Question ID ca5a3fb4

Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: ca5a3fb4
The practice of logging (cutting down trees for commercial and other uses) is often thought to be at odds with forest
conservation (the work of preserving forests). However, a massive study in forest management and preservation spanning
700,000 hectares in Oregon’s Malheur National Forest calls that view into question. So far, results of the study suggest that
forest plots that have undergone limited logging (the careful removal of a controlled number of trees) may be more robust
than plots that haven’t been logged at all. These results, in turn, suggest that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. logging may be useful for maintaining healthy forests, provided it is limited.

B. other forest management strategies are more effective than limited logging.

C. as time passes, it will be difficult to know whether limited logging has any benefits.

D. the best way to support forest health may be to leave large forests entirely untouched.

ID: ca5a3fb4 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the potential effects of logging on
forest conservation. The text begins by stating that logging practices are often thought of as being contrary to forest
conservation efforts. Then, the text presents the results of a research study examining the effect of limited logging practices
on specific forest plots, finding that the plots with limited logging may be "more robust" (healthier) than the plots that hadn’t
been logged at all. Given these results, it follows that logging may be a useful practice for maintaining healthy forests if it is
practiced in a limited way.

Choice B is incorrect because the study referenced in the text only provides information on limited logging as a potential
forest management strategy. There is no information in the text about how other forest management strategies support
forest conservation efforts. Therefore, the text does not support the assertion that other forest management strategies are
more successful than limited logging. Choice C is incorrect because the text presents a research study with findings that
specific plots of forest with limited logging may be more robust than the forest plots that were not logged. Rather than
suggesting that it is hard to know whether limited logging might be beneficial, the text suggests that the practice could be
useful in forest conservation efforts. Choice D is incorrect. The text discusses the results of a research study that compares
the health of forest plots with limited logging to forest plots that were not logged. It does not take a position on the best way
to support forest health but rather presents a research study with findings that question conventionally held thoughts
regarding the practice of logging.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 26f5c4ba
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 26f5c4ba
In 2022, Crystal Reeck and colleagues studied whether the decision-making modes that guide consumers influence their
choice between nonenvironmentally friendly standard electricity plans and environmentally friendly green plans that cap
electricity usage. Study participants who self-reported using either an Affect Mode or Role Mode—which prioritize choices
that have a stronger positive emotional or social impact, respectively—were more likely to select a green plan. Conversely,
participants using a Calculation Mode—which aims to minimize both financial cost and personal inconvenience—were more
likely to select a standard plan, even when the green option was cheaper. This finding suggests that participants using a
Calculation Mode ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

were equally unlikely to factor the financial savings of the green plan into their decision-making as were participants
A. using either the Affect or Role Modes.

B. may have been less strongly motivated to appear socially responsible with their choice of plan than they realized.

may have determined that the green plan imposed additional burdens on them that were not sufficiently offset by the
C. potential financial savings.

were less likely to believe that the green plan was truly cost-effective than were participants using either the Affect or
D. Role Modes.

ID: 26f5c4ba Answer

Correct Answer: C
Rationale
Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the influence of decision-making
modes on consumers’ choices of different electricity plans. The Affect Mode describes choices based on the decision-
maker’s preferred emotional outcome, the Role Mode describes choices based on the decision-maker’s social motivations,
and the Calculation Mode describes choices based on minimizing financial costs and maximizing the decision-maker’s
convenience. Thus, if those using a Calculation Mode disfavor the green plan, it would be due to some financial or
convenience burden the green plan imposes that the other doesn’t. The text indicates that the green plan had a lower
financial cost but was nonetheless rejected by participants using the Calculation Mode. It therefore follows that the green
plan likely imposed a convenience burden that outweighed potential financial savings for these participants.

