SHA-SHIB COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT
OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL

Subject Name : HMT

Subject Code : ME -701
Branch : Mechanical Engineering
Year : 4th Year/7th sem
 Heat and Mass Transfer Laboratory
Manual

Contents:

Sl Experi Page No.

N
o ment
1 Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod 3
2 Thermal Conductivity of Liquid 8
3 Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Material 1
2
4 Determination of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 1
of a 5
Composite wall.
5 Heat Transfer Coefficient in Natural Convection 1
9
6 Heat Transfer Coefficient in Forced Convention 2
3
7 Effectiveness on a Pin fin 2
7
8 Critical Heat Flux 3
0
9 Emissivity of Surface 3
5
10 Stefan Boltzman Constant 3
9
11 Effectiveness of Heat Exchangers 4
3

1
 EXPERIMENT NO.1

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

AIM
:

To determine the thermal conductivity of metal rod (Aluminium).

INTRODUCTION:

Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids, liquids and gases.

When the temperature gradient exists in a body, experience has shown that there
is a transfer of heat from high temperature region to the low temperature region.
The heat transfer rate per unit is proportional to the temperature gradient in the
direction of heat flow:

Q/A α (∆T/∆X)

Where „Q‟ is the heat transfer in (watts), „A‟ is the area of heat transfer (m 2),
∆T/∆X is the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow (⁰C/m). Where
the proportionality constant is a property of a material and is known as thermal
conductivity.

Q/A = -k (∆T/∆X)

The positive constant „k‟ is called the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of

material. The negative sign indicates that heat transfer takes place in the
direction of decreasing temperature. Co-efficient of thermal conductivity has the
units of W/m⁰C. Note that heat flow rate is involved and the numerical value of
the co-efficient of thermal conductivity indicates how fast heat will flow in a
given material.

2
 Thermal conductivity co-efficient is a physical property of the material.
Although it is fairly constant in narrow temperature range, it varies over a wide
temperature range. Metals, which are good conductors of heat, have high values
of co-efficient of thermal conductivity; for example 385 W/m⁰C for copper.
Insulating material have low values of co-efficient of thermal conductivity for
example 0.048 W/m⁰C for fibre insulating board. In any conduction heat
transfer problem, it is essential to have the knowledge of co-efficient of thermal
conductivity of the material involved in the heat transfer process. This setup has
been designed to measure the temperature gradient along the length of the
aluminium rod and to determine it‟s co-efficient of thermal conductivity.

3
APPARATUS:

Fig.1 shows the schematic representation of experimental setup. It

consists of an aluminium rod, one end of which is heated by an electric heater
and other end projects insides the cooling water jacket. The middle portion of
the rod is thermally insulated from the surroundings using asbestos rope. The
temperature of the rod is measured at four different locations along its length.
Following are the important features of the experimental setup.

a. Aluminium rod length : 500 mm

(effective) Diameter : 40 mm
No. of thermocouples mounted
along the length : 6 (at the intervals of 50 mm)
b. Band heater
c. Thermal insulation covering the aluminum rod to reduce those losses

to the surroundings.
d. Cooling water jacket with water supply connections and thermocouples

at both inlet and outlet.

e. Heat controller or regulator to vary the input power to the heater
f. Rotameter to measure water flow rater in the cooling water jacket.
g. Thermocouples to measure the temperature at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6 along the

length of the aluminum rod and 7 & 8 to measure temperature at inlet and
outlet of water jacket.
h. Digital temperature indicator and channel selector.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

a. Switch on the mains and the console.

b. Open the valve at the inlet of the cooling water jacket and maintain

constant water flow rate in the rotometer.

4
c. Switch on the heater.
d. Set the heat controller or regulator which adjusts power input to heater.
e. Wait till the temperatures T1 to T6 are constant with time that is

steady state is reached.

f. Read the temperatures T1 to T6 on the metal rod using the channel

selector and digital temperature indicator.

5
g. Read inlet and outlet water temperatures (T7 and T8) of the cooling water
jacket.
h. Measure the cooling water flow rate in the rotometer.
i. Using the measured temperatures and water flow rate, the temperature

gradient along the length of the aluminium rod and co-efficient of thermal
conductivity of aluminium are calculated using the procedure given
below.
j. Repeat the experiment for different heat input and mass flow rate of water.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

50 50 50 50 50

T7(water inlet)
T1T2T3T4T5T6

50

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of Experimental Setup

T8(wate
r outlet)
He
ate
r

Fig. 1 shows the schematic of the heat transfer process. The heat balance
equation is given by:
Qi = Q0 + Ql............(1)
Where
Qi = Input heat flow rate from the heater to the
6
aluminum rod Q0 = Output heat flow rate from the
aluminum rod
= Heat flow rate absorbed by water in the cooling water jacket
Q1 = Heat loss from the rod to the surroundings through thermal
insulation, assumed to be zero.
We can assume the Q1=0, because of good thermal
insulation. Therefore, we get the heat flow rate
through the rod as:
Qi = Q0=mCp ∆Tw...................(2)

∆Tw = Rise in temperature of the cooling water = (T7-T8) in ⁰C

7
 m = water flow rate in kg/s in the cooling water jacket
from rotometer.
Cp = specific heat of water, 4.2 kJ/kg K.

Determination of temperature gradient (t/x) along the length

of aluminum rod:
From the measured temperatures T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6, surface
temperature distributions along the length of the aluminium rod can be
determined by plotting a graph of distance along the rod on the x axis
and temperature on the y axis as shown in the Fig.2

Fig.2: Plot of temperature v/s distance

Thus, the temperature gradient t/x at the center of the aluminium rod
in ⁰C/m can be determined from the slope of the curve (by drawing a
tangent).

Determination of co-efficient of thermal conductivity:

The heat conduction equation is

given by Q = -kA(t/x)(3)
Wher
e,
Q = Heat flow rate through the aluminium rod in watts
K = Co-efficient of thermal conductivity of

8
aluminium, W/mK A = d2 /4 = Area of heat transfer
in m2
D =Diameter of the aluminium rod = 40 mm
= 0.04 m From eqs (2) & (3), we get
k = m Cp ∆Tw / [A (t/x)]
The co-efficient of thermal conductivity (k) can be obtained by
substituting the measured values of m, ∆Tw, ∆T/∆X, A and Cp.

