Lesson 5: Multimodal Texts

A mode, quite simply, is a means of communicating. According to the New London Group, there
are five modes of communication: visual, linguistic, spatial, aural, and gestural.

A mode is different from a medium, which is the substance through which communication is
conveyed. Examples of a visual medium, for instance, would be photography, painting, or film.

When a given text makes use of more than one mode, the text can be characterized as
multimodal. Most texts are multimodal – we make sense out of their messages through decoding the
different modes of communication that they employ.

Modes and Media

A mode is a means of communicating while a medium is the channel or system through which
communications are conveyed. The plural form of medium is media. So, for example, if we want to
communicate in the linguistic mode, we might choose the medium of print. If we want to communicate in
the aural mode, we might choose the medium of a podcast. Both print and podcasts are forms of media.

When analyzing or producing multimodal compositions, it is important to recognize the operation

of multiple modes within artifacts (or what we might call multimedia texts). But it is also useful to think about
which mode generally predominates in any given medium. Both photographs and films, for instance, employ
the visual mode. Films differ from photographs, however, in that they involve movement of bodies and
objects through space (spatial mode). We might say, then, that the visual mode dominates in photographs,
while the spatial mode dominates in film (although obviously some photographs employ the spatial mode
powerfully in how objects are arranged in relation to each other). Being aware of dominant modes within a
medium will prove helpful later when choosing powerful claims and persuasive evidence for composing
your own multimodal argument.

1. Visual
The visual mode refers to the images and characters that people see. It is sometimes
possible to find compositions that almost, if not completely, rely on a single mode. For instance,
the “No Guns” symbol has no alphabetic text and no sound. Like many signs, it relies for its meaning
on visual information. However, we might be able to say that the sign uses the spatial mode as
well, since the gun appears behind the red bar that signals “no” or “not allowed.” So while the visual
dominates in signs, even this composition is not “purely” visual.

2. Aural
The aural mode is focused on sound including, but not limited to, music, sound effects,
ambient noises, silence, tone of voice in spoken language, volume of sound, emphasis, and accent.
An example of an aural mode — one that depends almost exclusively on sound—might be
the recording of a public speech that is delivered orally to a live audience, a radio address, or a
podcast.

3. Gestural
The gestural mode refers to the way movement is interpreted. Facial expressions, hand
gestures, body language, and interaction between people are all gestural modes. This has always
been important in face-to-face conversations and in theater, but it has become more apparent on
the web lately with the wide use of YouTube and other video players. The gestural mode works
with linguistic, visual, aural, and sometimes even spatial modes in order to create more detail and
communicate better to the reader or consumer of the gestural text.

4. Linguistic
The linguistic mode refers to written or spoken words. The mode includes word choice, the
delivery of written or spoken text, the organization of words into sentences and paragraphs, and
the development and coherence of words and ideas. Linguistic is not always the most important
mode; this depends on the other modes at play in the text, the type of text, and other factors.
Linguistic is probably the most widely used mode because it can be both read and heard on both
paper or audio. The linguistic mode is the best way to express details and lists.

5. Spatial
The spatial mode, as the name implies, refers to the arrangement of elements in space. It
involves the organization of items and the physical closeness between people and objects. A good
example of the spatial mode might be the different ways in which chairs and desks are arranged in
a classroom.

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 Lesson 6: Public Speaking

The importance of public speaking cannot be denied. Great speeches have moved nations to war
and revolution: they inspire and move people to act. What people say, and how they say it, can get them
elected in public office or create a new movement in society. For the Greeks, public speaking was political
in nature, and the spoken word was thought to be such an important skill that citizens were taught the art
of rhetoric.

Public speaking is an important life skill, yet few people master it. In fact, many people are afraid
of speaking in public. However, the significance of public speaking has only gotten stronger in contemporary
times. Public speaking platforms, such as TED Talks and YouTube, have captured and disseminated public
speech to an unprecedented scale, and what one says at the spur of the moment can live forever on the
Internet. Great speeches have created hope in perilous situations, and have made people change their
minds about the world and their places in it.