Choice A is incorrect. According to the text, the Affect Mode involves the decision-maker’s preferred emotional outcome, the
Role Mode involves social motivations, and the Calculation Mode is oriented toward minimizing financial costs and
maximizing the decision-maker’s convenience. Thus, unlike the Affect or Role Modes, the Calculation Mode would almost
certainly involve taking price differences into account. Choice B is incorrect. According to the text, the Affect Mode involves
the decision-maker’s preferred emotional outcome, the Role Mode involves social motivations, and the Calculation Mode is
oriented toward minimizing financial costs and maximizing the decision-maker’s convenience. Thus, there is no reason to
think that participants using the Calculation Mode at any point took social responsibility into account, let alone think that
they discovered a disparity between their expectations and reality. Choice D is incorrect. According to the text, the Affect
Mode involves the decision-maker’s preferred emotional outcome, the Role Mode involves social motivations, and the
Calculation Mode is oriented toward minimizing financial costs and maximizing the decision-maker’s convenience. Thus, the
text doesn’t indicate that cost-effectiveness is a factor for participants using the Affect or Role Modes, and there is no basis
to compare their beliefs in the truthfulness of the green-plan description with those of the Calculation Mode users.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e1504a2a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: e1504a2a
The Cretaceous pterosaur Tupandactylus navigans is known for having an anomalously oversized head crest. Until an almost
complete fossil skeleton was found in Brazil, paleontologists had been able to study only skull specimens from T. navigans,
though it was presumed that, like other pterosaurs, the species’s primary form of locomotion was powered flight. Examining
the fuller skeleton in 2016, Victor Beccari and his team determined that T. navigans had long hind legs, short wings, and an
unusually long neck—characteristics that, combined with the creature’s large-crested head, would have made sustained flight
difficult and walking upright relatively comfortable. Based on these findings the team suggests that T. navigans likely ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. flew for longer distances than did other pterosaur species that had oversized head crests.

B. had longer wings than other pterosaur species considered to have been comfortable walking.

C. had a smaller head than researchers expected based on the earlier T. navigans skull specimens.

D. flew for shorter distances and spent more time walking than researchers previously thought.

ID: e1504a2a Answer

Correct Answer: D
Rationale
Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the Cretaceous pterosaur
Tupandactylus navigans. The text first describes what paleontologists initially speculated to be true of T. navigans based on
observing only fossilized skulls of the pterosaur rather than complete skeletons—namely, that T. navigans had an oversized
head crest and that, like other pterosaurs, its main mode of movement must have been flight. The text goes on to describe
what researcher Victor Beccari and his team concluded based on studying a nearly complete fossilized skeleton of T.
navigans, which provided additional information that fossilized skulls alone could not. Beccari and colleagues determined
that T. navigans had long hind legs, short wings, and an unusually long neck, in addition to the oversized head crest
previously observed by paleontologists. Taken together, these characteristics would have made sustained flight difficult and
upright walking comfortable, which would make T. navigans different from other pterosaurs that moved mainly through
flight. Thus, Beccari and colleagues suggest that previously held speculations of paleontologists are inaccurate: that instead
of moving mainly through powered flight, T. navigans likely flew for shorter distances and spent more time walking than
researchers previously thought.

Choice A is incorrect because Beccari and his team determined, based on their examination of a nearly complete skeleton,
that T. navigans would have found "sustained flight difficult," which would differentiate it from most other pterosaurs that
moved mainly through flight. Therefore, Beccari’s team would not suggest that T. navigans flew for longer distances than did
other pterosaur species with large head crests. Choice B is incorrect because the fossilized skeleton studied by Beccari and
colleagues was notable for its short wings, and because no indication in the text is made that other pterosaurs were thought
by paleontologists to be comfortable walking. Therefore, Beccari’s team would not suggest that T. navigans had longer wings
than other pterosaur species considered to have been comfortable walking. Choice C is incorrect because the text indicates
that Beccari and his team agree with the paleontologists mentioned earlier in the text that T. navigans had a large-crested
head. Therefore, Beccari’s team would not suggest that T. navigans had a smaller head than researchers previously
expected.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 1bf2173e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 1bf2173e
In a three-year study of parasitic infections by Anomotaenia brevis tapeworms in Temnothorax nylanderi ants, entomologist
Susanne Foitzik and colleagues found something unexpected: rather than reducing its host’s fitness, as is typical of
parasites, A. brevis greatly extends the lifespan of a T. nylanderi worker ant and seems to halt the effects of aging.
Furthermore, those infected receive special treatment, ceasing their share of labor to sustain the colony and remaining in the
nest as uninfected workers feed, groom, and transport them. By contrast, the researchers observed that uninfected workers
in parasitized colonies have shortened lifespans, most likely because the ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

uninfected workers are at high risk for direct exposure to A. brevis in the course of providing social care to the infected
A. workers in the nest.

need to compensate for reduced contributions within the colony while also caring for infected workers is burdensome to
B. the uninfected workers.

high level of activity maintained by the uninfected workers makes them better able than infected workers to quickly
C. disperse when the nest is attacked by a predator.

average lifespan of T. nylanderi worker ants in colonies without parasitic activity typically falls well below three years, the
D. range covered by the study.