9
 The above analysis assumes that the heat loss from the aluminium rod is
negligible due to thermal insulation.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S Heat Thermocouple Cooling Mass He Temper Therm

input reading
l in 0C water flow at atur e al
n Temper rate of car gradien conduc
atur e water rie t tivit y
o d
aw
ay
by
wat
er
V A Q L K Qw dt/dx K
T T T T T T
T7 T8 p g/
m s (W/m
1 2 3 4 5 6 k)

The typical value of the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of aluminium

is 200-360 W/m K. The difference between the actual and measured
values of „k‟ is due to the heat losses through the thermal insulation and
may be acceptable as in any heat transfer experiment.
The experiment can be repeated for different water flow rate and heat
input.
The values of „k‟ obtained are tabulated.

Result: Thermal conductivity of aluminum rod is W/m °C.

10
 EXPERIMENT
NO.2

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUID

AI
M:
To determine the thermal conductivity of given liquid.

INTRODUCTION:

Heat is transferred or propagated by three different processes, viz.,

Conduction, Convection and Radiation. The fact that heat can be conducted
through a body is very well known. For example when a metal rod is heated at
one end, the heat gradually spreads along the rod and the other end becomes hot
after some time. The power of transmitting heat in this manner is proposed by
all substances solids, liquids, gases , to vary degree and the process is called
Conduction.

Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids or liquids.

For a given temperature difference between surfaces , rate of heat transfer ( Q
watts) depends upon the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a substance ( K ,
W/moC) , area of the heat transfer (A,m2) and temperature difference (Δt,0C)
between the surfaces and thickness of the material (ΔX , m) according to the
equation,

Q = kA(ΔT/ΔX)

Substances such as metals conduct more heat and have a high value of
thermal conductivity, as high as 200 W/m 0C. Insulating materials conduct less
heat and have lower values of thermal conductivity say about 0.1 to 1 W/m 0C.
In circumstances where the heat loss from the system has to be minimized,
such as power transmission lines, furnaces etc,. it is essential to cover them
with proper materials. This setup has been designed to study heat transfer
through liquids.

In determination of conductivity of liquids , the problem is to eliminate

Convection which will transmit more heat than conduction. By insulating on all
sides and circulating cooling water on one side this effect can be minimized.

SPECIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION:

11
 The setup consists of the following items.

a) Aluminum Cylinder:

The aluminium cylinder is of size 100 mm in diameter and 100 mm in

length. The thermocouples are placed to measure the oil temperature at
intervals of 25 mm. The outer surface is properly insulated to avoid heat
loss.

12
b) Heaters:

Provided to heat the liquid. There are two heaters, one is at the
bottom of the cylinder and other is at the outer surface of the cylinder.

* Capacity

Band Heater : 150 watts

Flat Heater : 150 watts

c) Cooling arrangement:

The top surface of the cylinder is cooled by water cooling as

shown in the figure. The water is continuously circulated through the water
jacket with the fixed rate of flow.

d) Thermocouples: K-type to measure temperature

1,2,3,4 : At a interval of 25mm , to measure liquid

temperature at different points.

6 : Water outlet temperature to the cooling jacket.

5 : Water inlet temperature to the cooling jacket.

e) Channel selectors and digital temperature indicators.

f) Heat control or Regulator : To vary input power of the heater.

g) Control Panel : To switch on/off the console and the heater.

h) Digital Voltmeter and Digital Ammeter to measure voltage and amperage.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE :

1. Switch - ON the Mains and the Console.

2. Switch - ON the Heater.

3. Set the heat control or regulator.

13
4. Allow water to flow through the cooling jacket. Wait for some
time till the temperature stabilizes with time, i.e, steady state is
reached.

5. Read the temperatures T1 to T6 using channel selector and digital

temperature indicator.

6. Note down the Voltmeter and Ammeter Readings.

14
7. Using the temperatures, measure rate of heat transfer and the
coefficient of the thermal conductivity using given procedure.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The heat balancing equation for one dimensional flow is given by,
(neglecting the losses in stable condition)

Heat lost from oil = Heat gained by water

i.e, QL = QW
QW = m x CP x (T6 - T5) in
Watts
Where,
m = Mass flow rate in kg/s.
CP = Specific heat of water in C
J/Kg

QL = K A (dT/dX) in Watts
Wher
e,
K = Thermal conductivity of Liquid in
W/m C A = Area of the cylinder in m2
dT/dX = Temperature slope
From Eqn.1 QW = QL
m x CP x (T6 - T5) = K A (dT/dX)

OBSERVATIONS:

Diameter of cylinder containing liquid:

100 mm Height of the cylinder: 100 mm

Distance between the thermocouples: 25 mm

15
Tabular Column

Wate Wate
Mass r r
Thermocouple Qw Q K
S Flow inlet outlet
V I Q Rate Reading , Oil temp tempe
L
L. temperature
N er ra
atur ture
O e

(T5) W/
LP Kg/ T1 T2 T3 T4 (T6) moC
M s

CALCULATIONS:

1. Heat gained by water:

QW = m x CP x (T6 – T5)

where , m = Mass flow rate in

CP = Kg/s.
Specific heat of
water
= 4187 J/KgK
T6 = Water outlet
temperature
T5 = Water inlet
temperature
2. Heat Conducted through
liquid
QL = KA
(dT/dX)
Where, K = Thermal conductivity of Liquid in
W/m2C A = Area of the cylinder in m2
dT/dX = Temperature slope

16
On Equating
K = (Q/A)( dT/dX) W/m C

17
 EXPERIMENT
NO.3

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING MATERIAL

AI
M:

To determine the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of insulating powder.

INTRODUCTION:

Materials that offer high resistance to the flow of heat are called as heat
insulators. Heat insulators find extensive application in the systems where heat
losses are to be minimized such as heat transmission lines in power plants,
furnaces etc.

In many heat transfer equipment, heat loss to the surroundings is to be

minimized to the maximum economy. In such cases, they are lagged by
materials of lower thermal conductivity, which are referred to as insulators.
Powders have the advantage of taking any shape between any two conforming
surfaces. In addition, its thermal conductivity will be much lower than that of
the solid from which it was made. This is because of the large air space between
the particles, which have very low values of thermal conductivity. Thermal
conductivity of such material is a complicated function of geometry of the
particles, thermal conductivity of the particles, the nature of heat transfer
between the air particles which depends of the magnitude of the air space and
temperature etc. Thus, it is very difficult to estimate the thermal conductivity in
most practical cases. The set up provided is one such apparatus to find thermal
conductivity.