According to acclaimed public speakers Dale Carnegie and Joseph Berg Esenwein (2007). "Public
speaking is public utterance, public issuance, of the man himself; therefore, the first thing both in time and
importance is that the man should be and think and feel things that are worthy of being given forth."

The most well-known public speaking traditions come from the West, specifically from the Greco-
Roman tradition. The Greeks studied the art of rhetoric on the island of Sicily, and it began with a practical
need. Their government had been overthrown, a new democracy was formed, and the Greek courts were
filled with clashing property claims. The Greek teacher of rhetoric, Corax, and his student, Tisias, proceeded
to help citizens when it came to speaking persuasively in courts of law, and this led to the expansion of the
teaching of rhetoric to mainland Greece. According to Corax.a basic speech has three parts, the
introduction, evidence, and conclusion, and this simple organization of speeches has endured throughout
the ages (Morreale, 2010).

Other famous Greek teachers were Protagoras, the father of debate, who made his students argue
for and against issues of the day. to sharpen their reasoning skills and appreciate different sides of an
issue. And there was the famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle, also known as the father of modern
communication. Aristotle wrote a treatise entitled "Rhetoric," where he discussed the use of logos (logical
argument). pathos (emotional argument), and ethos (the speaker's character and credibility), in the use of
persuasive speaking (Morreale, 2010).

According to Grenville Kleiser (2009), in Successful Methods in Public Speaking, "The great orators
of the world did not regard eloquence as simply an endowment of nature, but applied themselves diligently
to cultivating their powers of expression." The most famous orator in Ancient Greece was Demosthenes. In
the beginning, he had many flaws when it came to public speaking, chief among them were his stammer
and weak voice. According to Kleiser (2009). Demosthenes practiced earnestly by "declaiming on the
seashore with pebbles in his mouth, walking up and downhill while reciting." and that his speeches were
known for their deliberation and forethought.

On the other hand, the most famous Roman orator was Cicero, whose eloquence was described
as a "resistless torrent" (Kleiser, 2009). Cicero was a statesman who argued that the teaching of rhetoric
should be considered an art form, and that this could be useful in "all practical and public affairs." Cicero
believed that in order to prepare a speech, one should first think of one's listeners and their interests, and
to use certain strategies, such as using humor, questions, etc.. to engage the audience (Morreale, 2010).

The Roman lawyer and educator, Quintilian, also forwarded the idea that public speakers should
be ethical. According to Morreale (2010), the ideal speaker was "a good man speaking well... a good
speaker is ethical and of high character, and speaking well-meant being well- nformed and presenting the
speech effectively."

It is interesting to note that during these times; women were not allowed to speak publicly in these
countries, and that for a long time. This was true for women in other areas of the world. However, during
precolonial times, the Philippines was one of the few places that allowed women to speak in public for the
purpose of presiding over religious rituals. These women were known as the babaylan, priestesses of the
community and along with the warriors of the community, the mandirigma, they were the leaders of pre-
colonial Philippines (Mallari, 2013). Although most of the babaylan were women, babaylan priests also
existed, wearing feminine clothing and adopting a feminized role in Philippine society.

The Philippines actually has its own tradition of public speaking. It is called different words in
different regions in the Philippines. According to Montemayor (n.d.), among the Tagalogs, the Karagatan is
said to be a game wherein young men and women duel with each other using words when it comes to
talking about love, while the "Huwego de Prenda... is agame used to entertain guests and the bereaved

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION 10
family during wakes." During the American period, the more widely known Balagtasan was also staged, on
order to honor Francisco Balagtas, a well-known Filipino poet, The Balagtasan is "like an ordinary debate,
except that one has to reason and argue in verse. Two master poets are assigned to defend the pros and
cons of an issue, and a board of judges sits to determine the winner." At first, this whole enterprise was
scripted and staged, but thereafter, they were made in a more impromptu manner.

