UNIT-3

CHAPTER -10
Static Force Analysis
INTRODUCTION
In all the previous chapters, we limited ourselves to consideration of the geometry of the motions
and of the relationships between displacement and time. But the force required to produce those
motions were not considered.
In the design of machine mechanisms, it is very essential to know the magnitudes and the
directions of forces transmitted from the input to the output. We know that all machine members
are subjected to different types of forces such as forces due to external loads, forces due to
combustion of fuels, forces due to friction forces, forces due to change of temperatures, spring
forces, impact forces, inertia forces, etc. Thus force analysis helps the designer in selecting
proper sizes of the machine components to withstand the stresses developed in them.
In this chapter, we shall discuss the static force analysis of planar mechanisms in detail.

1. Static Force Analysis

• When the inertia effect due to the mass of the machine components are neglected, then the
analysis of mechanism is called as static force analysis.
• We know that inertia forces are produced due to the masses of the rotating/reciprocating
components of a machine. However, if the magnitudes of these forces are small compared to the
externally applied loads, they can be neglected while analyzing the mechanism. This type of
analysis is known as static force analysis.
• Example: In hydraulic lifting cranes, the magnitude of inertia force due to weight of the
hoisting hook is small compared to the externally applied loads. Thus the analysis of forces,
neglecting the inertia force due to weight of the hook, is an example for static force analysis.

2. Dynamic Force Analysis

• When the inertia effect due to the mass of the components is also considered in addition to the
externally applied loads, it is called dynamic force analysis.
• Example: In high speed IC engines, it is necessary to consider the effect of inertia forces
(arising due to the mass of piston and connecting rod). Because the mass of the accelerating mass
and thereby the inertia force is more, which should not ignored.
• The fundamental units in kinematic analysis are length and time. In dynamic analysis they are
length, time and force.
Now let us discuss the static force analysis first.
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
• A body or group of bodies is said to be in equilibrium if all the forces exerted on the system are
in balancé.
• In other words, a body is in static equilibrium if it remains in its state of rest or motion.
• If the body is at rest, it tends to remain at rest and if it is in motion, it tends to keep the motion.

Condition for static equilibrium (Equations of equilibrium):

The necessary and sufficient conditions for the static equilibrium of a body are:
1. The vector sum of all the external forces acting upon it is zero.
Mathematically, ΣF = 0, which is known as force law of equilibrium.
2. The vector sum of the moments of all forces acting about any arbitrary axis is zero.
Mathematically, ΣM = 0, which is known as momentum law of equilibrium.
• Mathematically, these two conditions are expressed as

The above expression is also known as equations of equilibrium. In a planar system, it is

convenient to resolve the forces along two mutually perpendicular directions x and y. Then the
equation of equilibrium (10.1) can be written as

STATIC EQUILIBRIUM OF VARIOUS MEMBERS

1. Equilibrium of a Two-Force Member
• Fig.10.1(a) shows the free body diagram of a two-force member, which is in equilibrium.
From the equations of equilibrium,
(i) ΣF = FA + FB = 0
This requires that FA and FB have equal magnitudes and opposite directions.
(ii) E M = 0
This is possible only when FA and FB must have the same line of action (otherwise the sum of
moments not equal to zero).
Thus a member under the action of two forces will be in equilibrium, only when
(1) The forces are of the same magnitude,
(ii) The forces act along the same line, and
(iii) The forces are in opposite directions.
• Fig.10.1(b) shows a two-force member not in equilibrium, because it does not satisfy the
above-said conditions.

2. Equilibrium of a Three-Force Member

• A body or member will be in equilibrium under the action of three forces, only when
(i) The resultant of the forces is zero (i.e., force polygon should close), and
(ii) The lines of action of the forces intersect at a point (which is known as point of concurrency).

Illustration
Let us consider the three-force member as shown in Fig.10.2(a). Let the lines of action of three
forces FA, FB and FC intersect at point O, which is known as the point of concurrency. The
resultant of these forces is zero. This is verified by adding the forces vectorially, which gives a
closed force polygon as shown in Fig.10.2(b). So far Σ F= 0, force equilibrium equation only
satisfied.
To satisfy the moment equilibrium, i.e., & M = 0, the lines of action of all three forces must
intersect at the common point O. That is, the three forces acting on the body must be concurrent.
Fig.10.2(c) shows a three-force member not in equilibrium, because it does not satisfy the above-
said conditions.
3. Equilibrium of a Member with Two Forces and a Torque
• Fig.10.3 shows a member acted upon by two equal forces F1 and F2 and an applied torque T.

• A member under the action of two forces, and an applied torque will be in equilibrium, only
when
(i) The forces are equal in magnitude, parallel in direction and opposite in sense, and
(ii) The forces form a couple C, which is equal and opposite to the applied torque.

In the above expression, the applied torque T is clockwise whereas the couple formed by F A and
FB (shown in dotted line in Fig.10.3) is anticlockwise.

APPLIED AND CONSTRAINT FORCES

1. Applied Forces
• The external forces acting on a system of body from outside the system are called applied
forces. In other terms, applied forces are the forces applied externally to a body. These forces
may be applied with or without physical contact.

• Examples:
■ Electric, magnetic and gravitational forces are examples of forces that can be applied without
actual physical contact.
■ Forces due to friction, forces due to external loads, spring forces, impact forces, etc., are
examples of forces that can be applied through direct physical or mechanical contact.
• Classification of applied force: The applied forces are classified as:
(i) Active force, and
(ii) Reactive force.
(i) Active Force: The force exerted by one body on another is called active force.
(ii) Reactive force: When one body exerts force on another body, then the opposite force exerted
by the second body on the first is called reactive force (or reaction).

Note
Active and reactive forces are always equal and opposite.

2. Constraint Forces
• When two or more bodies are connected together to form a group or system, the pair of action
and reaction forces between any two of the connected bodies are called constraint forces. In
other words, constraint forces are the forces existing internally within the body.
• These forces constrain the connected bodies to behave in a specified manner defined by the
nature of the connection.
• In simple terms, constraint forces, also called internal forces, are those forces which hold
together the particles of a bødy. And if more than one body is involved then the force which
holds the two bodies together is called the constraint force.