Rate of heat transfer through a material is given by,

Q = K A (ΔT/ΔX)

Where,

Q = Rate of heat transfer in Watt

K = Co-efficient of thermal conductivity in

18
W/m0C A = Area of heat transfer in m2

ΔT = Temperature between the

walls in0C ΔX = Thickness of the

material in m

Insulators have low thermal conductivities say, about 0.1W/m 0C to 1W/m0C

whereas metals which are good thermal conductors have co-efficient of thermal
conductivity as high as 200W/m0C

This setup has been designed to study conduction heat transfer through
insulating powder and to determine it‟s co-efficient of thermal conductivity.

19
SPECIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION

Figure shows the schematic of the experimental setup for thermal conductivity
of insulating material. The system consists of the following:

a) Insulating sphere:
It consists of two concentric spheres. The inner and outer sphere have
250mm and
300 mm diameters respectively. The space between the spheres is filled
with insulating powder. The inner sphere is filled with oil and a heater is
provided in it to heat the oil to the required high temperature. The
arrangement is such that the heat transfer from the inner sphere to the
outer sphere can be studied.
b) Oil heater:
Capacity: 500W
c) Digital voltmeter and ammeter to measure power input.
d) Digital temperature indicator to measure
temperature. Temperature points:
T1, T2, T3 – temperatures on the upper
hemisphere in 0C T4, T5, T6 – temperatures on
the lower hemisphere in0C T7 – temperature of
the oil in the sphere in 0C
e) Thermostat to set and control heater voltage at a particular temperature.
f) Electrical supply: 1Ph, 230V, 16A with ground.
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE :

1. Switch on the MCB, mains and console.

20
2. Switch on the heater.
3. Switch on the thermostat and set for a particular temperature.
4. Wait for some time till the oil temperature stabilizes.
5. After some time the surface temperatures will come to study state.
6. Note down the ammeter readings, voltmeter readings and the
temperatures at all points.

21
 7. Using the measured temperature, calculate the co-efficient of thermal
conductivity of the insulating powder using the procedure given.
WORKING PRICIPLE:

Figure shows the schematic of the heat transfer process through the insulating
sphere. The co- efficient of the thermal conductivity of the insulating sphere is
given by,

K = Q/RΔT

K = Thermal conductivity of the powder in

W/m0C Q = Total heat transfer rate in Watt
R = Shape factor = 4π ro ri /(ro – ri)
ri = Radius of the inner sphere =
125mm ro = Radius of outer
sphere = 150mm ΔT = Ti – To in
0
C
Ti = Inside oil temperature in 0C
To = (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5+T6)/6 in 0C
OBSERVATIONS:

ri = Radius of the inner sphere =

125mm ro = Radius of outer
sphere = 150mm TABULAR
COLUMN

Sl Heat Temperature on Sphere

Avera Oil Sha Themal
input
N ge Temperatu pe Conducti
O Spher re Fact vity
e or K in
Temperatu R W /m C
re
V I Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T0 T7 =Ti

22
 EXPERIMENT NO.4

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL

AIM
:

To determine the also overall heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer through
composite material consisting of Mild Steel, asbestos and brass.

INTRODUCTION:

Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids. For a given temperature

difference between the surfaces, the rate of heat transfer (Q, watts) depends
upon the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the substance (k, W/m K), area
of heat transfer (A, m2) and the temperature difference (ΔT, 0C)between the
surfaces and thickness of the material (Δ X, m) according to the equation,

Q = - kA (Δ T/ Δ X)

Substances such as metals conduct more heat and have high values of co-
efficient of thermal conductivity, as high as about 200 watts/m „C, insulating
materials conduct less heat and have low values of co-efficient of thermal
conductivity, say about 0.1 to 1 watts/m‟C. In circumstances where heat loss
from the system has to be minimized, such as in power plant transmission lines,
furnaces, etc. It is essential to cover heat carrying systems with proper
materials. This set-up has been designed to study heat through composite
materials

APPARATUS:

The setup consists of the following important items:

a) Composite walls: It consists of a band heater at one end with mild steel,

asbestos and brass plates composited to form heat flow path. The plates
are covered with insulation to prevent heat loss.
23
b) Band heater: provided to heat one end of the composite wall
Capacity: 400 watts, diameters of mild steel, asbestos and brass
plates: 150 mm Thickness of each plate: 6 mm
c) Rotometer: provided to measure water flow rate
d) Thermocouples: k – type to measure temperature
a) Channel selector and digital temperature display
b) Heat control or regulator: to vary input power to the heater.

24
c) Thermostat: to set and control heater temperature range.
d) Control panel: to switch on/off the console and the heater.

PROCEDURE

a) Switch on the mains and the console

b) Switch on the heater
c) Set the temperature setting(thermostat) to the safe value
d) Set the heat control/regulator and adjust the water flow rate
e) Wait till the temperatures stabilize with time, that is, steady state is
reached.
f) Read the temperatures measured, rate of heat transfer and co-

efficient through composite walls are calculated.

g) Measure water flow rate from the Rotometer.
h) Using the temperatures measured, rate of heat transfer and co-

efficient through composite walls are calculated using procedure

given below.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The heat balance equation for dimensional flow is given by (neglecting

losses in stable condition).

Q = Qi = Qms = Qas = Qb

Where Qms, Qas, Qb are the same heat flowing across mild steel, asbestos

25
and brass respectively.

Qi is the overall heat flow across composite material. Considering

individual material, the heat transmitted across each of the material is
equal to the heat carried away by cooling water jacket measured on Rota
meter.

26
 Tabular column:

Heat Temperature of composite

input wall
V I Q Bottom of MS Top of MS plate Top of Top of brass plate
plate Asbestos
plate
T1 T2 T3 Tm T4 T6 T7 Tm T7 T8 T9 Tat T10 T11 T12 Tbt
b t

Mass flow Water Water Heat carried Overall

rate of water inlet outlet away by heat
in Kg/s temperatu temperatu water in W transfer
re re Qw co-
efficient
T1 T1 Uexp Uth
3 4

That is, Qi = m Cp ΔTw

Here m = water flow rate in kg/sec = flow rate in

LPM * (1/60) Cp = specific heat of water 4.2 kJ/kg K

ΔTw = Rise in temperature of cooling water (T14-T13).

