Ch5 Food and Humans

Modes of nutrition
1. Autotrophic nutrition
→ photosynthetic (obtain food from inorganic substances)
2. Heterotrophic nutrition
→ saprophytic: feed on dead organisms / non-living organic matter
→ parasitic: obtain organic food from living host
→ holozoic: feed on other organisms

Carbohydrate (first priority of releasing energy)

-Made up of C, H, O

Examples of sugars Found in

Monosaccharides Glucose Fruits and honey

Fructose Fruits and honey

Galactose Milk and dairy products like cheese and

yogurt

Disaccharides Maltose (two glucose) Germinating barley

Sucrose (one glucose, Sugar cane, sugar beet and table sugar
one fructose) *Absen in our body

Lactose (one glucose, Milk and dairy products like cheese and
one galactose) yogurt

Polysaccharides Starch Plants (storage form) like rice, wheat and

potatoes
→ major energy source

Glycogen Animals (storage form), especially in liver

and muscles

Cellulose Plant cell walls

-Monosaccharides join together to form disaccharides / polysaccharides by condensation

-Polysaccharides / disaccharides break down by hydrolysis
→ It is broken down to monosaccharides for absorption.
Then It is broken down in respiration to release energy
*Test for glucose – using glucose test paper → turns from pink to dark brown
*Test for starch – iodine test → add iodine solution to the food sample and it turns from
brown to dark blue

-Reducing sugars: all monosaccharides and polysaccharides except sucrose

→ Taste sweet, soluble in water, form brick-red precipitate in
→ Benedict’s test: Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to the food sample. Boil for 3
minutes. Brick-red precipitates show the presence of reducing sugar
*Quantitative nature: When there is excess Benedict’s solution,
the amount of precipitate formed is proportional to the amount of reducing sugar

-Non-reducing sugars: polysaccharides and sucrose

→ Do not taste sweet, insoluble in water

Functions:
1. Main energy source of body activities (1g of carbohydrate provides 17.1kJ of energy)
-Glucose is directly broken down to release energy in aerobic respiration
-Disaccharides and polysaccharides are broken down (digested) into monosaccharides →
release energy in aerobic respiration
2. Energy reserves
-Excess carbohydrates → glycogen stored in liver / muscles
3. A source of dietary fibre that maintains the rate of peristalsis (human body does not
produce cellulose which catalyse the breaking down of cellulose.)

Case study: slimming polysaccharides

-The human body does not have the enzymes to digest some types of polysaccharides (e.g.
chitosan).
-They fill the stomach, giving the sense of fullness to reduce food intake.
-They block digestive enzymes from acting on food.
-They reduced digester food from absorption.
-They add bulk to food to stimulate peristalsis

Lipid
-Made up of C, H, O.
-Formed from the condensation of 3 fatty acid molecules and 1 glycerol molecule
-Lipids dissolve in organic solvents but is insoluble in water
-Food source: fatty meat, seeds, nuts, milk and dairy products

Functions:
1. Energy reserves (1g of lipid provides 38.9kJ of energy)
-Stored as subcutaneous fat under the skin to reduce heat loss (act as an insulator)
3. Shock absorber to protect the internal organs
4. Form cell membranes (phospholipids) & hormones (some hormones are lipid in nature)
5. Involved in absorbing, transporting and storing lipid-soluble vitamins (A & D)
Addition:
-Solvent for fat soluble vitamins & heat insulator conserve body heat homiotherms → both
are non-polar molecules
-Myelin sheath around nerve fibre enhances node to node transmission of nerve impulse →
lipid is an electrical insulator

Testing (grease spot test)

-Add a drop of the food sample onto a filter paper and let it dry.
*If the substance tested is a solid, then rub that solid food substance on a filter paper
-A permanent translucent spot will remain on the filter paper.
-Then immerse the filter paper back into an organic solvent and take it out. The translucent
spot will disappear if it is formed by lipids.
*Both protein and lipid make a permanent translucent spot but the spot made by protein will
not disappear after immersed into organic solvent.

Remarks
-Both starch and lipid are insoluble in water, therefore osmotically inactive.
-Oil has high energy value / can provide a large amount of energy -Starch molecules are
closely packed and therefore can be easily stored without taking up much space.
-If a cell stores a too high concentration of simple sugars which are osmotically active /
soluble, the water potential will become very low and influx of water will cause the animal
cells to burst.