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

• The primary tool for the engineer in performing force (or load) analysis of machines and
structures is the free body diagram or FBD. In simple terms, a free body diagram is a picture of
how the engineer visualizes all the forces (or loads), which are acting on a particular device or a
particular part of a device.
• To clearly identify the various forces acting on a body in equilibrium, we have to draw its free
body diagram. Thus the construction and presentation of clear and neatly drawn free body
diagrams represent the heart of engineering communication. They also represent a part of the
thinking process.
• Definition of FBD: A free body diagram is a sketch or drawing of the body, isolated from the
rest of the machine and its surroundings, upon which the forces and moments are shown in
action. In other words, a diagram which shows the forces and moments on the body free of other
bodies, is called the free body diagram (FBD).
1. Steps Involved in Drawing Free Body Diagram
1. A diagram of the body completely isolated from all other bodies is drawn. The free body may
consists of entire system or any portion of the system.
2. All the supports (like wall, floor, hinge or any other body) are removed and replaced them by
the reaction, which these supports exert on the body.
3. The actions (forces acting) and reactions of the each body are represented in the diagram with
their direction and magnitude.
4. The known applied load is shown by its magnitudes and directions, and the unknown applied
load by a symbol (or letter).
5. Appropriate dimensions (including slopes or angles) or the coordinates of key points, which
are needed in defining the configuration of the force system, are indicated.
6. The weight force of the free body is indicated with vertical downward arrows and is shown
like an applied load.
7. The fixed link (member) has no FBD.
8. If the direction of torque on the input is not given, then draw the free body diagrams in the
following sequence:
(i) Member with two forces.
(ii) Member with three forces.
(iii) Member with two forces and a torque.
9. If the direction of torque on the input link is given, then draw the free body diagrams of
members in the following sequence:
(i) Member with two force and a torque.
(ii) Member with two forces.
(iii) Member with three forces.
10. The procedure is repeated for all the members of the system in equilibrium.

Example 10.1
Draw the free body diagrams of the members of a four-link mechanism shown in Fig.10.4(a),
so that each member is in equilibrium.
Solution:
From the given four-link mechanism, it is clear that
■ Member 2 is acted upon by two forces F12 and F32 and a torque T,
■ Member 3 is acted upon by two forces F23 and F43, and
■ Member 4 is acted upon by three forces F, F34 and F14.

Since member I is fixed, there is no FBD for link 1. The free body diagrams of link 2, link 3, and
link 4 can be drawn as shown in Fig.10.4(b), (c) and (d) respectively.

Example 10.2
Draw the free body diagrams of the members of a slider crank mechanism shown in
Fig.10.5(a), so that each member is in equilibrium individually.

Solution:
From the given slider crank mechanism, it is clear that
■ Member 2 is acted upon by two forces F12 and F32,
■ Member 3 is acted upon by two forces F23 and F43, and
■ Member 4 is acted upon by three forces F, F14 and F34.
Thus the free body diagrams of link 2, link 3, and link 4 can be drawn as shown in Fig.10.5(b),
(c), and (d) respectively.
STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE PLANAR MECHANISMS
The three methods used for static force analysis of mechanisms are:
1. Principle of superposition,
2. Principle of virtual work, and
3. Method of normal and radial components.
Now let us discuss about the static force analysis of a mechanism by the principle of
superposition.

1. Principle of Superposition
• The principle of superposition states that for liner systems the individual responses to several
disturbances or driving functions can be superposed on each other to obtain the total response of
the system.
• In other terms, in linear systems if a number of loads act on a system of forces, then the net
effect is equal to the superposition of the effects of the individual loads taken out at a time.
• The step-by-step static force analysis of a four-bar mechanism and a slider-crank mechanism
are presented in Examples 10.3 and 10.4 respectively.

Example 10.3
A four bar chain mechanism ABCD is shown in Fig.10.6(a). Calculate the required value of
torque required (T) and all the constraint forces on links for static equilibrium of the
mechanism, if F = 2000 N in the direction shown. The dimensions of linkages are as follows:
AB = 200 mm; BC = 370 mm; CD = 250 mm; AD = 215 mm and CE = 100 mm
Given data:
F = 2000 N; AB200 mm; BC= 370 mm; CD = 250 mm; AD = 215 mm; CE = 100 mm.

Solution:
1. First of all, draw the given four bar mechanism with given force F = 2000 N, to some suitable
scale (say 1 cm = 100 mm), as shown in Fig.10.6(a).
2. Now draw the free body diagrams for links 4, 3 and 2 with all applied forces, as shown in
Figs. 10.6(b), (d), and (e) respectively.
3. Equilibrium of link 4:
■ Link 4 is acted upon by three forces F (completely known), F34 (direction only known and is
parallel to link BC), and F14 (completely unknown).
■ Draw the FBD of link 4 as shown in Fig.10.6(b).
■ Extend the lines of action of F and F34 so as to obtain the intersection point G, known as point
of concurrency, as shown in Fig. 10.6(c). Now join OD to obtain the line of action of F 14.
■ To find F14 and F34 : Using F and lines of action of F14 and F34, draw the force polygon, to
some suitable scale (say 1 cm = 1000 N), as shown in Fig.10.6(d). We know that for equilibrium
the force polygon must close. By measuring the closing sides of the force polygon to the chosen
scale, we get

4. Equilibrium of link 3: Link 3 is a two force member (F23 and F43), as shown in Fig.10.6(e).

• Linear systems are those in which effect is proportional to cause. This means that the response
or output of a linear system is directly proportional to the input of the system.
5. Equilibrium of link 2: Link 2 is acted upon by two forces F12, F32, and a torque T, as shown in
Fig.10.6). The link 2 is in equilibrium only when force F12 = F32. Both forces F32 and F12 being
parallel and opposite to each other.

From FBD of link 2, torque applied, T = F32 × h = F12 × h

By measurement to the chosen scale, h = 200 mm.

Example 10.4
In Fig.10.7(a), a slider-crank mechanism is shown. The value of force applied on slider 4 is
3000 N. Determine the forces acting on various links and also calculate the driving torque T.
The linkage dimensions are: AB = 100 mm; BC= 300 mm; BAC = 60°
Given data:

F = 3000 N; AB = 100 mm; BC = 300 mm; BAC = 60°.

Solution:
1. First of all, draw the given slider-crank mechanism with given force F = 3000 N, to some
suitable scale (say 1 cm = 100 mm), as shown in Fig.10.7(a).
2. Now draw the free body diagrams of links 2, 3 and 4 with all applied forces, as shown in Figs.
10.7(b), (c), and (d) respectively.
3. Equilibrium of link 4:
Link force is acted upon by three forces F (completely known), F14 and F34 (magnitude unknown,
but directions are known).
■ Using the known lines of action of all the three forces, draw the force polygon to some suitable
scale (say 1 cm = 1000 N), as shown in Fig. 10.7(e).
■ We know that for equilibrium the force polygon must close. By measuring the closing sides of
the force polygon to the chosen scale, we get
4. Equilibrium of link 3:
Link 3 is a two-force member (F23 and F43), as shown in Fig.10.7(c).

5. Equilibrium of link 2:
Link 2 is acted upon by two forces F12 and F32, and a torque T, as shown in Fig. 10.7(b). The link
is in equilibrium only when force F12 = F32.