Qi = m Cp Δ Tw = Kms A (ΔTms /Lms) = Kas A (Δ Tas /Las) = Kb A

(Δ Tb /Lb) Δ T = Temperature difference, k = thermal conductivity, A

= area of the heat flow. L = length of the heat flow.

Uth = 1/[Lms/Kms + Las/Kas + Lb/Kb] …….W/m°C

Calculations:

27
Q0 = m Cp Δ Tw = W

A = (/4)*D2 = m2

Kms = (Q/A) * Lms/(Tmb-Tmt) = W/m°C

28
Kas = (Q/A) * Las/(Tmt-Tat) =

W/m°C Kb= (Q/A) * Lb/(Tat-Tbt) =

W/m°C Overall heat transfer

coefficient,

Uex = 1/[Lms/Kms + Las/Kas +

Lb/Kb] U= …. W/m°C

Result: Overall heat transfer coefficient of the given composite wall is

……….
W/m°C.

29
 EXPERIMENT NO.5

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN NATURAL CONVECTION

AIM:

To determine the heat transfer co-efficient in natural convection for vertical tube

INTRODUCTION:

Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy form one region
another as a result of temperature difference between them .There are three
different modes of heat transfer; namely conduction, convection and radiation

Conduction: The property which allows passage for heat energy, even though
their parts are not in motion relative to one another.

Convection: is the transfer of heat within the fluid by mixing one portion of
fluid with another.

Heat Radiation: The property of emit or to absorb different kind of ratio of

electromagnetic waves.

Out of these type of heat transfer the convective heat transfer which of
concern, divides into two categories viz.,

Natural Convection: If the motion of fluid caused only due to difference in

density resulting from temperature gradients without the use of pump or fan,
then the mechanism of heat transfer is known as “natural or free convection”.

Forced convection: If the motion of fluid is induced by some external means

such as a pump or blower.

The Newton‟s law of cooling in convective heat transfer is given by

Q=h A ∆ T, where Q=heat transfer rate in watts

A=surface area of heat flow in m2

30
 ∆T=over all temperature difference between the wall and fluid

h= convection heat transfer co-efficient in watts

This setup has been designed to study heat transfer by natural or free convection

31
Apparatus:

1. A metallic tube of diameter (d) 45 mm and length (L)

450mm with a electrical heater coil along the axis of the tube.

2. Seven thermocouple are fixed on the tube surface.

3.Control panel instrumentation consists of multichannel digital display

a)Temperature indicator to measure surface temperature T1 to T7 of

the tube and
ambient temperature T8.
b) Digital ammeter and voltmeter to measure power input to the heater.

c) Regulator to control the power input to the heater.

5. Front transparent acrylic enclosure for safety of the tube when not in use.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

1. Keep the tube in vertical position.

2. Switch ON the mains and the control.

3. Set the regulator to set the heat input.

4. Wait for sufficient time to allow temperature to reach steady values.

5. Note down temperatures T1 to T8 using channel selector and digital temperature

indicator.

6. Note down the Ammeter and Voltmeter readings.

7. Tabulate the heat input and transfer co-efficient using the procedure.

8. Calculate the convection heat transfer co-efficient using the procedure given
below.

9. Repeat the experiment by changing the heat input.

Sl.N Heat Input Temperature along the tube Average Ambient Convect
O
tube Temperat ive heat
32
 Temperat ure transfer
ure coefficie
nt
V I Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Ta T hth he
v 8 x

33
Calculations:

Determination of experimental heat transfer co-efficient: For steady state

condition, heat given to heater = Heat lost from the tube surface by natural
convection.

Therefore, Q= h As (Ts-T∞)

Where,

Q = (Ammeter reading) x (Voltmeter reading), in watts

D D= Diameter of tube= 45 mm
L= length of the tube = 450 mm

As=Tube surface area = π D L = m2

Ts= (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5+T6+T7)/7 = °C
T∞= T8 = Ambient air temperature=T8= °C

Therefore,
Heat transfer co-efficient, hexpt= Q/As (Ts-T∞) = W/m2K

Determination of Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient:

The theoretical value of the natural heat transfer co-efficient is

calculated given by: Note down the properties of air t from data hand

book

Tm = (Ts+ T∞)/2 = °C

At mean temperature properties of air should be noted down from the HMT

data hand book. ν= m2/s

k= W/mK

Pr=

β = 1/(Tm +273) = K-1

34
T = (Ts-T∞) = °C

g= 9.81 m/s2

Gr (Groshoff No.) = (g β L3T )/ ν 2 =

Nu = choose the equation from data book based on Gr.Pr

35
Nu = hL/k,

h th = W/m2K

RESULTS

hexp= W/m2K

hth = W/m2K

36
 EXPERIMENT NO.6

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN FORCED CONVENTION

AIM:
To determine the heat transfer co-efficient in forced convection for hot air
flowing through horizontal tube

INTRODUCTION:

It is well know that a hot plate of metal will cool faster in from a fan than when
exposed to still air. We say that the heat is convected away and we call the
process as convective heat transfer. The velocity at which air blows over the hot
plate obviously influences the heat transfer rate.

The Newton‟s law of cooling in convective heat transfer

is given by Q=h A ∆T

Where, Q=heat transfer rate, watt

A=surface area of heat
flow, m2
∆T=overall temperature difference between the wall and
fluid in ⁰C h= convective heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2⁰C).
The convective heat transfer coefficient depends upon the viscosity of the fluid
in addition to its dependence on the thermal properties of the fluid (thermal
conductivity, specific heat, density, etc). If a heated plate is exposed to ambient
room air without all external source of motion, movement of air would be
experienced as a result of the density gradient heat near plate. We call this
natural or free convection. If the convection is experienced the case of the fan
blowing air over a plate, we call this forced convection. The approximate ranges
of convection heat transfer coefficient are given in table below

37
Mode „h‟ W/m2 ⁰C
Free convection 5-25
Forced convection: air , water 10-500, 100-15000
Boiling water 2500-25000
Condensation and water vapor 5000-100000
This setup has been designed to study forced convection heat transfer.