ID: 1bf2173e Answer

Correct Answer: B
Rationale
Choice B is the best answer. The text describes a study examining the relationship between a species of parasitic tapeworm,
A. brevis, and its host insect, the T. nylanderi ant. According to the text, researchers were surprised to find that the tapeworm
extends the life of its ant host, rather than reducing it. The text goes on to state that the infected ants end up doing less work
to sustain the colony and that as a result, the uninfected ants take on the infected ants’ share of labor in addition to caring
for them in their infected state. The study’s researchers also observed that the uninfected ants have shorter lifespans than
expected. If the infected ants, who are doing less work in the colony, have longer lifespans, it can be inferred that the less an
ant works, the longer it will live. The opposite of this statement can also be inferred: the more an ant works, the shorter its
life. So, since the workload within the colony is being redistributed so that the infected ants work less while the uninfected
ants work more (as they take on the neglected duties of the infected ants and also care for those ants), then it can be
inferred that the lifespans of the uninfected ants are shortened because the need to compensate for reduced contributions
within the colony while also caring for infected workers is burdensome to the uninfected workers.

Choice A is incorrect because the text does not indicate how A. brevis is transmitted to the ants or assert that uninfected
ants are more likely to be directly exposed to A. brevis while caring for infected ants. Choice C is incorrect because the text
makes no mention of the relative abilities of infected and uninfected ants to escape predators: in fact, predators are not
mentioned in the text at all. Choice D is incorrect because the text does not supply any information about the average
lifespans of the ants in colonies without parasitic activity; the text only indicates factors that lengthen and shorten the
lifespans of ants in parasitized colonies.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 420b82e2
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 420b82e2
In 2016 biological anthropologist Heather F. Smith and her team investigated the evolution of the appendix, an intestinal
organ that is present in some mammals, including humans, but is generally thought to have no function. Studying 533
mammal species, the team found that the appendix has emerged independently across multiple lineages in separate
instances and, significantly, hasn’t disappeared after emerging in specific lineages. Moreover, the team determined that
species with the organ tend to have higher concentrations of lymphoid tissue, which supports immune responses, in the
cecum, the organ the appendix is attached to. Therefore, the team hypothesized that the appendix likely ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. was once present in many nonmammal species but has since disappeared from those lineages.

B. has been preserved in certain mammal species because it benefits their immune systems.

C. will emerge in a greater number of mammal species because it may serve a necessary function in the immune system.

D. produced higher concentrations of lymphoid tissue in mammals in the past than it does currently.

ID: 420b82e2 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Smith and colleagues’ investigation
of the evolution and biological role of the appendix. The text indicates that the team found several instances of the appendix
emerging and not disappearing in the lineages of various mammal species the team examined. Furthermore, the text states
that species that possess an appendix also tend to have relatively high amounts of lymphoid tissue—a type of tissue that
supports immune system function. Taken together, these details strongly support the hypothesis that the appendix has
persisted in some species because it has a function that contributes to effective immune responses in those species.

Choice A is incorrect because the text doesn’t address any nonmammalian species. Choice C is incorrect because the text
doesn’t make predictions about the evolutionary future of the species Smith and colleagues examined, and although the
implication of the text is that the appendix likely does serve a function for the immune system, nothing in the text indicates
that the appendix will become more widespread in the future. Choice D is incorrect. Although the text does suggest an
association between having an appendix and relatively high concentrations of lymphoid tissue, it doesn’t claim that the
appendix causes the tissue to grow, nor does it address the relative production of the tissue at different periods of time.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 28dfc05a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 28dfc05a
Even with the widespread adoption of personal computers, many authors still choose to write and revise their novels by hand
and only then transcribe the final version on a computer. It may be tempting to speculate about how a novel written this way
would be affected if it had been exclusively typed instead, but each novel is a unique entity resulting from a specific set of
circumstances. Therefore, ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

in order to increase their efficiency, authors who currently write their novels largely by hand should instead work only on a
A. computer.

authors who do most of their drafting and revising by hand likely have more success than those who work entirely on a
B. computer.

C. novels written by hand take less time to produce, on average, than novels written on a computer do.

D. there is no way to reasonably evaluate how a work would be different if it had been written by other means.

ID: 28dfc05a Answer

Correct Answer: D

Rationale
Choice D is the best answer because it presents the conclusion that most logically follows from the text’s discussion of the
means authors use to write and revise their novels. After stating that many authors still choose to draft novels by hand even
though computers are now widely used, the text acknowledges the speculation that the opposite choice—using only a
computer—would have had an effect on such novels. However, the text then points out that every novel is the singular result
of a combination of the particular conditions surrounding its creation. This suggests that it isn’t possible to determine the
effect of any single condition (such as the means of writing) on its own; thus, there would be no way to reasonably evaluate
how a novel would have turned out differently if it had been written by other means.