From Fig.10.7(b),
torque applied, T = F32 × h = F12 × h
By measurement to the chosen scale, h = 100 mm
 CHAPTER -11
Dynamic Force Analysis

INTRODUCTION
• As already stated, when the inertia effect due to the rotating/reciprocating parts is considered
in addition to the externally applied loads, such a force analysis is known as dynamic force
analysis.
• Dynamic forces are associated with accelerating masses. We know that almost all machines
have some accelerating parts; therefore the dynamic forces are always present when the machine
operates.
• Dynamic force analysis are very important in situations where dynamic forces are dominant
and operating speeds are high. For example, in case of IC engines, which rotate at very high
speed, even the slightest eccentricity at the centre of mass from the axis of rotation causes very
high magnitude of dynamic forces. This may lead to vibrations, wear, noise or even machine
failure.
• In the following sections, we shall discuss the inertia forces and their effects in IC engines.

1. Inertia
• We know that according to Newton's first law of motion a body continues in its state of rest or
of uniform motion in a straight line, except in so far as it is compelled to change that by external
force. This means that bodies offer resistance to any change of their state. of matter offering
resistance to any change of its state of rest or
• Definition: The property of matter offering resistance to any change of its state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line is known as inertia.

2. Inertia Force
• We know that according to Newton's second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum of
a body acted upon by a force or forces is proportional to the magnitudes of the resultant external
force and acts in the direction of force.

• Mathematically,
where
m = Mass of the body,
ν = Velocity of the body,
a = Acceleration of the body, and
F = External (or accelerating) force.
• The inertia of the body opposes this external force applied (F) and it is known as inertia force.
• In other terms the inertia force is a fictitious (i.e., an imaginary) force which when acts upon a
rigid body, brings it in an equilibrium. It is numerically equal to the accelerating force in
magnitude but opposite in direction.

3. Inertia Torque
• We know that what holds good for linear motion also holds good for angular motion. Thus the
inertia torque is equal and opposite to the torque applied.
• We know that according to Newton's second law of motion, when applied to rotating bodies,
states that "the torque is directly proportional to the rate of change of angular momentum”.

• Mathematically,

Since I is constant, therefore

where
I = Mass moment of inertia of the body,
ω = Angular velocity of the body,
α = Angular acceleration of the body, and
T = External (or accelerating) torque.
• The inertia of the body opposes this external torque applied (T) and it is known as inertia
torque.
• In other terms, the inertia torque is an imaginary torque, which when applied upon the rigid
body, brings it in equilibrium position. It is equal to the accelerating torque (or couple) in
magnitude but opposite in direction.

4. D'Alembert's Principle
• D'Alembert's principles states that, the inertia forces and torques, and the external forces and
torques, acting on a body together result in statical equilibrium.
• The equations (11.1) and (11.2) can also be written as

The above equations are known as D'Alembert's principle. It can be noted that the equations (i)
and (ii) can also be written as

• D'Alembert's principle is summarized as follows: "The vector sum of all external forces and
inertia forces acting upon a system of rigid bodies is zero. The vector sum of all external
moments and inertia torques acting upon a system of rigid bodies is also separately zero.”
• Application of D'Alembert's principle: This principle is used to reduce a dynamic analysis
problem into an equivalent problem of static equilibrium.

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Velocity and Acceleration of the Reciprocating Parts in Engines
The velocity and acceleration of various parts of reciprocating mechanism can be determined,
both analytically and graphically. The various methods used are:
1. Analytical method, and
2. Graphical method.
(i) Klein's construction,
(ii) Ritterhaus's construction, and
(iii) Bennett's construction.
Now let us discuss the analytical method in the following sections.

ANALYTICAL METHOD
Consider a reciprocating steam engine mechanism OCP as shown in Fig.11.1. Let crank OC
rotates with angular velocity o rad/sec and the connecting rod PC makes angle & with the line of
stroke PO. Let x be the displacement of piston from initial point P' to P, when the crank turns
through an angle θ from I.D.C.
Let
r = Crank radius,
l = Length of the connecting rod,
θ = Angle made crank with I.D.C.,
ϕ = Inclination of connecting rod to the line of stroke PO, and
n = l/r = Ratio of length of connecting rod to the radius of crank, also known as obliquity ratio.

1. Velocity of the Piston (vP)

From the geometry of Fig.11.1, displacement of the piston is given by

By expanding the above expression by binomial theorem, we get

Substituting equation (iii) in equation (i), we get

Differentiating equation (11.4) with respect to θ, we get

Therefore, velocity of the piston or velocity of P with respect to O,

2. Acceleration of the Piston (aP)

We know that acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. So, acceleration of the piston P is
given by

Differentiating equation (11.5) with respect to θ, we get

Note
1. If the value of n is very large, then aP = ω2 r cos θ, as in case of BHM.
2. When θ = 0°, i.e., at IDC position,

3. When θ = .180°, i.e., at ODC position,

As the direction of motion is reversed at the outer dead centre (ODC) position, therefore,
changing the sign of the above expression, we get

3. Angular Velocity of the Connecting Rod (ω PC)

From the geometry of the Fig.11.1, we find that

Differentiating both sides with respect to time t, we get

Since the angular velocity of the connecting rod PC is same as the angular velocity of point P
with respect to C and is equal to d ϕ/ dt , therefore

4. Angular Acceleration of the Connecting Rod (α PC)

We know that the angular acceleration of P with respect to C,

Differentiating equation (11.7) with respect to θ, we get

The negative sign indicates that the sense of angular acceleration of the rod is such that it tends
to reduce the angle ϕ.

Note
1. Since sin2 θ is small as compared to n2, therefore it may be neglected. Thus equations (11.7)
and (11.8) are reduced to

2. Also in equation (11.9), unity is small as compared to n2, hence the term unity can be
neglected.

Example 11.1
In a slider crank mechanism, the length of the crank and connecting rod are 100 mm and 400
mm respectively. The crank rotates uniformly at 600 rpm clockwise when the crank has turned
through 45° from the inner dead centre. Find, by analytical method: 1. velocity and
acceleration of the slider, and 2. angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting
rod.
Given data:
r = 100 mm = 0.1 m; l = 400 mm = 0.4 m; N = 600 rpm; θ = 45°

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2 π (600)/60 = 62.83 rad/s
Obliquity ratio, n = l/r = 0.4/0.1 = 4

1. Velocity and acceleration of the slider (vP and aP):

Velocity of the slider is given by

Acceleration of the slider is given by

2. Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod (ω PC and αPC):
Angular velocity of the connecting rod is given by

Angular acceleration of the connecting rod is given by

Example 11.2
A petrol engine has a stroke of 120 mm and connecting rod is 3 times the crank length. The
crank rotates at 1500 rpm clockwise direction. Determine: 1. velocity and acceleration of the
piston, and 2. angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod, when the
piston has traveled one-fourth of its stroke from IDC.
Given data: L = 120 mm = 0.12 m or r = 0.12/2 = 0.06 m; l = 3 r, or n = l/r = 3; N = 1500 rpm