38
APPARATUS:

The important components of the set up are:

a. Heat exchanger tube-the tube is thermally insulated outside to prevent

heat transfer losses to the atmosphere.

b. Heater, wattage :500 watts (approx.)
c. Regulator to control the power input to the heater
d. Volt and Ampere Meters to measure power input to the heater
e. ThermocouplesT1 and T7 to measure air temperature at the inlet and

outlet of the duct. T2 - T6 to measure test specimen temperatures.

f. Channel selector
g. Digital temperature indicator
h. Blower: to blow air through the heat exchanger.
i. Orifice meter with manometer to air flow rate from the blower.
j. Control panel to house the whole instrumentation.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the mains and the console

2. Start the blower first
3. Control blower flow rate toss suitable value
4. Measure the pressure drop across the orifice meter and calculated air

mass flow rate.

5. Switch on the heater and adjust the power input to the heater to a

suitable value using the regulator.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The air flows through the heat exchanger because of the blower action. In
steady state, power input to the heater is equal to the heat transferred to the air.
This used as the base for calculation of heat transfer co efficient.

39
Wher
e,
Q=heat transfer rate, W

Qa = Volume flow rate of air

m3/s P=power input to the

heater

40
 A1=cross sectional area of the main pipe,

(D2)/4 m2 A2=cross sectional area of orifice

(d2)/4
L= length of the tube 0.5 m

D = diameter of the tube 40

mm d = orifice diameter 20

mm

∆T=average temperature between the tube and

the air ⁰C h=convective heat transfer

coefficient (W/m2K)

Cd=

Volume flow rate of air, Qa= (Cd A1 A2√2g ha)/(A12 – A22)1/2 m3/s

TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS:

Sl.N He Manom Hea Temperatures Air Water Conve

o of tube,
. at ete r d of °C Temperat Temperat ctiv e
Inp reading wat ure ure heat
ut s er transfe
hw r
coeffici
ent
V I Q h1 h2 T T T T T Inl Out Inl Out hth he
h1 2 3 4 5 6 e t le t e t le t x
h T1 T2 T1 T2
2

Calculations:

Determination of experimental heat transfer co-efficient

41
calculations Ts = [T2+T3+T4+T5+T6]/5 = °C
T∞ = [T1+T7] / 2 = °C
∆T = (Ts - T∞) =

°C Q= h A (Ts - T∞)
hexp= Q/( A (Ts - T∞)) = W/m2K
Determination of Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient
calculations Tm = (Ts + T∞)/2 = °C
Following properties of air from heat transfer data hand book at mean
temperature are noted down
Kinematic viscosity of air, ν = m2/s

42
Thermal conductivity of air, k W/m
k Pr =
Calculation of velocity of air (V):

A1 = /4*D2= m2, A2 = /4*d2= m2

a = P/RT = kg/m3

whw = aha, ha = m
2
Qa=[Cd A1 A2 √2gha]/(A
1 – A 2) 1/2 =

m3/s V = Qa/ A1 = m/s

Re = (VD)/ν =

If Reynolds No. value is more than 2300, flow is Turbulent otherwise flow is
Laminar. Usually for forced convection heat transfer experiment the value of
Reynolds No. is more than 2300, hence flow is turbulent.

Choose the equation from data book based on

Reynods number. hD/k = Nu,

hth = (Nu x k)/D = W/m2K

43
 EXPERIMENT NO.7

EFFECTIVENESS ON A PIN FIN

AIM:

Determine the rate of heat transfer, effectiveness and efficiency of the pin-fin.

INTRODUCTION:

Fins are widely used to enhance the heat transfer (usually convective, but it
could also be radiative) from a surface. This is particularly true when the
surface is in contact with a gas. Fins are used on air cooled engines, electronic
cooling forms, as well as for a number of other applications. Since the heat
transfer coefficient tends to be low in gas convection, area is added in the form
of fins to the surface to decrease the convective thermal resistance.

APPARATUS:
A metallic fin of circular cross section of length 'L' is fitted in the rectangular
duct. The base of the fin is fixed to a heater plate for heating the fin.
Thermocouples are provided on the surface of the fin. The duct is provided with
a fan to contact the air flow with the help of regulator.

A multi-channel temperature indicator has been provided to monitor different

temperature points. Measure the velocity of air flow over fin. Power input to the
heater is given by regulating the ammeter and voltmeter.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

1) Switch on the mains and console

2) Switch on the heater and adjust the power input.

3) Wait till steady state is reached and note down all the temperature

44
 indication by the temperature indicator.

4) After conducting experiment in natural convection mode, start the blower

and adjust the flow as required for forced convection.

45
5) Increase the power supplied to the heater as to maintain the same

temperature before starting the blower.

6) Wait till steady state condition is reached and note down the

temperature as well as velocity of flow.

7) Repeat the procedure for different heat inputs.

Tabular Column:

Sl.No Heat Test specimen Chamb Velocity

Input temperature
er of air,
tempera V in
ture (m/s)
V I Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
(o (o (o (o (o
C) C) C) C) C)

Calculations:

1) Surface Temperature, Ts= (T1+T2+T3+T4+T5)/5

2) Atmospheric temperature, T∞ = T6=
3) Tmean = (T∞+Ts)/2
At mean temperature note down the values of thermo physical properties
of air from heat transfer data hand book thermo physical properties of air
are () kinematic viscosity, (Kair) thermal conductivity of air and Prandtl
No.
4) Reynolds no(Red) =( vd)/() ,where „v‟ is velocity of air

flowing over the fin Based on the Reynolds no choose the value of
constants C and m from the heat transfer data hand book
5) h=Kair [C. Redm (Pr)0.33]/d

6) Q=√(ℎ𝑃𝐾𝐴) (Ts-T∞) tanh(mL)

46
 7) Efficiency, = tanh(mL)/(mL)

8) Effectiveness, ε=

tanh(mL)/[√(hA/PK)] where,

Ts=Surface temperature of fin

T∞=surrounding temperature (0C)

L=length of fin = m

47
 d=diameter of the fin = m
hP
m=√( ), P=perimeter of fin=πd m
KA

A= πd2/4 m2

K=thermal conductivity of Al

= W/m°C

Result:

The rate of heat transfer of PIN-FIN apparatus is

W. Efficiency of

the fin () is %.

Effectiveness of the fin (ε) is

48
 EXPERIMENT NO.8

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX

AIM
:

To study boiling heat transfer phenomenon across the given wire and
determine critical heat flux.