Choice A is incorrect because the text doesn’t suggest that it’s more efficient to write a novel on a computer than to write it
by hand; it doesn’t address efficiency at all. Therefore, it isn’t logical to conclude that authors who currently choose to write
novels largely by hand should instead work only on a computer to increase their efficiency. Choice B is incorrect because the
text doesn’t suggest anything about how successful authors are, regardless of the means by which they choose to write;
therefore, it isn’t logical to conclude that authors who write largely by hand are likely to be more successful than those who
work only on a computer. Choice C is incorrect because the text makes no mention of the time it takes to produce a novel,
regardless of the means by which it’s written; therefore, it isn’t logical to conclude that novels written by hand take less time
on average to produce than those written on a computer do.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID a44c7bd4
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: a44c7bd4
Some ethicists hold that the moral goodness of an individual’s actions depends solely on whether the actions themselves
are good, irrespective of the context in which they are carried out. Philosopher L. Sebastian Purcell has shown that surviving
works of Aztec (Nahua) philosophy express a very different view. Purcell reveals that these works posit an ethical system in
which an individual’s actions are judged in light of how well they accord with the individual’s role in society and how well they
contribute to the community. To the extent that these works are representative of Aztec thought, Purcell’s analysis suggests
that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

the Aztecs would have disputed the idea that the morality of an individual’s actions can be assessed by appealing to
A. standards of behavior that are independent of the individual’s social circumstances.

the Aztecs would not have accepted the notion that the morality of an individual’s actions can be fairly evaluated by
B. people who do not live in the same society as that individual.

actions by members of Aztec society who contributed a great deal to their community could be judged as morally good
C. even if those actions were inconsistent with behaviors the Aztecs regarded as good in all contexts.

similar actions performed by people in different social roles in Aztec society would have been regarded as morally
D. equivalent unless those actions led to different outcomes for the community.

ID: a44c7bd4 Answer

Correct Answer: A
Rationale
Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion about Aztec (Nahua) ethics. The text
indicates that, according to Purcell’s interpretation of available Aztec philosophical works, the Aztec ethical system views an
individual’s actions in relation to that individual’s societal role and how the actions affect the community. The text contrasts
this view with another held by some ethicists, namely that actions are morally good or bad regardless of the context in which
they occur. Thus, Purcell’s analysis suggests that the Aztecs would have asserted that the morality of an individual’s actions
are rooted in that person’s position in the community and the actions’ effects and therefore cannot be determined in the
absence of that context.

Choice B is incorrect. Although the text indicates that morally judging an action according to Aztec ethics requires an
understanding of the action’s effects and the individual’s social circumstances, it does not specify that only members of that
society can acquire this information. Choice C is incorrect because it implies that the Aztecs considered some actions good
or bad regardless of the surrounding context, which contradicts the text’s claim that the Aztecs believed that the morality of
an individual’s action is dependent on the action’s effects on the community and the person’s specific circumstances. Choice
D is incorrect. Although the text indicates that in Aztec ethics the morality of an action depends in part on how it affects the
community, this is only one of the two factors—the other being the person’s societal role—that need to be considered.
Therefore, it is possible that two actions with the same effect on the community could be considered morally distinct if they
are performed by individuals in different social roles.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID e6e6be2d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: e6e6be2d
Overgrazing by purple sea urchins has caused many kelp forests along North America’s west coast to be replaced by urchin
barrens—areas stripped of vegetation and covered in purple sea urchins. Urchins in barrens persist in a state of starvation
that lessens their nutritional value—and thus their appeal—to many predators. Sarah Gravem and colleagues placed
sunflower sea stars, a once-abundant predator species suffering massive population declines in recent years, in aquariums
that each contained a nutritionally poor and a nutritionally rich purple sea urchin. The researchers found that the sea stars
selected the nutritionally rich urchin in 42.7% of trials and the nutritionally poor urchin in 37.5% of trials, suggesting that
______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

sunflower sea stars are willing to hunt sea urchins, but if given a choice, they will prey on other more nutritious marine
A. animals instead.

sunflower sea stars are reluctant to feed on both nutritionally poor and nutritionally rich sea urchins and are therefore
B. unlikely to thrive in kelp forests.

sunflower sea stars are less likely to consume sea urchins in barrens than other species of sea stars are, putting
C. sunflower sea stars at a high risk of extinction.

sunflower sea stars do not always avoid foraging on nutritionally poor sea urchins, making sunflower sea star population
D. recovery a potentially important tool for controlling urchin barrens.