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 Ν = 2 π (1500)/60 = 157.08 rad/s
It is given that the piston has traveled 1/4th of its stroke from IDC.
⸫ θ = 1/4 of stroke from IDC = 1/4 × 180° = 45°

1. Velocities and acceleration of the piston (vP and aP):

Velocity of the piston is given by

Acceleration of the piston is given by

2. Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod (ω PC and αPC):
We know that angular velocity of the connecting rod,

Angular acceleration of the connecting rod is given by

Example 11.3
In a reciprocating engine mechanism, the crank and the connecting rod are 300 mm and 1 m
long respectively and the crank rotates at a constant speed of 200 rpm. Determine,
analytically:
(i) the crank angle at which the maximum velocity occurs, and
(ii) the maximum velocity of the piston.
Given data:
r = 300 mm = 0.3 m; l = 1 m; N = 200 rpm

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2 π (200)/60 = 20.94 rad/s
(i) Crank angle at which the maximum velocity occurs:
Let
θ = Crank angle from IDC at which the maximum velocity occurs
We know that the velocity of the piston,

For maximum velocity of the piston,

(ii) Maximum velocity of the piston:

Substituting the value θ = 75° in the vP equation, we get

Example 11.4
The crank and connecting rod of a steam engine are 0.35 m and 1.55 m in length. The crank
rotates at 180 rpm clockwise. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the piston, when the
crank is at 40°from the inner dead centre position. Also determine the position of the crank for
zero acceleration of the piston.
Given data:
r = 0.35 m; l = 1.55 m; N = 180 rpm; θ = 40°

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2π (180)/60 = 18.85 rad/s
n = l/r = 1.55/0.35 = 4.428

1. Velocity and acceleration of the piston when θ = 40° (v P and aP);

Velocity of the piston is given by
Acceleration of the piston is given by

2. Position of the crank for zero acceleration of the piston:

Let θ1 = Position of the crank from IDC for zero acceleration of the piston.
We know that acceleration of the piston,

On solving this quadratic equation in cos θ1, we get

FORCES ON THE RECIPROCATING PARTS OF AN ENGINE, NEGLECTING THE

WEIGHT OF THE CONNECTING ROD
Fig.11.2 shows the various forces acting on the reciprocating parts of a horizontal engine. The
crank OC or radius & rotating in clockwise direction about O. In the configuration shown, the
crank has moved angle θ from its IDC.
From O, draw a line perpendicular to PO meeting PC produced at point M. Then draw a line CN
perpendicular to OC.
Let
mR = Mass of the reciprocating parts, i.e., piston, cross-head or gudgeon pin, etc.
WR = mR • g = Weight of the reciprocating parts,
FI = Inertia force or accelerating force of the reciprocating parts,
FL = Net load on the piston,
FP = Piston effort,
FQ = Force acting along the connecting rod,
FN = Thrust on the sides of the cylinder walls or normal reaction on the guide bars,
FT = Crank-pin effort,
FB = Thrust on crankshaft bearings, and
T = Crank effort or turning moment on the crankshaft.
The expressions for the above-mentioned forces, neglecting the weight of the connecting rod,
may be derived as discussed below.

1. Piston Effort (or Effective Driving Force or Net Load on the Gudgeon Pin) (F P)
• Piston effort is defined as the net or effective force applied on the piston, along the line of
stroke. It is denoted by FP.
• We know that acceleration of the reciprocating parts or piston,
⸫ Accelerating force or inertia force of the reciprocating parts or piston,

The inertia force will be equal and opposite to accelerating force.

(a) For horizontal reciprocating engines: When the piston accelerates, the inertia force will act
in the direction ←; when the piston retards, the inertia force will act in the direction → with
reference to the mechanism shown in Fig.11.2.
⸫ Piston effort, FP = Net load on the piston ± Inertia force
= FL + FI ….(neglecting frictional resistance)
= FL± FI - RF …..(considering frictional resistance) ... (11.12)
where RF = Frictional resistance
In equation (11.12), the +ve sign is used when the piston is retarded, and -ve sign is used when
the piston is accelerated.
(b) For vertical reciprocating engines: In case of a vertical engine, the weight of the
reciprocating parts adds to the piston effort during downward stroke and opposes during upward
stroke.

• To find net load on the piston (FL):

(i) For single-cylinder single-acting engine

Let p = Net pressure of steam or gas on the piston in N/m2, and
D = Diameter of the piston in m.
Then net load on the piston is given by

(ii) For single-cylinder double-acting engine

Consider a double-acting engine shown in Fig.11.3, in which pressure is acting on both sides of
the piston.
Let
p1 and A1 = Pressure and cross sectional area on the back end side of the piston respectively,
p2 and A2 = Pressure and cross-sectional area on the crank end side of the piston respectively.
a = Cross-sectional area of the piston rod = π/4 d2, and
d = Diameter of the piston rod.
Then net load on the piston is given by

2. Force Acting along the Connecting Rod (FQ)

From the geometry of Fig.11.2, we have

3. Thrust on the Sides of Cylinder Walls (or Normal Reaction on the Guide Bars) (F N)
From the geometry of the Fig.11.2, FN is given by

4. Crank-Pin Effort (FT)

• The force acting on the connecting rod Fo can be resolved into two components, one
perpendicular to the crank and the other along the crank. The component of Fo perpendicular to
the crank is known as crank-pin effort and it is denoted by F T.

• From triangle CNR,

5. Thrust on Crank Shaft Bearing (FB)

• The component of FQ along the crank produces a thrust on the crankshaft bearings.
• Resolving FQ along the crank, we get

6. Crank Effort (or Turning Moment or Torque on the Crankshaft) (T)

• Crank effort is the net effort (force) applied at the crank pin perpendicular to the crank, which
gives the required turning moment on the crankshaft.
• Crank effort is the product of the crank-pin effort (F T) and the crank pin radius (r).

In the above expression, ϕ can be expressed in terms of θ.

We know that l sin ϕ = r sin θ
Substituting the value of tan ϕ in equation (i), we get

Example 11.5
A force of 4000 N is applied on a piston along the line of stroke of a horizontal steam engine.
When the crank is at 60° to IDC, calculate the torque on the crank shaft, when the length of
connecting rod is 0.8 m and the length of stroke is 0.4 m.
Given data:
FP = 4000 N; θ = 60°; l = 0.8 m; L = 0.4 m or r = L/2 = 0.4/2 = 0.2 m
Solution:

We know that the torque on the crank shaft,

Example 11.6
The lengths of crank and connecting rod of a horizontal engine are 200 mm and 1 m
respectively. The crank is rotating at 400 rpm. When the crank has turned through 30° from
the inner dead centre, the difference of pressure between cover and piston rod is 0.4 N/mm 2. If
the mass of the reciprocating parts is 100 kg and cylinder bore is 0.4 metres, then calculate:
(i) inertia force,
(ii) force on piston,
(iii) piston effort,
(iv) thrust on the sides of the cylinder walls,
(v) thrust in the connecting rod, and
(vi) crank effort.
Given data:
r = 200 mm = 0.2 m; l = 1 m; N = 400 rpm; θ = 30°; p1 - p2 = 0.4 N/m2 = 0.4 × 106 N/m2; mg =
100 kg; D = 0.4 m.

