Network Reference Model

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 Foreword
 In the digital era, various information is presented as data in our life. What is data? How is data transmitted?
 In this course, we will use the network reference model to understand the "life" of data.

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 Objectives
 On completion of this course, you will be able to:
 Understand the data definition and transmission process.
 Understand the concepts and advantages of the network reference model.
 Understand common standard protocols.
 Understand the data encapsulation and decapsulation processes.

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 Contents
1. Applications and Data

2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols

3. Data Communication Process

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 Origin of the Story - Applications
 Applications are used to meet various requirements of people, such as web page access, online gaming, and online video
playback.
 Information is generated along with applications. Texts, pictures, and videos are all information presentation modes.

Application

Information

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 Application Implementation - Data
 Data generation
 In the computer field, data is the carrier of all kinds of information.

 Data transmission
 Data generated by most applications needs to be transmitted between devices.

Data Does an application need to

complete the entire process
Network from data generation to data
transmission?

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 Contents
1. Applications and Data

2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols

3. Data Communication Process

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 OSI Reference Model

7. Application Layer Provides interfaces for applications.

Translates data formats to ensure that the application-layer data of one system can be identified by the
6. Presentation Layer application layer of another system.

5. Session Layer Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between communicating parties.
Establishes, maintains, and cancels an end-to-end data transmission process; controls transmission speeds
4. Transport Layer and adjusts data sequences.

3. Network Layer Defines logical addresses and transfers data from sources to destinations.

2. Data Link Layer Encapsulates packets into frames, transmits frames in P2P or P2MP mode, and implements error checking.

1. Physical Layer Transmits bitstreams over transmission media and defines electrical and physical specifications.

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 TCP/IP Reference Model
 The OSI protocol stack is complex, and the TCP and IP protocols are widely used in the industry. Therefore, the TCP/IP
reference model becomes the mainstream reference model of the Internet.

Application Layer

Application Layer Presentation Layer Application Layer

Session Layer

Host-to-Host Layer Transport Layer Transport Layer

Internet Layer Network Layer Network Layer

Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

Network Access Layer
Physical Layer Physical Layer

Standard TCP/IP model OSI model Equivalent TCP/IP model

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 Common TCP/IP Protocols
 The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a series of standard protocols.

Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

Application Layer
HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP
Transport Layer TCP UDP
ICMP IGMP
Network Layer
IP
PPPoE
Data Link Layer
Ethernet PPP
Physical Layer ...

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 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 IETF is a voluntary organization responsible for developing and promoting Internet protocols (especially protocols that constitute the TCP/IP protocol suite), and
releasing new or replacing old protocol standards through RFCs.

 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

 IEEE has formulated about 30% of standards in the electronics, electrical, and computer science fields worldwide. Those standards include well-known IEEE802.3
(Ethernet) and IEEE802.11 (Wi-Fi).

 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

 ISO is an international organization that plays an important role in the formulation of computer network standards, such as the OSI model defined in ISO/IEC 7498-
1.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Application Layer
• The application layer provides interfaces for application software so that applications can use network services. The application layer protocol
designates transport layer protocols and ports.
• PDUs transmitted at the network layer are called data.

Application Layer • HTTP 80 (TCP)

(Data) Hypertext transfer protocol, which provides web browsing services.
• Telnet 23 (TCP)
Transport Layer Remote login protocol, which provides remote management services.
• FTP 20 and 21 (TCP)
Network Layer File transfer protocol, which provides Internet file resource sharing services.
• SMTP 25 (TCP)
Simple mail transfer protocol, which provides Internet email services.
Data Link Layer
• TFTP 69 (UDP)
Simple file transfer protocol, which provides simple file transfer services.
Physical Layer

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - FTP

 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) transfers files from one host to another to implement file download and upload. This protocol adopts
the client/server (C/S) structure.

FTP client FTP server

Network

FTP client: provides commands for local users to operate files on a FTP server: a device that runs the FTP service. It provides the
remote server. A user can install an FTP client program on a PC and set access and operation functions for remote clients, allowing users
up a connection with an FTP server to operate files on the server. to access the FTP server through the FTP client program and
access files on the server.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - Telnet

 Telnet is a standard protocol that provides remote login services on a network. It provides users with the ability to operate remote
devices through local PCs.

