝜙 = ,𝑉𝑚𝑃 = − 8 .
4
1
In general 𝑉𝑚𝑃 = 𝐼 (𝑛 − 8) (n=0,∓1, ∓2, …)

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Thus scalar magnetic potential having multivalve at the same location, but electric potential is
singled at same point. The reason for this multivaledness may be shown by a comparison with
the static electric field. For static electric field

∮ 𝐸⃗ • dL
⃗ =0

⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = 0
∇

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = − ∫ 𝐸⃗ • dL
⃗ is independent of the path

Similarly in static magnetic field

⃗ ×𝐻
∇ ⃗ = 0, provided provided 𝐽 = 0
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ = 𝐼, even if 𝐽 is zero along the path of integration. If we make another complete lap
∮𝐻
around the current, then result of integration increases by I. If no current I enclosed by the path,
then the single valued potential may be defined. In general,
𝑏
⃗ • 𝑑𝐿⃗ (𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ)
𝑉𝑚,𝑎𝑏 = − ∫ 𝐻
𝑎

We should remember that the static electric potential V is a conservative field, the magnetic
scalar potential 𝑉𝑚 is not a conservative field. Therefore we cannot encircle I, and a single valued
𝐼 𝐼 𝜋
potential possible i.e.𝑉𝑚 = − 2𝜋 𝜙 (−𝜋 < 𝜙 < 𝜋) and 𝑉𝑚𝑃 = − 8 (𝜙 = 4 )

The vector magnetic potential 𝐴

The vector magnetic potential is extremely useful in studying radiation from antennas. The
vector magnetic potential may be used in regions where the current density is zero or non zero,
and it can also be able to extend it to the time varying magnetic field.
⃗ •𝐵
We know that for static magnetic field ∇ ⃗ =0
From the vector identity divergence of curl of any vector is zero,
⃗ •𝐵
Therefore ∇ ⃗ =∇
⃗ • (∇
⃗ × 𝐴) = 0

⃗ =∇
∴ 𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐴
⃗ = 1∇
𝐴 is the vector magnetic potential in Webrs per meter and magnetic field intensity 𝐻 ⃗ ×𝐴
𝜇 0

and
1
⃗ ×𝐻
∇ ⃗ =𝐽= ⃗ ×∇
∇ ⃗ ×𝐴
𝜇0

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If we know the vector magnetic potential 𝐴 , we can find the current density 𝐽. To define the
vector magnetic potential 𝐽 need not to be zero, but for scalar magnetic potential and vector
⃗ •𝐵
magnetic potential in both cases ∇ ⃗ =0
⃗ ×∇
From the vector identity ∇ ⃗ ×𝐴=∇
⃗ (∇
⃗ • 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴 = 𝜇0 𝐽

⃗ (∇
To simplify this expression set ∇ ⃗ • 𝐴) = 0, then

∇2 𝐴 = −𝜇0 𝐽
This is the Poisson’s equation in magnetic field. This is the second order partial differential
⃗
𝜇0𝐼𝑑𝐿
equation, if we solve this equation we get 𝐴 = ∮ 4𝜋𝑅

⃗ 𝑑𝑆
𝜇0 𝐾
𝐴=∫
𝑠 4𝜋𝑅

𝜇0 𝐽𝑑𝑣
𝐴=∫
𝑣 4𝜋𝑅

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