Protein
-Made up of C, H, O, N.
-Amino acid contains: carbon atom at the centre, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a
hydrogen atom and a side chain
-Amino acid join to form dipeptide / polypeptide by condensation, polypeptide / dipeptide
break down by hydrolysis
-Polypeptide coils and folds in specific ways due to the formation of chemical bonds between
amino acids on the polypeptide into a 3D shape. They combine to form proteins (a protein
may consist of one or more polypeptides).
-Unique shapes are important for the functions of enzymes, receptors and antibodies.
Changes in the shapes of active sites cause enzymes to lose their functions
-Proteins in our body are made up of 20 amino acids
→ 12 non-essential amino acids can be produced in our body
→ 8 essential amino acids are to be obtained from diet
-Food source: meat, fish, eggs, beans, milk and dairy products

Functions:
1. Structural proteins: for growth and repair of body tissues (e.g. muscles)
2. Functional proteins: Act as enzymes (regulates cellular chemical reactions), hormones
(regulate physiological process), antibodies (attack pathogens / bacteria / virus) and
haemoglobin (carry oxygen in red blood cells)
3. Amino acids are broken down to release energy if carbohydrates and lipids are used up
(1g of protein provides 18.2kJ of energy)
*Energy yield is less than lipid & energy generation is less efficient compared to
carbohydrates because it involves a more complex metabolic pathway.
Case study: kwashiorkor
-Caused by a lack of protein
-Symptoms: poor growth, weak muscles, swollen abdomen (accumulation of tissue fluid)
-The stomach this tension is due to the low protein content in blood that raises the water
potential of blood. As a result, the blood vessels in the abdomen cannot effectively carry
away water from the abdomen that causes large amounts of water to accumulate there.

-The excess amount of proteins are digested into amino acids which are absorbed into
blood. Excess amino acids would be broken down by deamination in the liver. The amino
group / nitrogenous part of amino acid would be converted to urea and then excreted in
urine. The remaining / non-nitrogenous part of amino acid would be converted into
carbohydrates / lipids.
-If there is sth. wrong in making one of the amino acids (e.g. genetic factor), the whole chain
may not be able to function properly.

Remarks
-Fat soluble vitamins are not readily excreted in urine but excessive water-soluble vitamins
can be excreted in urine.
-If fat-soluble vitamins accumulate in the body and reach toxic level, it can cause harm to the
body.
-Calcium-rich food and weight-bearing exercise are useful to slow down calcium loss from
bones in adults.

Testing (Quantitative test) for Vitamin C

-Transfer 1 cm3 DCPIP solution into a test tube.
-Add [tested substance] drop by drop into the test tube.
-Count the number of drops needed to decolourize the DCPIP solution.
-The fewer drops of the food sample is added, the higher the amount of vitamin C in the
food.
-Principle: Vitamin C is a strong reducing agent. It reduces blue oxidized form DCPIP
solution to colourless.

Case study: vitamin D deficiency

-When there is deficient vitamin D, dietary calcium absorption decreases.
-Calcium level in blood decreases and is lower than normal.
-Calcium is drawn from bone to maintain homoeostasis.
-This reduces bone mass and the bones easily break.

Fat-soluble vitamin VS Water-soluble vitamin

-Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver when excessive intake. Accumulation of excess
vitamins lead to a toxic level. Water soluble vitamins would not be stored when excessive
intake. It is broken down in the liver and excreted in urine.

*When asked about the function of a substance, remember to answer in the positive side
first. (e.g. function of dietary fibre: V it remains undigested and thus add bulk to the stimulate
peristalsis to help faeces pass out / give sense of fullness when reducing weight, it also hold
a lot of water to make the faeces softer V X prevent constipation X X lower the chance of
getting colorectal cancer X)

Dietary fibre
-Organic food substance
-Classified into soluble or insoluble dietary fibre (consists mainly of cellulose from plant cell
walls)

Functions
-Helps faeces pass out of the body by: adding bulk to food to stimulate peristalsis
-Holding a lot of water to make faeces softer

Deficiency
-Constipation, colorectal cancer

Water

Functions
1. As a reagent participating in many of the metabolic activities of protoplasm
-e.g. provides the reducing hydrogen in the photosynthesis
process of green plants.
-It is essential to the multitude of hydrolytic reactions which take place in all living organisms.