INTRODUCTION:

When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface which is

at temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is for a
part of the liquid to change phase. This change of phase is called boiling.
Boiling is of various types, the types depending on the temperature difference
between the surface and liquid. The different types are indicated by fig(1) in
which typical experimental boiling curve obtaining in a saturated pool of liquid
is drawn.

Fig1: Boiling curve

49
 The heat supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw-Ts), the difference
between the temperature of the surface and the saturation temperature of the
liquid. It is seen that boiling curve can be divided into three regions; 1. Natural
convection region, 2. Nuclear boiling region,3) Film boiling region. The
region of natural convection occurs at low temperature

50
differences. Heat transferred from the heat surface to the liquid in the vicinity
causes the liquid to super heated. This super heated liquid rises to the free liquid
surfaces by natural convection, where is produced by the evaporation.

As the temperature difference (Tw-Ts) is increased, nucleate boiling

starts. In this region, it is observed that, bubbles start to from at certain location
on the heated surface. Region 2 consists of a two parts. In the first part 2a, the
bubbles are formed are very few in number of locations where they are formed
increase. Some of the bubbles now rise all the way to the free surface.

With increasing temperature difference, a stage is finally reached when

rate of formation of bubbles is so high, that they start to collapse, and blanked
the surface with a vapour film. This is the beginning of the region 3, viz., film
boiling, in the first part of this region, 3a the vapour film is unstable. So that
film boiling may be occurred a portion of the heated surface area, nucleate
boiling may be occurring on the remaining area. In the second part 3b, a stable
film covers the entire surface. The temperature difference in this region is of the
order of 1000⁰C and consequently radiative heat transfer the across the vapor
film is also significant.

It is observed from fig(1) that the heat flux do not increase in the regular
manner with the temperature difference. In region 1, the heat flux is
proportional to (Tw-Ts) where in is slightly greater than unity. When transition
from natural convection to nucleate boiling occurs, the heat flux start increase
more rapidly with temperature difference, the value of an increasing to about
3.at the end of the region 2,the boiling curve reached a peak(point a). Beyond
this, in region 3a inspite of increasing the temperature difference, the heat flux
decreases because of thermal resistance to heat flow increases with the
formation of vapour film. The heat flux passes through a minimum (point b) at
the end of the region 3a,. it starts increasing again with (Tw-Ts) only when
51
stable film boiling and radiation becomes increasingly important.

The discussion so far has been concerned with the various types of
boiling which occur in saturated pool boiling. If the liquid is below the
saturation temperature we say that sub cooled pool boiling is taking place. Also
in many practical situation eg,. Steam generator; one is interested in boiling in a
liquid flowing through tubes. This is called forced convection

52
boiling. It is obvious that forced convection boiling may also be saturated or sub
– cooled of the nucleate of film type.

It is of interest to note how the temperature of the heating surfaces

changes as the heat flux is steadily increased from zero. Up to the point A,
natural convection boiling and then nucleate boiling occur and the temperature
of the heating surface is obtained by reading the value of (Tw-Ts) from the
boiling curve and adding to it the value of A.the temperature of the surface will
shoot up to the value corresponding to the point C. it is apperent from the fig1
that the surface temperature corresponding to the point C is high. For most
surfaces, it is enough to cause the metal to melt. Thus in most practical
situations, it is undesirable to exceed the value of heat flux corresponding to
point A. this value is therefore of considerable engineering significance and
called the critical or peak heat flux. The pool-boiling curve as described above
is known as Nucleate Pool Boiling Curve.
APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a container housing the test heater and heater coil for
initial heating of the water. This heater coil is directly connected to the mains
and the test heater is connected also to the main through dimmer stat and an
ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter across it to read the current
and voltage. A micro controlled based peak detector has been provided to
measure the maximum current during the process. The heater wire can be
viewed through a poly carbonate glass window.

53
Specification:

54
  Heater for initial heating – heater coil -1.5 kW
 Test heater (R-1) nichrome wire = mm (to be measured according
to wire used
 Length of wire = mm,

EXPERIMENT:

The experimental set up is designed to study the pool boiling

phenomenon up to critical heat flux point. The pool boiling over the heater
wire can be visualized in the different regions up to the critical heat flux point
at which the wire melts. The heat flux from the wire is slowly increased by
gradually increasing the applied convection to the nucleate boiling can be
seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number cam be
visualized followed by vigorous bubble formation and their immediate
carrying over to surface.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take the sufficient quantity of distilled water in the container.

2. See that both heaters are completely submerged.
3. Connect the test wire across the studs.
4. Switch on the auxiliary heater and maintain the bulk temperature of

the water in the container

5. Switch on test heater W2.
6. Very gradually increases the voltage across it by slowly changing the

variac from one position to the other and stop a while at each position
to observe the boiling phenomenon on wire.
7. Record the voltage and current at various intermediate stages. This can

be used to find the resistance of wire, at varying temperature. Note

down the resistance at room temperature can be calculated.
8. Go to increasing the voltage till wire breaks and carefully note the

voltage and current at this point.

55
 9. Repeat this experiment by altering the bulk temperature of water.

Precautions:

56
 1. Keep the variac to zero voltage position before starting the experiment

take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container so that both the
heaters are immersed completely.
2. Connect the test heater wire across the studs.
1. Do not touch the water or terminal points after putting the

switch is in ON position.
2. Very gradually operate the variac in steps and allow sufficient

time between.
3. After attaining the critical heat flux condition, decrease slowly

the voltage and bring it to zero.

Observations:

 Diameter of test heater wire, d = mm

 Length of the test heater wire, L = mm

Note: The ammeter and voltmeter readings are to be noted down for each bulk
temperature.