When the Americans brought public education in the Philippines, they also brought their public
speaking traditions along with them. The Americans wanted to distinguish themselves from the Spanish
colonizers by emphasizing public education, and did so on a massive scale. They did this using the medium
of the English language, which has its own peculiarities and forms, foremost among them is the dictum to
be straightforward. It is anchored on the public speaking tradition founded on Western Civilization, which is
based on the Greek and the Roman traditions.

In this manner, the Filipino public speaking tradition brings with it the flamboyant, poetic manner
that flourished under Spanish colonization, and the simpler, methodical public speaking traditions of the
West.

Best Practices in Public Speaking

Introduction. What makes a speech electric? What makes a speech so effective it can make the
audience have goosebumps or make them flush In rage or joy? Some speeches can be so effective they
trigger adrenaline, while other speeches, just as effective, frigger a sense of peace and calm in the midst
of chaos. Great speakers have been called hypnotic, magnetic, and charismatic, and this is not just because
they have a compelling message, but because of the captivating manner they deliver these speeches, as
well.

Performance. Speeches are performances, and they are delivered best when they have the feel
of authenticity and earnestness. People respond when they think that the one speaking is being honest and
sincere, and they respond even more strongly when they feel that they can relate to the speaker in question.
Because of this, a sense of humor helps break the ice, and strategic shows of vulnerability and concern
can make an audience feel closer to the speaker.

Plan the Speech. It is important to express oneself in an expressive and articulate manner. It is
best to choose one's words carefully, and to ensure that one's speech builds on the foundations of logos,
pathos, and ethos. To come across as articulate, one must also nurture a speaking style that is effective,
and this style varies from one person to another.

Eye Contact. One way of coming across as authentic is the ability to make good eye contact with
the audience, and to speak in a manner that touches them. It is important to engage the audience, and eye
contact helps in doing that. Some people, however, have a hard time making eye contact. Should this be
the case, it would help to pick out three people from the audience, placed in a mental triangle from one's
position, and try to make eye contact with them instead of the rest of the people in the room. If one is truly
hesitant to look at people's eyes. One may look at their foreheads instead: this creates the illusion of making
eye contact with people without actually doing it. On the other hand, if one is comfortable making eye
contact, it would help to pick out people who seem to be friendly or accommodating to look at, so that when
one speaks, one feels confident and at ease.

Speaking Style. Different people have different speaking styles, and one can only find one's
personal style through constant practice. Some people seem to be more effective when they come across
as calm, trustworthy, and reasonable, and their hand gestures seem more open and thoughtful. Others, on
the other hand, can get away with bursts of passion and bombast, infecting the audience with their fervor
and enthusiasm. This is usually matched with pointing and/or punches thrown in the air, to punctuate their
speeches and make a strong impression on the crowd.

Hand Gestures. Whatever kind of speaker one may be, it is always best to be more purposeful
when it comes to choosing hand gestures. Hand gestures can create as much of an impact as the content
of the speech itself. They must always look smooth and natural, rather than robotic or artificial. Hand
gestures can be useful signposts in making a point, such as the usual hand gestures of enumeration. They
can signal inclusiveness, such as when both hands are stretched towards the audience palm up, or division,
such as when there are sweeping gestures to indicate difference. Although they are intuitive in nature, they
are extremely useful when used effectively, and note that these gestures are also culturally informed. Some
hand gestures are considered rude, and it is important to be able to match the appropriate hand gestures
to one's audience.

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 Recording the Speech for Feedback. One of the best practices in public speaking is to videotape
speakers, and then have these speakers watch themselves. It might surprise them that they use hand
gestures or mannerisms that distract from or lessen the impact of their speeches. Some hand gestures are
so exaggerated they look like policemen directing traffic, and some people pepper their speeches with too
much nervous laughter, or fillers like "Umms" and "Uhhhs" in their speech. This process is usually done
inside speech laboratories, where students can access videos of themselves, and allow them to study their
speeches. They can watch for the flaws of their performances, instead of being too dependent on the
teacher or their peers when it comes to constructive criticism.