Telnet server

Telnet connection A user connects to a Telnet server through the Telnet

AP Router
client program. The commands entered on the Telnet

Network client are executed on the server, as if the commands

Telnet client
SW Firewall
were entered on the console of the server.
...
Server

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Common Application Layer Protocols - HTTP

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is one of the most widely used network protocols on the Internet. HTTP was originally designed to
provide a method for publishing and receiving HTML pages.

Network

HTTP client HTTP server

Visits www.huawei.com.

Returns the HTML file of the page.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Transport Layer
 A transport layer protocol receives data from an application layer protocol, encapsulates the data with the corresponding transport
layer protocol header, and helps establish an end-to-end (port-to-port) connection.
 PDUs transmitted at the transport layer are called segments.

Application Layer
Transport layer protocols:
Transport Layer TCP: a connection-oriented reliable protocol defined
(Segment) by IETF in RFC 793.
UDP: a simple connectionless protocol defined by
Network Layer
IETF in RFC 768.
Data Link Layer

Physical Layer

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

TCP and UDP - Header Formats

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

Sequence Number (32)
Acknowledgement Number (32) TCP header
Header Length Reserved (6) Control Bits Window (16) 20 bytes
(4) (6)

Checksum (16) Urgent (16)

Options
Data (varies)

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16) UDP header

Length (16) Checksum (16) 8 bytes
Data (if any)

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

TCP and UDP - Port Numbers

Web browser HTTP server

HTTP application Telnet HTTP application Telnet

TCP port 1024 TCP port 1231 TCP port 80 TCP port 23

House number: 1.1.1.1 (IP address) House number: 2.2.2.2 (IP address)

Network

HTTP client HTTP server

Source IP address: 1.1.1.1 Source port number: 1024 HTTP

Destination IP address: 2.2.2.2 Destination port number: 80 Payload

IP header TCP header

• Generally, the source port used by a client is randomly allocated, and the destination port is specified by the application of a server.
• The system generally selects a source port number that is greater than 1023 and is not being used.
• The destination port number is the listening port of the application (service) enabled on the server. For example, the default port number for HTTP is 80.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

TCP Connection Setup - Three-Way Handshake

• Before sending data, a TCP-based application needs to establish a connection through three-way handshake.

PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23

IP header TCP header

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a Ack=0

Destination=2.2.2.2 (Flags: SYN is set.)

Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b Ack=a+1

Destination=1.1.1.1 (Flags: SYN is set, and ACK is set.)

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Ack=b+1

Destination=2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)

A TCP connection is established.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

TCP Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number

 TCP uses the Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields to implement reliable and ordered data transmission.

PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
1 A TCP connection is
2
3 established.
4
5
6 …… IP header TCP header

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Payload

Destination = 2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Length = 12 bytes

Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b+1 Payload

Destination = 1.1.1.1 Ack=a+1+12 Length =0 bytes

Data to be sent Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+13 Payload

Destination = 2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Length = 66 bytes Question: Why does the value of the
Acknowledgment Number field in the
Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b+1 Payload segment sent by PC1 not increase?
Destination = 1.1.1.1 Ack=a+12+66 Length = 0 bytes

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

TCP Window Sliding Mechanism

 TCP uses the sliding window mechanism to control the data transmission rate.

PC1 PC2

Buffer of the receiver

seq=100 win=3 flags=SYN
1
Three-way seq=200 Ack=101 win=3 flags=SYN,ACK
handshake
seq=101 Ack=201 win=3 flags=ACK

Data to be sent
2 seq=101 win=3

Data transmission seq=102 win=3

3
seq=103 win=3

Question: Why does the Window

Ack=104 win=1 ctl=ACK
4 field of the segment sent by PC1
remain unchanged?
seq=104 win=3
5

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

TCP Shutdown - Four-Way Handshake

 After data transmission is complete, TCP needs to use the four-way handshake mechanism to disconnect the TCP connection and release system
resources.
PC1 PC2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
A TCP connection is
established.

TCP segment exchange

IP header TCP header

Sends a connection Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=101 Ack=301

1 teardown request Destination = 2.2.2.2 (Flags: FIN is set, and ACK is set.)
with FIN being set.

Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=301 Ack=102 Sends ACK. 2

Destination = 1.1.1.1 (Flags: ACK is set.)

Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=301 Ack=102 Sends a connection

Destination = 1.1.1.1 (Flags: FIN is set, and ACK is set.) teardown request 3
with FIN being set.