2. As the principal solvent for most of the substances concerned in protoplasmic activity
e.g. materials which enter or leave living cells only in aqueous solution (osmosis, diffusion)
-Within the organisms, transport takes place only in aqueous solution e.g. nutrients,
excretory products, dissolved gases, inorganic ions, hormones, etc.

3. Provide constant body temperature

-Water has a high specific heat capacity. It will not be subject to extremely rapid fluctuations
in temperature which would affect the rate of all chemical changes.
-Humans contain a high proportion of water in the body.

4. As a cooling agent
-Water removes heat when it evaporates from the body of the organisms.
E.g. Humans produce more spread when body temperature is high. Evaporation of sweat
helps cool down the body / transpiration in plants

5. Provides support
-Water gives shape and provide support to organisms
-E.g. When plant cells are full of water, they become turgid and press against one another?
This gives support to seedings so that they can stand upright.
-Water is incompressible. This makes it a useful means of supporting organisms e.g.
hydrostatic skeleton in earthworm.
-Water can provide buoyancy.

6. As a solvent
-Water is polar. It readily allows the dissociation of substances dissolved in it, and hence
affects their chemical and electrical activities.
-These, in turn, affect the functioning of the organisms. e.g. osmotic concentration of ionized
solution.

7. As a medium of transport
-Many substances are transported in organisms by water
-E.g. In plants, inorganic ions dissolve in water and are carried from the roots to other parts.

8. As a component of lubricant
-Water is the major component of many lubricating fluids in organisms. These fluids reduce
friction during movement.
E.g. Pleural fluid around human lungs reduces friction during breathing.

Balanced diet

Factors affecting our dietary requirements

1. Age
-Children require the greatest amount of energy per unit body mass as they have the highest
metabolic rate due to the highest growth rate and the highest rate of heat loss (highest
surface area to volume ratio).
-Children and teenagers require large amounts of protein, calcium and iron due to active
growth and the need to build body tissues.
-E.g. Children require more vitamin D than men, since a larger amount of vitamin D helps
them absorb more calcium and phosphate for bone and teeth development in children.

2. Sex
-Males generally need more energy than females as they have a higher metabolic rate due
to a larger body size, more muscles and less subcutaneous fat, thus a higher rate of heat
loss.
-Males also need more proteins for building and repairing muscles
-Females lose blood periodically during menstruation (menstrual flow). Iron is required for
producing haemoglobin in red blood cells for replenishment.

3. Level of activity / Occupation

-People who are more physically active need more energy for muscular activities.
-E.g.construction workers need more carbohydrate-rich food.

4. Body status
-Pregnant women need more energy and proteins for growth of the foetus and more iron for
formation of foetal red blood cells.
-Breast-feeding mothers need an extra supply of various types of nutrients for milk
production.

Eating too little

-Energy input < energy output
→ Food reserves (stored glycogen and fat) are broken down to
provide energy
→ Muscle proteins may be broken down when food reserves are used up
-Weight loss → become thin and weak → if the body does not get enough nutrients →
deficiency diseases

Eating too much

-Energy input > energy output
→ Excess lipids stored as fat
→ Excess sugars, starch and protein may be converted into fat and stored → gains weight
-Overweight: body weight exceeds normal level
-Obesity: seriously overweight
*Higher risk of: diabetes mellitus, high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, arthritis
→ Need to lose weight: one has to mobilize the fat in the body for respiration to release the
extra energy

Using nutrition labels to choose foods

-Note the reference amount (per Xg, per serving, per package)
-Look at the energy content (1 kcal = 1 Cal = 1000 cal = 4.2 KJ)
-Look at the nutrient contents (commonly listed: protein, fat [saturated fat & trans fat],
carbohydrates [sugars], sodium, cholesterol)
*In general, choose foods with smaller amounts of saturated fat & trans fat, carbohydrates,
sodium, cholesterol

Essay study: the application of biological knowledge in the food industry

Fermentation (microbiology)
-Use of microorganisms to process food material, e.g. dairy products
-Processing of other spirit and beverages, e.g. tea, coffee, beer and wine
-Soya sauce production, amino acids production

Principle of food preservation (microbiology)

-High temperature preservative treatment
-Low temperature preservation
-Dehydration
-Chemical preservations
-Irradiation
-Controlled atmosphere packaging