Peer Evaluation. Unfortunately, not all schools have the means to record their students' speeches.
Should this be the case, it is important to have discerning teachers, coaches, or peers to provide feedback
when it comes to the effectivity of one's speech. It is not enough to be given a grade for the speech, or just
be accorded high praise. Feedback from people is important, and this will be a great tool in improving one's
speech and one's speaking style in general. Observations can range from the speaker's posture, one's
facial expressions, and one's general appearance. This can also be done alone with the speaker rehearsing
their speech in front of a mirror.

Appearance. When it comes to appearance, it is important to look credible and worthy of respect.
In the real world, this depends a lot on one's audience, as the way one's dresses should match the kind of
audience one wants to impress. Whether one's audience are corporate clients or creative directors, this
should have an influence on the appearance one presents.

Clothing. Traditional audiences often call for more formal clothing. For men, this would mean
donning a suit and tie at the most formal level, or at the very least, the use of long-sleeved button-down
shirts, slacks, and leather shoes. In the Philippines, the use of a barong and slacks is acceptable. For the
women, a pantsuit or a formal coat and skirt ensemble should suffice. In less formal instances, a dress or
blouse and skirt (or slacks) outfit should do as well.

Good Grooming. In addition, good grooming is a must, and that extends to one's hair to one's
nails. As long as one looks neat and clean, that should be enough to satisfy most audience's requirements.
Some audiences, however, may require women to wear more (or less) make up, don a hijab, or wear high
heels - in these instances, it is always best to know the cultural expectations of the audience and the venue.

Visual Aids. Since we live in a world that is more dependent on information technology, it has
become de rigueur for audiences to expect speeches to be accompanied with visual aids, such as
PowerPoint presentations, video or audio clips, and infographics. Any of these are acceptable, and in most
cases, commendable, as long as they are relevant to the topic at hand.

PowerPoint Presentations. When it comes to the use of PowerPoint, one should ensure that the
font size of the text is not too small. An acceptable size font would be type 24 or larger, and the text should
be in dark colors for easier reading. The best PowerPoint presentations are not text-heavy: instead, they
are visually oriented, which is why the use of photographs, illustrations, charts, and the like would better
serve one's use of the medium. Video clips may or may not be embedded in the presentation, as well as
audio clips and animation.

The University of Leicester gives a few guidelines about the use of PowerPoint, as well. When it
comes to color, it is best to be consistent and to have the same color and background schemes for each
slide. It also mentions the "six by six rule." hereby, "slides should have no more than six bullet points and
each bullet point should be no more than six words long". Although it is good to use animation, it would be
best not to overuse this feature. Once the PowerPoint presentation is finished, one can view it several ways;
one can view it in the "Notes" tab to see the comments and notes for the speaker, aside from the actual
slide presentation: and another is the "Slide Sorter" view to see the visual impact of the presentation. A
good rule of thumb is one slide for every two minutes. One should also rehearse the speech while using
the presentation, and check the infrastructure (such as the room, laptop, and projector) before the speech
(2017).

Handouts. It would be best to have handouts ready for one's audience, so that members of the
audience will not have to scramble when taking notes during the presentation. These should be written
succinctly, and should have appropriate citations.

Feedback. Although the speech is a performance, it is also one where its audience can participate,
often by the speaker asking rhetorical or directing actual questions to the audience. It is always good to
read the verbal and non-verbal cues from the audience, such as whether they agree with what one is saying
or whether they are resisting to certain ideas, mirrored by their use of body language. The speaker is seen
as more responsive and sympathetic to the audience when they modify their speeches to match the
audience's visual cues.

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 Conclusion. In the end, public speaking is a dynamic performance that is meant to disseminate
information, create greater awareness, and evoke emotions in the audience. It is utilized by teachers,
lawyers, politicians, and the like. It has been used effectively to promote human rights on the street and to
create policies in government. Although it is a performance, the most important speeches in the world have
had material effects, such as the speeches of Abraham Lincoln, Susan B. Anthony, and Martin Luther King,
Jr., and these still affect the world today, long after their speakers have already been long gone.

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION 13