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2π (400)/60 = 41.89 rad/s
and n = l/r = 1/0.2 = 5

(i) Inertia force (F1) :

(ii) Net load on the piston (FL):

(iii) Piston effort (FP):

(iv) Thrust on the sides of the cylinder walls (F N):

We know that pressure on the sidebars,
FN = FP tan ϕ
To find ϕ : We know that
(v) Thrust in the connecting rod (FQ):
We know that thrust in the connecting rod,

(vi) Crank effort (T)

We know that tangential force on the connecting rod,
FT = FQ sin (θ + ϕ)
= 16.444 × 103 sin (30° + 5.74°) = 9.605 kN
We know that turning moment on the crankshaft,
T = FT × r

Example 11.7
A horizontal steam engine running at 240 rpm has a bore of 300 mm and stroke 600 mm. The
connecting rod is 1.25 m long and the mass of reciprocating parts is 60 kg. When the crank is
60o past its inner dead centre, the steam pressure on the cover side of the piston is 1.125
N/mm2 while that on the crank side is 0.125 N/mm2. Neglecting the area of the piston rod,
determine:
(a) the force on the piston rod, and
(b)" the turning moment on the crankshaft.
Given data:
N = 240 rpm; D = 300 mm = 0.3 m; L = 600 mm = 0.5 m or r = L/2 0.6/2 = 0.3 m; l = 1.25 m;
mR = 60 kg; θ = 60°; p1 = 1.125 N/mm2 = 1.125 × 106 N/m2; p2 = 0.125 N/mm2 = 0.125 × 106
N/m2:

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2 π (240)/60 = 25.13 m/s
and
n = l/r = 1.25/0.3 = 4.167
(a) Force on the piston rod i.e., piston effort (FP):
We know that net load on the piston,

Inertia force on reciprocating parts is given by

⸫ Force on the piston rod or piston effort

(b) Turning moment on the crankshaft (T):

We know that turning moment on the crankshaft,

Example 11.8
A horizontal steam engine running at 210 rpm has a bore of 190 mm and stroke of 350 mm.
The piston rod is 20 mm in diameter and connecting Fod length is 950 mm. The mass of the
reciprocating parts is 8 kg and the frictional resistance is equivalent to a force of 350 N.
Determine the following when the crank is at 115°from the inner dead centre, the mean
pressure being 4500 N/m2 on the cover side and 100 N/m2 on the crank side:
1. thrust on the connecting rod,
2. thrust on the cylinder walls,
3. load on the bearings, and
4. turning moment on the crankshaft.
Given data:
N = 210 rpm; D = 190 mm = 0.19 m; L = 350 mm = 0.35 m or r = 0.35/2 = 0.175 m; d = 20 mm
= 0.02 m; l = 950 mm = 0.95 m; mg = 8 kg; RF = 350 N; θ = 115°; p1 = 500 N/m2; p2 = 100 N/m2

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2 π (210)/60 = 21.99 rad/s
and n = l/2 = 0.95/0.175 = 5.43
First of all, let us find out the piston effort (FP).
⸫ Piston effort, FP = FL - FI - RF ….(considering frictional resistance)

To find net load on the piston (F1):

We know that in a double-acting reciprocating engine, net load on the piston is

Net load on the piston, FL = (4500 × 0.02835) – (100 × 0.028) = 124.77 N

To find inertia force (FI):

Therefore, piston effort is given by

FP = FL - FI - RF = 124.77- (-366.24) - 350 = 141.01 N

1. Thrust on the connecting rod (FQ):

We know that thrust on the connecting rod,
2. Thrust on the cylinder walls (FN):
We know that thrust on the cylinder walls,

3. Load on the bearings (FB):

We know that load on the bearings,

4. Turning moment on the crank shaft (T):

The turning moment on the crankshaft is given by

Example 11.9
For the previous example problem, determine the acceleration of the flywheel, if the power of
the engine is 18 kW, mass of the flywheel 50 kg and radius of gyration 0.6 m.
Given data:
P = 18 kW = 18 × 103 W; m = 50 kg; k = 0.6 m

Solution:
We know that mass moment of inertia of the flywheel,

The accelerating torque is equal to the difference of torques on the crankshaft i.e., turning
moment (T)) and the resisting torque (TR). Therefore accelerating torque

Example 11.10
A steam engine 200 mm bore and 300 mm stroke has a connecting rod 625 mm long. The
mass of the reciprocating parts is 15 kg and the speed is 250 rpm when the crank is at 30° to
the inner dead centre and moving outwards, the difference in steam pressure is 840 kN/m 2. If
the crank pin radius is 30 mm, determine:
(i) the force on the crankshaft, and
(ii) the torque acting on the frame.
Given data:
D = 200 mm = 0.2 m; L 300 mm or r = 300/2 = 150 mm = 0.15 m; l = 625 mm = 0.625 m; mR =
15 kg; N = 250 rpm; θ = 30°; p1 - p2 = 840 kN/m2 = 840 × 103 N/m2

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2 π (250)/60 = 26.18 rad/s
and n = l/r = 0.625/0.15 = 4.167
First let us find out the piston effort (FP).

(i) Force on the crankshaft (FB):

We know that the force acting on the crankshaft bearing,

To find ϕ: We know that

(ii) Torque acting on the frame (T):

We know that torque acting on the frame,
Example 11.11
A singe-cylinder vertical engine has a bore of 300 mm and a stroke of 400 mm. The
connecting rod is 1000 mm long. The mass of the reciprocating parts is 140 kg. On the
expansion stroke with the crank at 30° from the top dead centre, the gas pressure is 0.7 MPa.
If the engine runs at 250 rpm, determine:
(i) net force acting on the piston,
(ii) resultant load on the gudgeon pin,
(iii) thrust on the cylinder walls, and
(iv) the speed abóve which other things remaining same, the gudgeon pin loads would be
reversed in direction.
Given data:
D = 300 mm = 0.3 m; L = 400 mm = 0.4 m or r = 0.4/2 = 0.2 m; l = 1000 m; mg = 140 kg; θ =
30°; p = 0.7 MPa = 0.7 × 106 N/m2; N = 250 rpm

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2л (250)/60 = 26.18 rad/s
and n = l/r = 1/0.2 = 5

(i) Net force acting on the piston (FP):

The configuration diagram of a vertical engine is shown in Fig.11.4.
We know that force due to gas pressure,

Inertia force on the piston is given by

We know that for a vertical engine, net force on the piston,

(ii) Resultant load on the gudgeon pin (FQ):