ID: e6e6be2d Answer

Correct Answer: D
Rationale
Choice D is the best answer because it presents the conclusion that most logically follows from the text’s discussion of the
researchers’ findings about purple sea urchins and sunflower sea stars. The text explains that urchin barrens are areas that
used to be kelp forests but are now covered by purple sea urchins. The text suggests that because there is no more
vegetation to be consumed in those areas, the urchins exist in a state of starvation that makes them less nutritional for
many predators. The text goes on to explain that in a study with a choice between two purple sea urchins, sunflower sea
stars (a predator species that has been substantially declining) consumed a nutritionally rich urchin 42.7% of the time and a
nutritionally poor urchin 37.5% of the time. Because the sunflower sea stars didn’t always avoid consuming nutritionally poor
urchins, even when nutritionally rich ones were available, it follows that helping sunflower sea star populations to grow could
help control urchin barrens by increasing the number of sea stars that may consume and thus remove nutritionally poor
purple sea urchins from barrens.

Choice A is incorrect because the text indicates only that when presented with purple sea urchins, the sunflower sea stars in
the study consumed both nutritionally rich and nutritionally poor ones. It doesn’t suggest that sunflower sea stars generally
prefer other marine animals that are more nutritious; there’s no mention of other marine animals. Choice B is incorrect
because the text doesn’t suggest that sunflower sea stars are generally reluctant to feed on sea urchins. In fact, the text
indicates that the sunflower sea stars in the study did consume sea urchins, feeding on both nutritionally poor and
nutritionally rich ones. Choice C is incorrect because the text addresses only the willingness of sunflower sea stars to
consume the type of sea urchins found in barrens (nutritionally poor sea urchins), not how likely other species of sea stars
are to consume them.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 3d505895
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 3d505895
Parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction in which a female reproduces without mating. She produces an egg containing a
single offspring whose DNA, or genetic material, comes entirely from its mother. Among birds, parthenogenesis has been
found in a handful of species, including pigeons and turkeys. When scientists at the San Diego Zoo analyzed the DNA of the
zoo’s California condors (a species of vulture), they discovered that two individuals weren’t genetically similar enough to any
of the males in the condor enclosure to be their offspring. However, both had hatched from eggs laid by females in the
enclosure. Thus, the scientists concluded that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. at least one of those individuals’ mothers was born as a result of parthenogenesis.

B. California condors may reproduce through parthenogenesis in zoos but not in the wild.

C. the mothers of the two individuals probably reproduced through parthenogenesis.

D. California condors reproduce through parthenogenesis only if females lack sufficient access to males.

ID: 3d505895 Answer

Correct Answer: C

Rationale
Choice C is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of parthenogenesis as it relates to two
California condors at the San Diego Zoo. The text explains that parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction in which a female
reproduces without mating, producing an egg containing an offspring with DNA that comes entirely from its mother. After
noting examples of parthenogenesis among birds, the text then reports on a discovery at the San Diego Zoo. According to
the text, scientists at the zoo found that two of the zoo’s California condors weren’t similar enough to any of the zoo’s male
condors to be their offspring. Given that parthenogenesis occurs without mating and results in an offspring with DNA
entirely from its mother, it can reasonably be inferred that the scientists concluded that the mothers of the two condors
probably didn’t mate with any of the male condors at the zoo, reproducing through parthenogenesis instead.

Choice A is incorrect because the text never suggests that at least one of the condors’ mothers was born as a result of
parthenogenesis. Rather, the text suggests that the two condors were themselves both probably born as a result of
parthenogenesis, which would account for their lack of strong genetic resemblance to any of the male condors in the zoo’s
condor enclosure. Choice B is incorrect because the text never discusses wild California condors, only California condors
living at the San Diego Zoo. For this reason, the text doesn’t support a conclusion that distinguishes between how California
condors reproduce in zoos and how they reproduce in the wild. Choice D is incorrect because the text never suggests that
the zoo’s female condors lacked sufficient access to males or that this would be a cause of parthenogenesis, indicating only
that the condor enclosure included males.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 96d1c1fe
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 96d1c1fe
Tatiana R. Feuerborn and colleagues analyzed the genomes of more than a hundred domesticated dogs from sites in Siberia
dating from 11,000 years ago to the present. They found that the dogs constituted a genetically isolated population of Arctic
breeds until approximately 2,000 years ago, at which point there was substantial interbreeding with Near Eastern dog breeds.
Furthermore, beginning around 2,000 years ago, some sites contain artifacts consistent with a Near East origin, like glass
beads, but the people show no evidence of having traveled extensively outside Siberia. From this, Feuerborn and colleagues
concluded that around 2,000 years ago ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. dogs and artifacts like glass beads began to be transported from the Near East to Siberia.