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=102 Ack=302

4 Sends ACK.
Destination = 2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)

The TCP connection is torn

down.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Network Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for establishing connections between processes on hosts, and the network layer is responsible for
transmitting data from one host to another.
 PDUs transmitted at the network layer are called packets.

Application Layer

Transport Layer
• The network layer is also called the Internet layer.
It sends packets from source hosts to destination hosts.
Network Layer
• Functions of the network layer:
(Packet)
Provides logical addresses for network devices.
Routes and forwards data packets.
Data Link Layer Common network layer protocols include IPv4, IPv6, ICMP, and IGMP.

Physical Layer

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Working Process of a Network Layer Protocol

Packet Encapsulation Packet Forwarding Based on Network Layer Addresses
Letter: data sent by an upper layer (for example, the transport Router 1
layer)
G0/0/0

PC1 G0/0/1

PC2
The PC encapsulates the IP header (envelope).
The key information is about source and destination IP
addresses. Network A

Routing table of Router 1 • The network layer header of a packet sent by a source device carries the
network layer addresses of the source and destination devices.
Outbound • Each network device (such as a router) that has the routing function maintains
Network
Interface a routing table (like a map of the network device).
• After receiving a packet, the network device reads the network layer
Network A G0/0/1 destination address of the packet, searches the routing table for the
Envelope: IP packet header matching entry of the destination address, and forwards the packet according
Sender: source IP address … … to the instruction of the matching entry.
Receiver: destination IP address
… …

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Data Link Layer

 The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer and provides services for protocols such as IP and IPv6
at the network layer. PDUs transmitted at the data link layer are called frames.
 Ethernet is the most common data link layer protocol.

Application Layer

Transport Layer
The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer.
Network Layer • The data link layer provides intra-segment communication for the network
layer.
Data Link Layer • The functions of the data link layer include framing, physical addressing,
(Frame) and error control.
• Common data link layer protocols include Ethernet, PPPoE, and PPP.
Physical Layer

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Ethernet and Source MAC Addresses

Ethernet Definition Ethernet Source MAC Addresses

Switch A
I have a MAC address when I
leave the factory. Name: Host A

Switch B
MAC address/Ethernet address/physical address:
Host A Host B
Host A

Network A
Host C Host D • A media access control (MAC) address uniquely identifies a NIC on a network. Each
• Ethernet is a broadcast multiple access protocol that works at the data link NIC requires and has a unique MAC address.
layer protocol. • MAC addresses are used to locate specific physical devices in an IP network
• The network interfaces of PCs comply with the Ethernet standard. segment.
• Generally, a broadcast domain corresponds to an IP network segment. • A device that works at the data link layer, such as an Ethernet switch, maintains a
MAC address table to guide data frame forwarding.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

ARP
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
 Discovers the MAC address associated with a given IP address.

ARP request
Destination IP address: 192.168.1.2
Destination MAC address: ?
Host A Host B
192.168.1.1/24 192.168.1.2/24
3C-52-82-49-7E-9D ARP reply 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Source IP address: 192.168.1.2
Source MAC address: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (1)

Host 1 checks cached ARP Host 1 Host 2

entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP request.

IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2:192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP entry.
1

Host 2 sends an ARP reply. Step 1:

Host 1>arp -a • Before sending a datagram, a device searches its ARP table for the
Internet Address Physical Address Type destination MAC address of the datagram.
Host 1 adds an ARP entry. • If the destination MAC address exists in the ARP table, the device
encapsulates the MAC address in the frame and sends out the
frame. If the destination MAC address does not exist in the ARP
The ARP cache table is table, the device sends an ARP request to discover the MAC
empty. address.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (2)

Host 1 Host 2
Host 1 checks cached ARP entries.
3 GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP request.

IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2:48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP entry.

Step 2:

Host 2 sends an ARP reply. • Host 1 sends an ARP request to discover the MAC address of
2
Eth_II ARP Request FCS Host 2.
• The destination MAC address in the ARP request is 0 because
the destination MAC address is unknown.
Host 1 adds an ARP entry.
Destination MAC address: Operation type: ARP request
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF MAC address of the sender: MAC 1
Source MAC address: IP address of the sender: IP 1 Step 3:
MAC 1 Destination MAC address: 00-00-00-00-00-00 • The ARP request message is a broadcast data frame. After
Destination IP address: IP 2 receiving the ARP request message, the switch floods it.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (3)

Host 1 checks cached ARP Host 1 Host 2

entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP request.

IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP entry.
4
Step 4:
Host 2 sends an ARP reply. • After receiving the ARP request message, each host checks whether it is the Host 2>arp -a
destination of the message based on the carried destination IP address. Internet Address Physical Address Type
• Host 2 finds that it is the destination of the message and then records the 192.168.1.1 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D Dynamic
Host 1 adds an ARP entry. mapping between the sender's MAC and IP addresses in its ARP table.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (4)

Host 1 checks cached ARP Host 1 Host 2

entries. 6
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP request.

IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP entry.
Step 5: 5
• Host 2 sends an ARP reply to Host 1.
Host 2 sends an ARP reply.
• In this step, Host 2 has discovered the MAC address of Host 1, so the ARP reply is a Eth_II ARP Reply FCS
unicast data frame.

Host 1 adds an ARP entry.

Destination MAC address: MAC-1 Operation type: ARP reply
Step 6: Source MAC address: MAC 2 Sender's MAC address: MAC 2
Sender's IP address: IP 2
• After receiving the unicast data frame, the switch forwards the frame.
Receiver's MAC address: MAC 1
Receiver's IP address: IP 1

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

ARP Implementation Principles (5)

Host 1 checks cached ARP Host 1 Host 2

entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2

Host 1 sends an ARP request.

IP 1: 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2: 192.168.1.2/24
MAC 1: 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D MAC 2: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
Host 2 adds an ARP entry.
7
Step 7:
Host 2 sends an ARP reply. Host 1>arp -a • After receiving the ARP reply message, Host 1 checks whether it is the
Internet Address Physical Address Type destination of the message based on the carried destination IP address.
192.168.1.2 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4FDynamic • If so, Host 1 records the carried sender's MAC and IP addresses in its ARP
Host 1 adds an ARP entry. table.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Physical Layer
 After data arrives at the physical layer, the physical layer converts a digital signal into an optical signal, an electrical signal, or an electromagnetic
wave signal based on the physical media.
 PDUs transmitted at the physical layer are called bitstreams.

Application Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

The physical layer is at the bottom of the model.

Data Link Layer • This layer transmits bitstreams on media.
• It standardizes physical features such as cables, pins, voltages, and interfaces.
Physical Layer • Common transmission media include twisted pairs, optical fibers, and
(Bitstream) electromagnetic waves.

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 Transport Network Physical
Application Layer Data Link Layer
Layer Layer Layer

Common Transmission Media

Fiber Optical module

Twisted pair RJ45 connector

Data transmission through twisted pairs Data transmission through optical fibers
1 2

3 4

Synchronous/asynchronous serial cable:

V.24 on the left and V.35 on the right
PAD Mobile phone Laptop Wireless router

Data transmission between terminal and wireless routers

Data transmission through serial cables through wireless signals

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 Contents
1. Applications and Data

2. Network Reference Model and Standard Protocols

3. Data Communication Process

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 Data Encapsulation on the Sender

DATA Application Layer Data

www.huawei.com

TCP Header DATA Transport Layer Segment

Network Layer Packet

IP Header Payload

Data Link Layer Frame

Eth Header Payload FCS

... Physical Layer Bit

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ... Transmission Media

Transmission Media
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 Data Transmission on the Intermediate Network
 Encapsulated data is transmitted on the network.
Data

Data

Application Layer Application Layer

Transport Layer Transport Layer

Network Layer Network Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

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 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver

Application Layer DATA Data

Web server

Transport Layer DATA Segment

Network Layer Payload Packet

Data Link Layer Payload Frame

Physical Layer …… Bit

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
Transmission Media

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 Summary
 Both the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model adopt the layered design concept.
 Clear division of functions and boundaries between layers facilitates the development, design, and troubleshooting of each
component.

 The functions of each layer can be defined to impel industry standardization.

 Interfaces can be provided to enable communication between hardware and software on various networks, improving
compatibility.

 Data generation and transmission require collaboration between modules. Meanwhile, each module must fulfill its own
responsibilities.

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 Quiz
1. What are the benefits of the layered model?

2. What are the common protocols at the application layer, transport layer, network layer, and data link layer?

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 Thank You
www.huawei.com

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