To find ϕ:

(iii) Thrust on the cylinder walls (FN):

(iv) The speed above which the gudgeon pin load would be reversed in direction:
The gudgeon pin load (FQ) will be reversed in direction, if FQ becomes negative. This is possible
only when FP is negative. Therefore for FP to be negative, F1 must be greater than (FL + WR).
That is

Example 11.12
A vertical petrol engine 150 mm diameter and 200 mm stroke has a connecting rod 350 mm
long. The mass of the piston is 1.6 kg and the engine speed is 1800 rpm. On the expansion
stroke with crank angle 30°from top dead centre, the gas pressure is 750 kN/m 2. Determine the
net thrust on the piston.
Given data:
D = 150 mm = 0.15 m; L = 200 mm = 0.2 m or r = 0.2/2 = 0.1 m; l = 350 mm = 0.35 m; mR =
1.6 kg; N = 1800 rpm; θ = 30°; p = 750 kN/m2 = 750 × 103 N/m2
Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2 π (1800)/60 = 188.49 rad/s
and n = l/r = 0.35/0.1 = 3.5
We know that net load on the piston (i.e., force due to gas pressure),

We also know that inertia force on the piston,

For vertical engine force acts because of mass piston, therefore

WR = mR • g = 1.6 × 9.81 = 15.696 N
⸫ The net thrust on the piston (ie, piston effort) is given by

Example 11.13
A vertical single-cylinder engine has a cylinder of 250 mm and stroke length 450 mm. The
reciprocating parts have a mass of 180 g. The connecting rod is four times the crank radius
and the speed is 360 rpm. When the crank has turned through an angle at 45° from top dead
centre, the net pressure on the piston is 1.05 MN/m 2. Calculate the effective turning moment
on the crankshaft for this position.
Given data:
D = 250 mm = 0.25 m; L = 450 mm = 0.45 m or r = 0.45/2 = 0.225 m; mR = 180 kg; l = 4 r = 4
(0.225) = 0.9 m; N = 360 rpm; θ = 45°; p = 1.05 MN/m2 = 1.05 × 106 N/m2.

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2π (360)/60 = 37.7 rad/s
and n = l/r = 4
Net load on the piston (i.e., force due to pressure on piston) is given by
Inertia force on the piston is given by

Weight of the reciprocating parts is given by

W = mR • g = 180 × 9.81 = 1765.8 N
We know that the piston effort (i.e., net force acting on the piston) of a vertical engine,
FP = FL - FI + W
= 51541.75 - 40700.49 + 1765.8 = 12607.55 N
Then the turning moment on the crankshaft is given by

Example 11.14
The ratio of the connecting rod length to crank length for a vertical petrol engine is 4: 1. The
bore/stroke is 80/100 mm and mass of the reciprocating part is 1 kg. The gas pressure on the
piston-is 0.5 N/mm2 when it has moved 10 mm from TDC on its power stroke. Determine the
net load on the gudgeon pin. The engine runs at 1800 rpm. At what engine speed will this load
be zero?
Given data:
n = l/r = 4; D/L = 80/100 mm or D = 80 mm = 0.08 m and L = 100 mm = 0.1 m or r = 0.1/2 =
0.05 m; mR = 1 kg; p = 0.7 N/mm2 = 0.7 × 106 N/m2; x = 10 mm = 10 × 10-3 m; N = 1800 rpm.

Solution:
ω = 2лN/60 = 2π (1800)/60 = 188.49 rad/s
We know that displacement of piston,
where θ = Angular position of crank.
Substituting the values of x, r and n, we can determine the value of θ, as below.

Solving the above quadratic equation in cos θ, we get

1. Net load on the gudegeon pin (i.e., piston effort) (F P):

We know that net load on the piston,

The inertia force on the piston is given by

Weight of the piston acting downwards is given by

W = mR • g = 1 (9.81) = 9.81 N
Therefore, the net load on the gudgeon pin is given by

2. Engine speed at which FP is zero:

The value of FP will be zero, only when the value of (FL + W) is equal to F1 value.
i.e., FL + W = F1

Example 11.15
A horizontal, double-acting steam engine has a stroke of 300 mm and runs at 240 rpm. The
cylinder diameter is 200 mm, connecting rod is 750 mm long and the mass of the reciprocating
parts is 70 kg. The steam is admitted at 600 kN/m 2 for one third of the stroke, after which
expansion takes place according to the hyperbolic law pV = constant. The exhaust pressure is
20 kN/m2. Neglecting the effect of clearance and the diameter of the piston rod, find:
1. thrust on the connecting rod, and
2. effective turning moment on the crankshaft when the crank has turned through 120° from
inner dead centre.
Given data:
L = 300 mm = 0.3 m or r = 0.3/2 = 0.15 m; N = 240 rpm; D = 200 mm = 0.2 m; l = 750 mm =
0.75 m; mR = 70 kg; p1 = 600 kN/m2; p5 = 20 kN/m2; = 120°

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2 π (240)/60 = 25.13 rad/s
and n = l/r = 0.75/0.15 = 5
First of all, let us find the piston effort (FP).
The pressure-volume (p-V) diagram for a steam engine neglecting clearance P3 is shown in
Fig.11.5. In Fig.11.5, 1-2 represents the admission of steam, 2-3 the expansion and 4-5 the
exhaust of steam.
The steam is cut-off at point 2. We know that the stroke volume,

Since the steam is cut-off at 1/3rd of the stroke, hence volume of steam at cut-off

When the crank position is 120° from the IDC (i.e., when θ = 120°), the displacement of the
piston (marked by point 3' on the expansion curve 2-3) is given by

Corresponding to θ = 120°, the piston is at x = 0.236 m, the volume of point 3' is given by

Since the expansion is hyperbolic (i.e., according to the law pV = constant), therefore
⸫ Difference of pressures on the two sides of the piston,

We know that net load on piston,

and inertia force on the reciprocating parts,

1. Thrust on the connecting rod (FQ):

2. Effective turning moment on the crankshaft (T):

DYNAMICALLY EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS (EQUIMOMENTAL SYSTEM)

• In dynamics problems, it is convenient to replace a rigid body by two separate concentrated
masses placed at a fixed distance apart.
• So far, we have not considered the weight of connecting rod in our force analysis. But in
practice, we have to take into account the weight of the connecting rod and the inertia of the
connecting rod. As the motion of the connecting rod is not linear, its inertia cannot be found as
such. In such cases, we have to use the concept of dynamically equivalent system, in which the
mass of the connecting rod is replaced by two separate concentrated masses placed at a fixed
distance apart.

1. Conditions of Equivalent Dynamical System

1. The mass of the rigid body must be equal to the sum of masses of two concentrated masses.
2. The center of gravity of the two masses must coincide with the center of gravity of the rigid
body.
3. The sum of mass moment of inertia of two masses about their center of gravity is equal to the
mass moment of inertia of the rigid body.