B. people from Siberia began to reach the Near East, where they acquired dogs and artifacts such as glass beads.

C. glass beads and other artifacts from the Near East began to be exchanged for dogs from Siberia.

D. dogs from the Near East began to be exchanged for glass beads and other artifacts from Siberia.

ID: 96d1c1fe Answer

Correct Answer: A
Rationale
Choice A is the best answer because it presents the conclusion that most logically follows from the text’s discussion of
Feuerborn and colleagues’ findings about sites in Siberia. The text states that genomic analysis of many domesticated dogs
from Siberian sites dating from the last 11,000 years revealed that the dogs represented a genetically isolated population of
breeds (that is, they didn’t reproduce with dogs of any outside breeds) until about 2,000 years ago, when there is evidence
that the dogs began interbreeding with breeds from the Near East. The text also indicates that around the same time, the
sites began to contain glass beads and other artifacts seeming to be from the Near East, even though there is no evidence
that the people of those sites traveled widely outside Siberia. Because there is evidence of Near East dog breeds and Near
East artifacts at Siberian sites beginning about 2,000 years ago but no evidence of the people’s travel to the Near East
around that time, it’s reasonable to infer that Feuerborn and colleagues concluded that dogs and artifacts like glass beads
were transported to Siberia from the Near East, starting around 2,000 years ago.

Choice B is incorrect because the text explicitly states that there is no evidence that the people of the Siberian sites 2,000
years ago traveled extensively beyond Siberia, which they would’ve had to do to reach the Near East; therefore, it wouldn’t
make sense to conclude that the presence of Near East dog breeds and artifacts like glass beads suggests that people from
Siberia began arriving in the Near East around 2,000 years ago. Choice C is incorrect because the text addresses the
presence of Near East dog breeds (and evidence of interbreeding with Siberian dogs) and artifacts like glass beads at
Siberian sites starting about 2,000 years ago, suggesting only that the dogs and artifacts started to arrive in Siberia around
that time. The text doesn’t suggest the purpose of the arrival of the Near East dogs and artifacts or give any indication of
Siberian dog breeds being transported elsewhere through trade. Choice D is incorrect because the text addresses the
presence of Near East dog breeds and artifacts like glass beads at Siberian sites starting about 2,000 years ago, suggesting
only that the dogs and artifacts started to arrive in Siberia around that time; it doesn’t suggest the purpose of this arrival and
makes no mention of Siberian glass beads or other artifacts of Siberian origin.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID a0b58ef0
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: a0b58ef0
The Younger Dryas was a period of extreme cooling from 11,700 to 12,900 years ago in the Northern Hemisphere. Some
scientists argue that a comet fragment hitting Earth brought about the cooling. Others disagree, partly because there is no
known crater from such an impact that dates to the beginning of the period. In 2015, a team led by Kurt Kjær detected a 19-
mile-wide crater beneath a glacier in Greenland. The scientists who believe an impact caused the Younger Dryas claim that
this discovery supports their view. However, Kjær’s team hasn’t yet been able to determine the age of the crater. Therefore,
the team suggests that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. it can’t be concluded that the impact that made the crater was connected to the beginning of the Younger Dryas.

B. it can’t be determined whether a comet fragment could make a crater as large as 19 miles wide.

C. scientists have ignored the possibility that something other than a comet fragment could have made the crater.

the scientists who believe an impact caused the Younger Dryas have made incorrect assumptions about when the period
D. began.

ID: a0b58ef0 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of a crater’s connection to the start of
the Younger Dryas. According to the text, some scientists believe that a comet fragment hitting Earth caused the cooling of
the Younger Dryas period to come about. The text then indicates that a team of scientists found a crater in Greenland, which
some believe supports the theory of a comet fragment hitting Earth to initiate the Younger Dryas. However, the text also
notes that the team was unable to determine the age of the crater. If the age of the crater can’t be determined, then its
connection to the Younger Dryas period of time can’t be confirmed either. Thus, it can’t be concluded that the impact that
made the crater was connected to the beginning of the Younger Dryas.