Tabular Column:

Heat Critical Heat

Voltage, V Current, I q = Q/dL
Input Q Flux, qc
(W/m2)
= VxI (W/m2)

57
 EXPERIMENT NO.9

EMISSIVITY OF SURFACE

AIM:

To determine the emissivity of the radiating surface

INTRODUCTION:

Radiation is one of the modes of heat transfer, which does not require any
material medium for its propagation. The mechanism is assumed to be
electromagnetic in nature is the result of temperature difference.
Thermodynamic considerations show that an ideal radiator or black and will
emit energy at a rate proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the body. When two bodies will exchange heat by radiation, the
net heat exchange is given by,

Q=  AT4

Where, „Q‟ is the heat transfer rate in watts, “” is called Stefan Boltzman‟s
Constant having the value of 5.669x104 W/m2K4,‟A‟ is the surface area (m2)

All the bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from
surroundings. The rate of thermal radiation depends upon the temperature of
body. Thermal radiations are electromagnetic waves and they do not require any
medium for propagation. When thermal radiation strikes a body, part of it is
reflected, part of it is absorbed and part of it is transmitted through body. The
fraction of incident energy, reflected by the surface is called reflectivity (ρ). The
fraction of incident energy, absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity (α)
and the fraction of incident energy transmitted through body is called
transmissivity (τ). The surface which absorbs all the incident radiation is called
a black surface. For a black surface, ρ+ α + τ = 1. The radiant flux, emitted from
the surface is called emissive power (E). The emissivity of a surface is ratio of
58
emissive power of a surface to that of black surface at the same temperature.
Thus, ε = E / Eb

fig(1) shows the schematic of the test setup. It consists of the following:

59
 Fig:1 Scheme diagram for emissivity
apparatus

Black Body made of circular steel plate with the surface black anodized. Grey
body or test steel plate made of circular steel plate of same size as the black
body with polished surface.

Heaters are provided to heat the black body and grey body to identical

temperature. Voltmeter and ammeter provided to measure the input power

to the heaters.

Thermocouples to measure surface temperature of the black body (T1),

test plate (T2). Channel selector and digital temperature display.

Heat control or regulator to vary input power to the heaters. Controls panel to
switch on/off the console and the heater.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

a. Switch on the mains and console

60
b. Switch on the heater to the black body and adjust the power input to

the heater to a suitable value using regulator.

c. Switch on the heater to the test plate and keep the power input to a value

less than that input to the black body.

61
 d. Observe the temperature of the black body and test surface in close time

intervals and adjust power input to the test plate heater such that both
black body and test surface temperature are same. This procedure
requires trial and error method and one has to wait sufficiently long to
reach the steady state.
e. After attaining steady state, record input powers to heaters and

temperatures of the black body, test plate and the enclosure. Using the
above measurements calculate the emissivity of the test surface using the
procedure given below.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Fig. (1) shows the schematic of the apparatus used to determine the
emissivity of the test surface. The experimental setup is designed in such a way
that under steady state conditions, the heat dissipation by the conduction and
convection, although small, are same or both plates: the difference in power
input to the heaters of black surface and test plate which are at the same
temperature is due to the different in the radiation characteristics because of
different emissivity by the relationship,

Where W1=heat input to the black surface =V1 I1

watts W2=heat input to the test plate =V2

I2 watts V1=voltage across heater to black

surface (volts) I1=current to the black

surface (amps) V2=voltage across heater

to test plate (volts) I2=current to the test

plate heater (amps)

A=area of the test plate

62
[(d2)]/4 m2 d= diameter of

the test plate m

T1=temperature of the black

plate ,K T2=temperature of the

test plate , K

εb =emissivity of the black plate (assumed

equal to 1) ε =emissivity of the test plate

 = Stefan boltman‟s constants

=5.67x10-8 W/m2 K4

63
The constant in the denominator (0.86) takes into account various factors such
as radiation shape factor, effect of conduction and free convention losses and
other factors (such as non- uniformities in enclosures temperatures), which
cause deviation from the typical radiation heat transfer, experiment. The above
analysis requires that the temperature of black surface and test plate are same
(T1=T2).

Tabular Column:

Sl. Heat input to heaters T1=T T3

No.
Vb Ib Qb= Vb x Vg Ig Qg= Vg x Ig 2 (°C
(V) (A) Ib (V) (A) (W) (°C) )
(W)
1 47 0.46 21.62 34 0.31 10.54 100 54.5

Sample calculation:

A = 0.7854*d2 = m2

ε = 1 − 0.86[𝑄𝑏 −4 𝑄𝑔] 4
 × 𝐴[𝑇 − 𝑇
1 3
Result:
Emissivity of the
surface is

64
 EXPERIMENT NO.10

STEFAN BOLTZMAN CONSTANT

AIM
:

To determine the Stefan boltzman‟s constant.

INTRODUCTION:

The most commonly used relationship in the radiation heat transfer is the
Stefan boltzman‟s law, which relates the heat transfer rate to the temperature of
the hot and cold surfaces,

Q= σA (Th4 - Tc4)

Q=rate of the heat transfer , watts

σ=Stefan boltzman‟s constant=5.669x10-8

watts/m2K4 A=surface area , m2.

The above equation is only applicable for black bodies (for ex, a piece of
metal covered with carbon black approximates this behaviour) and is valid only
for thermal radiation. Other types of bodies (like a glossy painted surface or a
polished metal plate) do not radiate as much as energy as the black body but
still the radiation emitted follows T4 proportionality.

This setup has been designed to determine the values of the Stefan boltzman‟s
constant.

APPARATUS:

The setup consists of the following important parts,

a. Copper hemispherical enclosure.

b. Non-conducting base plate made of asbestos.

65
c. Thermocouples, iron – constantan type to measures temperature on the

copper hemisphere T1 and T2 on the disc and T3 on specimen and T4 of

hot water
d. Disc mounted in insulated bakelite sleeve, made of

aluminium. Disc dia(D): mm, mass

(m) = grams, Specific heat = kJ/kgK.

66
 e. Channel selector and temperature display.
f. Heater coil to heat the enclosure.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The enclosure is maintained at the higher temperature using heater. The

disk or the test piece is inserted in to its place along with variation in its
temperature (T3) with time is recorded.

The radiation energy falling on the disc (D) from the enclosure

is given by Qe = σ ADTe 4……… (1)

Where,

Qe= rate of radiation emitted on the enclosure falling on the

disc(watts) AD=area of the disc,m2

T e4 =average temperature of the enclosure recorded by thermocouples (K)

The emissivity of the enclosure and the disc are assumed unity because of
black surface characteristics. The radiation energy emitted by the disc to
the enclosure is given by,

mCp(dT/dt)t=0 = σAD(Ts 4 – TD 4)……… (2)

Where, (dT/dt),is the rate of increase in temperature (⁰C/sec) at the instant

when the disc is inserted in to the setup. The stefan boltzman constant is
obtained using the relationship,

σ = mCp(dT/dt)t=0.......................................(3)
AD(T 4 – T 4 )
s D

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:
67
a. Switch on the mains and the console.
b. Remove the disc (D) or test piece.
c. Switch – on the heater.
d. Allow the water to reach some prescribed temperature.