Note
In the above three conditions, if only first two conditions are satisfied, then the system is said to
be statistically equivalent system. If all three conditions are satisfied, then system is called the
dynamically equivalent system.
2. Determination of Two Masses of Dynamically Equivalent System
Let us consider a rigid body as shown in Fig.11.6(a).
Let
m = Mass of the body,
k = Radius of gyration about its center of gravity G,
m1 and m2 = Two masses which form a dynamical equivalent system,
l1 = Distance of mass m1 from G,
l2 = Distance of mass m2 from G, and
L = Total distance between the masses m1 and m2
The two masses m1 and m2 can be determined by both analytically and graphically.
1. Analytical Method
Applying the three conditions of equivalent dynamical system, we get

Substituting the values of m1 and m2 in equation (iii), we get

If radius of gyration k of the rigid body is known, by choosing l1 arbitrarily, l2 can be determined
from the above equation.

Note
• When the radius of gyration k is not known, then the position of the second mass may be
obtained by considering the body as a compound pendulum.
• We know that for a simple pendulum to have the same frequency of oscillation as that of a
Compound pendulum, the equivalent length of a simple pendulum is given by

where h = Distance of C.G from the point of suspension.

From equation (11.23), l1l2 = k2.

This means that if the first mass m1 is considered to be situated at center of suspension A (at a
distance l1 from G), then the second mass m2 is situated at the center of oscillation or percussion
of the body, which is at a distance of l2 = k2/ l1.
• It may be useful to recollect the expressions for time period and frequency of simple and
compound pendulums.

1. Simple pendulum:
2. Compound pendulum:

where k = Radius of gyration about an axis passing through its centre of gravity, and
h = Distance of point of suspension from the C.G

2. Graphical Method
Consider a rigid body of mass m, which acts at G, and radius of gyration k, as shown in Fig.11.7.
The mass m can be replaced by two masses m1 and m2 so that the system becomes dynamically
equivalent.
The position of mass m1 is arbitrarily fixed at A. The position of mass m2 is determined
graphically as below:

Draw perpendicular CG at G equal to k. Then join AC and draw a line perpendicular to AC

intersecting AG produced at B, as shown in Fig.11.7. The point B gives the position of mass m2.
From similar triangles ACG and BCG, we can write,

(which is the same expression as in analytical method)

Example 11.16
A connecting rod of length 375 mm between centers has a mass of 4 kg. The center of gravity
is 250 mm from the small end and the radius of gyration about an axis through the centre of
gravity perpendicular to the plane of motion is 120 mm. Determine dynamically equivalent
system having one mass at the centre of small end and the other at a point somewhere in
between the centre of big end and the centre of gravity.
Given data: l = 375 mm = 0.375 m; l1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m; m = 4 kg; k = 120 mm = 0.12 m.

Solution:
Fig.11.8(a) shows the given connecting rod whereas Fig.11.8(b) shows the equivalent dynamical
system.

Let
m1 = Mass at small end centre, and
m2 = Mass at the centre of big end and centre of gravity.
We know that for dynamically equivalent system,
Example 11.17
The length of a connecting rod of an engine is 500 mm measured between the centers and its
mass is 18 kg. The centre of gravity is 125 mm from the crank pin centre and the crank radius
is 100 mm. Determine the dynamically equivalent system keeping one mass at the small end.
The frequency of oscillation of the rod, when suspended from the centre of small end is 43
vibrations per minute.

Given data:
l = 500 mm = 0.5 m; m = 18 kg; l2 = 125 mm = 0.125 m; r = 100 mm = 0.1 m.
Solution: We know that
Frequency of oscillation = Number of vibrations per second

The connecting rod is shown in Fig.11.9(a).

Now let us find the radius of gyration k of the connecting rod, considering it as a compound
pendulum, about an axis passing through its centre of gravity, G.
We know that for a compound pendulum, time period of oscillation (tP),
On solving, we get k = 0.202 m
It is given that one of the masses is located at the small end centre. Let the other is located at a
distance l2 from the centre of gravity G, as shown in Fig.11.9(b).
For a dynamically equivalent system, we can write
• For our solution, this data is superfluous.

Then the masses at the small end centre (m1) and at the big end centre (m2) are given by

CORRECTION COUPLE
1. What is it?
From Section 11.5, we know that a rigid body of mass m can be replaced by two dynamically
equivalent masses satisfying the three conditions. But when considering the effect of the inertia
of the connecting rod, it is convenient to place the masses arbitrarily. Then first two conditions of
dynamic equivalence are satisfied, but the third condition is not satisfied. This means that the
mass moment of inertia of both the masses placed arbitrarily will differ than that of mass
moment of inertia of the rigid body.
In order to satisfy the third condition of dynamic equivalence, it is necessary to apply some
couple on the arbitrarily chosen two mass system. This couple is known as correction couple.

2. Determination of Correction Couple

Fig.11.10(a) shows a rigid body (say, a connecting rod) whereas Fig.11.10(b) shows the
equivalent dynamical system (which satisfy the three conditions of dynamic equivalence). As
shown in Fig.11.10(b), for the dynamically equivalent two mass system, two masses m1 and m2
are placed at points A and B respectively.
Suppose, if we need to place the mass m2 at point C instead of B as shown in Fig.11.10(c), then
the third condition of the dynamic equivalent will not be satisfied. In order to satisfy, we have to
apply some correction couple so that the system becomes dynamically equivalent.
Let
m = Mass of the rigid body,
k and I = Radius of gyration and mass moment of inertia of the dynamically equivalent system
respectively,
k1 and I1 = New radius of gyration and new mass moment of inertia of the non- dynamically
equivalent system respectively, and
α = Angular acceleration of the body
We know that the torque required to accelerate the dynamically equivalent system,

Similarly, the torque required to accelerate the non-dynamically equivalent system,

The difference between the torque required to accelerate non-dynamically equivalent system (T 1)
and the torque required to accelerate the dynamically equivalent system (T) is known as the
correction couple TC.
Substituting these values in equation (iii), we get

Thus this corrective couple TC must be applied, when the masses are placed arbitrarily to make
the system dynamically equivalent.

Note
The value of correction couple is always positive, and its direction will be the same as that of
angular acceleration α.

Example 11.18
A small connecting rod 220 mm long between centers has a mass of 2 kg and a moment of
inertia of 0.02 kg.m2 about its center of gravity. The center of gravity is located at a distance of
150 mm from the small end center. Determine the dynamically equivalent two mass systems
when one mass is located at the small end center.
If the connecting rod is replaced by two masses located at the two centers, find the correction
couple that must be applied for complete dynamical equivalence of the system when the
angular acceleration of the connecting rod is 20000 rad/s 2 anticlockwise.
Given data:
l = 220 mm = 0.22 m; m = 0.22 m; m = 2 kg; I = 0.02 kg.m2; l1 = 150 mm = 0.15 m; α = 20000
rad/s2.
Solution: Refer Fig.11.10.