Choice B is incorrect because though the text suggests that the age of the comet crater found by a team of scientists is
uncertain, it doesn’t address whether a comet fragment can make a crater as large as 19 miles wide. The text doesn’t
consider the size of comet fragments and how they relate to the size of craters they might make. Choice C is incorrect
because the debate in the text centers on the age of the crater found, not the cause of the crater. The text doesn’t indicate
uncertainty about what caused the discovered crater. Choice D is incorrect because the text suggests that the age of the
crater found by the team of scientists is uncertain, not that the dates of the Younger Dryas are uncertain or incorrect. The
text states that "the Younger Dryas was a period of extreme cooling from 11,700 to 12,900 years ago" but doesn’t indicate
any debate about the timing of the period.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID 5cd55c77
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 5cd55c77
During their larval phase, numerous species of coral reef fish are drawn toward areas where light is present. To better
understand how artificial light at night (ALAN) might affect some coral reef fish, researchers explored the effect of exposure
to low levels of ALAN on the reproductive success of the common clownfish (Amphiprion ocellaris). While exposure to low
levels of ALAN had no significant effect on spawning frequency and egg fertilization in A. ocellaris, incubation in the
presence of ALAN completely inhibited hatching. These findings suggest that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. ocellaris that settle in areas with low levels of ALAN have significantly higher rates of successful egg fertilization than
A. A. ocellaris that settle in areas without ALAN do.

the reproductive success of A. ocellaris would be at risk if they were to selectively settle in regions that are regularly
B. exposed to low levels of ALAN.

the reproductive success of A. ocellaris is more greatly affected by the presence of low levels of ALAN during incubation
C. than the reproductive success of other species of coral reef fish is.

the spawning frequency of A. ocellaris was more strongly affected by the presence of low levels of ALAN than egg
D. fertilization was, though both were less affected than incubation.

ID: 5cd55c77 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of artificial light at night (ALAN) and
the common clownfish (A. ocellaris). The text indicates that researchers found that when A. ocellaris is exposed to low levels
of ALAN, spawning frequency and egg fertilization aren’t significantly affected but hatching is completely inhibited—that is,
the eggs never hatch. Therefore, if A. ocellaris were to settle only in regions where the fish would be regularly exposed to low
levels of ALAN, their eggs would stop hatching and their reproductive success would be at risk.

Choice A is incorrect because the text indicates that exposure to low levels of ALAN had no significant effect on egg
fertilization for A. ocellaris, so there’s no reason to expect there would be any significant difference in rates of successful egg
fertilization between areas with low levels of ALAN and areas without ALAN. Choice C is incorrect because the text doesn’t
discuss the particular effects of low levels of ALAN on any species of coral reef fish besides A. ocellaris. For this reason,
there’s no support in the text for the idea that the reproductive success of A. ocellaris is more greatly affected by the
presence of low levels of ALAN than the reproductive success of other species of coral reef fish is. Choice D is incorrect. The
text does indicate that A. ocellaris incubation was most strongly affected by low levels of ALAN, but it doesn’t indicate that
there was a greater effect on spawning frequency than on egg fertilization; in fact, the text states that there was no
significant effect on either.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID f495b554
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: f495b554
Silicon-based photovoltaic cells account for 95% of the cells used in solar panels worldwide despite converting an average
of only 18–22% of the sunlight that reaches them. In a study addressing this relative inefficiency, a team led by Laura
Miranda-Pérez demonstrated that the addition of a thin layer of the mineral perovskite—which captures the blue range of
light in the solar spectrum, whereas silicon captures the red range—allows the cells to convert 29.5% or more of the Sun’s
energy into usable electricity. Cells made with only perovskite, however, are no more efficient than silicon-based ones. It’s
reasonable to conclude, then, that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

photovoltaic cells with both silicon and perovskite are more efficient because they make use of more of the solar
A. spectrum.

B. photovoltaic cells with only perovskite and no silicon would likely convert more than 29.5% of the Sun’s energy.

C. solar power will remain elusive until photovoltaic cells are replaced with a more practical technology.

D. researchers need to evaluate whether other minerals like perovskite are as effective as perovskite seems to be.

ID: f495b554 Answer

Correct Answer: A
Rationale
Choice A is the best answer because it presents the conclusion that most logically completes the text’s discussion of the
efficiency of various photovoltaic cells. The text indicates that Miranda-Pérez and her team found that adding a layer of
perovskite to silicon-based cells increased the percentage of sunlight converted to usable electricity relative to the
percentage converted to electricity by silicon-based cells. Using cells with only perovskite and no silicon, however, resulted in
no improvement in efficiency over silicon-based cells. The text also states that perovskite captures light in the blue range of
the solar spectrum and silicon captures light in the red range of the spectrum. If perovskite and silicon capture different
parts of the solar spectrum and the combination of perovskite and silicon results in greater efficiency than the use of either
perovskite or silicon alone does, then it is reasonable to infer that the improved efficiency of perovskite-silicon cells could be
attributable to their making use of more of the solar spectrum than perovskite-based or silicon-based cells do.