68
 e. Allow the heated water enters into the hemispherical enclosure to attain

uniform high temperature –the enclosure will soon reach thermal

equilibrium.
f. Measure the enclosure temperature with the thermocouple (T1 and T2)

using channel selector and digital temperature indicator.

g. Insert disk (D) with sleeve into its position and record temperature of the

disc (T3) at different instant of time using stop watch.

h. Plot the variation of disc temperature (T3) with time sec as shown in

fig(2) and get the slope of temperature versus time variation (⁰C/sec) at
the time t=0 sec.
i. Using eq(3) calculate the Stefan boltzman‟s constants.
j. Repeat the experiments 3 to 4 and calculate the average value to

obtain the better value of the Stefan boltzman‟s constant.

Tabular Column:

Sl.No. Time „t‟ (s) Specimen Temperature „T3‟ (°C)

Calculations:

1. Temperature of the enclosure = Tsphere ⁰C

2. Mass of the test disc (m)= gm
3. Specific heat of the disc material Cp= J/kg ⁰C
4. Obtain (dT3/dt) using the plot of the T3 vs t and determine the slope.

5. Calculate Stefan boltzman‟s constant using the relationship.

T3
69
 t
Fig 2: Plot of temperature T3 v/s t

70
  = mCp(dT2/dt) W/m2K4
AD(T s4 – Td 4)

Sample calculations:

AD= (/4)*D2 = m2

dT2 / dt = ⁰C/s by plotting graph and taking slope.

Ts = Average temperature of hemispherical cup T1+T2/2 =

K T3 t=0 =

Result: stefan boltzman constant σ = W/m2K4

71
 EXPERIMENT NO.11

EFFECTIVENESS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

AIM:

To determine effectiveness of parallel flow and counter flow heat exchanger.

INTRODUCTION:

Heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transfer from a hot to a cold fluid
across a separating wall. This is an important component of any thermal
system; such as condenser in a thermal power plant, evaporate and condensers
in refrigerator, radiator of a motorcar etc. The heat transfer process is dominated
by convection in fluid – solid boundaries and conduction through the separating
wall. The size and weight are the important aspects in the design of the heat
exchangers. The important performances parameter is the overall heat transfer
co-efficient which determines the heat transfer rate in the equipment.

One of the important classifications of the heat exchangers is based on the

direction of the flow of hot and cold fluids. In the parallel flow heat exchangers,
both hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction, whereas in the counter flow
type, fluid flow in opposite direction.

This equipment has been designed to determine the overall heat transfer
coefficient in parallel and counter flow heat exchangers.

The outer tube is well insulated to prevent the heat loss to the atmosphere valve
system to control water flow rate and direction of flow in the annular area (in
copper tube) for parallel and counter flow. Inner diameter of copper tube is 22
mm and outer diameter is 25.5 mm, inner diameter of ss tube is 36 mm and
outer diameter is 39 mm. length of the tubes id 1100 mm.

72
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE:

a) Allow water to circulate in the inner copper tube by opening flow controller

valve, monitor the flow rate.

b) Operate the valve system to make water flow either in parallel or counter flow
direction.

73
 Use drain valve to remove water, if any condensed in outer shell.

d) Switch ON the temperature indicator and allow for the temperature becomes

Steady. Switch ON the channel selector to the required thermocouple and

observe Temperature variations with time.

e) After steady state is reached, note the temperatures T1 – cold water inlet, T2 –

cold water outlet, T3 – hot water inlet, T4 - hot water outlet.

f) After the experiments is completed, switch OFF the heater, stop water

circulation and drain the water collected in the pipe.

g) calculate the heat transfer coefficient using the procedure given below.

Tabular Column:

Sl. Mass flow Mode Thi Tho Tci Tco effectiveness

N rate of (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C)
o water, Kg/s of operation
.
Hot Cold
wate wate
r r
(mh) mc
Parallel flow
Counter
flow

Calculations for experimental value of effectiveness of parallel flow and counter

flow heat exchanger

Qh = mh x Cph (Th,i- Th,o) Ch = mh x Cph if Ch< Cc ε= [(Th,i- Th,o)/ (Thi-

Tc,i)] Qc = mc x Cpc (T c,0- Tc,i) Cc = mc x Cpc if Cc< Ch ε= [(Tc,o- Tc,i)/

(Thi- Tc,i)] Cpc = 4200kJ/kgK hw = head of water in mts

74
Theoretical effectiveness calculations:

Heat transfer in the double pipe arrangement, see fig is given by relationships

Q= (Qh+ Qc)/2
Q=UA TM where,
Q=heat transfer rate, watts
U=overall heat transfer co efficient
A=surface area of heat transfer ,m2
D=diameter of the inner tube, m
L=effective length of heat exchanger,
m
TMlm=logarithmic mean temperature

Fig: Temperature V/S Length Fig: Temperature V/S Length

diagram of Parallel flow heat diagram of Counter flow heat
exchanger exchanger

T1 = (Th,i – Tc,i), T2 =(Th,o – Tc,o), for Parallel flow heat exchanger

T1 = (Th,i – Tc,o), T2 =(Th,o – Tc,i), for Counter flow heat exchanger

Th,i= Inlet temperature of hot water in Th,o= Outlet temperature of hot water in
0 0
C C
Tc,i= Inlet temperature of cold water in Tc,o= Outlet temperature of cold water
0
C in 0C

U = q/ (A x Tlm), Ch = mh x Cph , Cc = mc x Cpc, Compare the values of

75
Ch and Cc which ever value is minimum that value is considered as Cmin
other value is Cmax

NTU =[U x A] / Cmin; C = Cmin/ Cmax

Theoretical effectiveness for Parallel flow heat exchanger

εth = [1-e-NTU(1+C)]/(1+C)

76
Theoretical effective ness for Counter flow heat exchanger
-NTU(1-C) -NTU(1-C)
εth = [1-e ]/[1-C e ]

Results:

Experimental effectiveness for Parallel flow heat

exchanger Experimental effectiveness for Counter

flow heat exchanger Theoretical effectiveness for

Parallel flow heat exchanger Theoretical

effectiveness for Counter flow heat exchanger

77
78