1. Dynamically equivalent two mass system:

We know that I = m k2 or 0.02 = 2 k2 or k = 0.1 m
We know that for dynamically equivalent system,

Let
m1 = Mass placed at the gudgeon pin, and
m2 = Mass placed at a distance l2 from C.G.
2. Correction couple:
Since the connecting rod is replaced by two masses one at the gudgeon pin and the other at the
crank pin, therefore

Since the value of correction couple TC is positive, therefore the direction of correction couple is
same as that of angular acceleration. i.e., anticlockwise.
INERTIA FORCE ANALYSIS IN A RECIPROCATING ENGINE, CONSIDERING THE
WEIGHT OF CONNECTING ROD
The inertia force analysis in reciprocating engines becomes necessary due to their higher
operating speed. In a reciprocating engine, let OC be the crank and PC the connecting rod whose
center of gravity lies at G. The inertia forces in a reciprocating engine can be determined
graphically as well as analytically.

1. Analytical Method
A reciprocating engine mechanism is shown in Fig.11.11. The inertia force of the crankshaft and
its effect on the crankshaft torque is determined analytically as follows:

Step 1: Let two masses m1 and m2 be placed at P and C such that sum of both are equal to mC
(ie., mass of the connecting rod) and their center of gravity coincides with G.
Step 2: The inertia force due to the mass at C acts radially outwards along the crank OC, therefor
the mass at C has no effect on the crankshaft torque.

Step 3: To determine m1 and m2

Let
m1 = Mass placed at small end centre P,
m2 = Mass placed at big end centre C,
mC = Mass of the connecting rod,
l = Length of the connecting rod, and
l1 = Length of the center of gravity fo the connecting rod from P.
We know that for dynamically equivalent system,

From equations (i) and (ii), we get

Step 4: To determine torque exerted on the crankshaft due to inertia force (T 1):
Now at P, two forces acts first the weight of the reciprocating parts W R (i.e., MR • g) and the
other W1 (i.e., m1•g).

Then, total inertia force of the equivalent mass acting at P,

and corresponding torque exerted on the crankshaft,

Step 5: To determine torque exerted on crankshaft due to correction couple (T 2):
Placing of weights at P and C does not satisfy the condition of dynamical equivalent system as
such correcting torque is necessary to undo the error.

The correcting couple TC is introduced by two equal parallel and opposite forces F Y acting
through P and C.

and corresponding torque on the crankshaft,

Substituting this value in equation (iii), we get

Step 6: To determine torque exerted on crankshaft due to mass m2 placed at big end centre C
(T3):
Torque exerted on the crankshaft due to the mass m2 placed at C is given by

Step 7: To determine resultant inertia torque exerted on crankshaft (T):

The total torque exerted on the crankshaft due to the inertia of the moving parts is the algebraic
sum of T1, T2 and T3.

Note
If crank is rotating in clockwise direction, then T1 and T2 will act in the anticlockwise direction,
and vice versa. The direction of T3 depends on the crank angle θ.

Example 11.19
The connecting rod of a horizontal reciprocating engine is 400 mm and length of the stroke is
200 mm. The mass of the reciprocating parts is 125 kg and that of the connecting rod is 100
kg. The radius of gyration of the connecting rod about an axis through the centre of gravity is
120 mm and the distance of centre of gravity of the connecting rod from big end centre is 160
mm. The engine runs at 750 rpm. Determine the torque exerted on the crankshaft when the
crank has turned 30° from the inner dead centre.
Given data:
l = PC = 400 mm 0.4 m; L = 200 mm = 0.2 m or r = L/2 = 0.2/2 = 0.1 m; mR = 125 kg; mC = 100
kg; k = 120 mm = 0.12 m; GC = 160 mm = 0.16 m; N = 750 rpm; θ = 30°.
Solution:
ω = 2πN/60 = 2л (750)/60 = 78.54 rad/s

Analytical Method
To find T1: We know that the distance of centre of gravity (G) of the connecting rod from P,
l1 = l – GC = 0.4 - 0.16. = 0.24 m
Inertia force due to total mass of the reciprocating parts at P,
⸫ Corresponding torque exerted on crankshaft due to inertia force F 1 is given by,

To find T2:
We know that equivalent length of a simple pendulum which swung about an axis through P,

The torque due to correction couple (TC) is given by

To find T3:
Torque exerted due to the weight of the connecting rod at C is given by

To find T:
We know that the total inertia torque exerted on the crankshaft, is the algebraic sum of T 1, T2 and
T3 .
Note
It may be noted that there is a difference in the values of total inertia torque (T) determined by
graphical and analytical method. It is due to practical error in constructing the Klien's
construction and due to the fact that the analytical equations are only approximate.

Example 11.20
The connecting rod of a vertical reciprocating engine is 2 m long between centers and its mass
is 250 kg. The mass center is 800 mm from the big end bearing. When suspended as a
pendulum from the gudgeon pin axis, it makes 8 complete oscillations in 22 seconds. The
crank is 400 mm long and rotates at 200 rpm. Determine by analytical method:
(i) the radius of gyration of the connecting rod about an axis through its mass center; and
(ii) the inertia torque exerted on the crankshaft, when the crank has turned through 40o from
TDC and the piston is moving downwards.
Given data:
l = PC = 2 m; mC = 250 kg; GC = 800 mm = 0.8 m; r = 400 mm = 0.4 m; N = 200 rpm; θ = 40°.

Solution:
ω = 2πN/60
= 2π(200)/60
= 20.94 rad/s

The configuration of the vertical reciprocating

engine is shown in Fig.11.12.
(i) Radius of gyration of the connecting rod about its C.G(k):
The connecting rod acts as a compound pendulum. Since the connecting rod makes 8 complete
oscillations in 22 seconds, therefore

We know that for a compound pendulum, frequency of oscillations is given by

where l1 = Distance of C.G from the point of suspension = PG = 2 - 0.8 = 1.2 m

On solving, we get
Radius of gyration, k = 0.903 m Ans.

2. Inertia torque exerted on the crankshaft (T):

First of all, let us divide the mass of the connecting rod (mC) into two parts.

Inertia force due to reciprocating parts is given by

⸫ Corresponding torque exerted on crankshaft due to inertia force is given by

We know that the equivalent length of a simple pendulum when swung about an axis passing
through P,

The torque due to correction couple (TC) is given by

Torque due to weight of the reciprocating parts (both mŔ and mass m1 at P) is given by

Torque exerted on crankshaft due to mass m2 at big end bearing C is given by

⸫ Total inertia torque exerted on the crankshaft,

T = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
= -4169.09 – 312.2 + 291.16 + 378.34 = −3811.78 N•m
= 3811.78 Nm (anticlockwise) Ans.