Choice B is incorrect because it is directly contradicted by the text, which says that silicon-based cells convert 18%–22% of
the sunlight that reaches them to electricity and that cells with only perovskite are no more efficient than silicon-based cells
are. Perovskite-only cells thus must convert 22% or less—not more than 29.5%—of the sunlight that reaches them to
electricity. Choice C is incorrect because the text focuses on a possible improvement to photovoltaic cells and makes no
mention of any alternatives to those cells, so there is no reason to conclude that photovoltaic cells must be replaced with
some other technology. Additionally, the text presents solar power as something that currently exists, so it wouldn’t make
sense to conclude that solar power will remain elusive. Choice D is incorrect because nothing in the text suggests that there
is a need to evaluate the effectiveness of other minerals than perovskite. In fact, the text gives no indication that it is even
possible to use other minerals than silicon and perovskite in photovoltaic cells. Instead, the text is focused on the effect of
combining perovskite and silicon and the different parts of the solar spectrum that perovskite and silicon capture.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 25fc2534
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 25fc2534
Marine archaeologists have found much of the wooden hull of a sixteenth-century ship in a flooded quarry in southeast
England. When it is exposed to air and water, wood rots quickly unless it is protected by sediment that shields it from
oxygen. Therefore, the discovered ship was likely ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. covered by a protective sediment layer in the quarry.

B. one of several other ships buried in the same quarry.

C. a confirmation of previous theories about the type of wood that was used in sixteenth-century ships.

D. first constructed much earlier than previously thought.

ID: 25fc2534 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of the discovered ship. The text states
that much of the ship’s wooden hull was found in a quarry. The text also states that wood rots quickly unless it is protected
by sediment, which shields the wood from exposure to oxygen. It is therefore reasonable to infer that the surviving portion of
the ship’s hull was covered by an oxygen-shielding layer of sediment.

Choice B is incorrect because nothing in the text suggests other ships have been or are likely to be found in the same quarry.
The fact that much of this ship’s wood survived for centuries in the quarry does raise the possibility that there might be other
preserved ships, but the text provides no support for such a conclusion. Choice C is incorrect because the text does not
address the type of wood used in sixteenth-century ships or any theories pertaining to wood choice in ships. Choice D is
incorrect because the text states only that the ship is from the sixteenth century, with no other dates offered for its
construction, and thus there is no basis to consider alternative ages for the ship. Additionally, even if the ship was
constructed earlier, it is not logically connected to the text’s discussion of how it was preserved.

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID eca09a92
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: eca09a92
If an animal has been extinct for a long time, how can scientists learn what color it was? One group of scientists came up
with a possible answer. When the scientists examined the fossilized feather of an extinct bird, they found melanosomes in it.
Melanosomes produce pigment, or grains of color, inside cells. Because melanosomes are shaped differently depending on
which colors they produce, the scientists hypothesized that they could ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. show how melanosomes can be found in fossils belonging to animals from other extinct species.

B. determine the colors of the bird based on the appearance of the melanosomes in the feather.

C. explain why the melanosomes in the feather were so well preserved.

D. identify the colors of extinct animals whose fossils lack melanosomes.

ID: eca09a92 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of a hypothesis by one group of
scientists about how to determine the colors of a long-extinct animal. The text explains that the scientists found
melanosomes in the fossilized feather of an extinct bird and that melanosomes are responsible for producing color inside
cells. The text also explains that melanosomes have different shapes depending on the colors they produce. Given this
information, it follows that the scientists hypothesized that they could determine the colors of the extinct bird by examining
the shapes of the melanosomes in the feather.

Choice A is incorrect because the text never suggests that the scientists were seeking to show how melanosomes can be
found in fossils belonging to animals from other extinct species. Rather, the text indicates that the scientists were seeking to
identify an extinct bird’s colors, and the text strongly suggests that the scientists hypothesized that they could achieve their
goal by examining the shapes of the melanosomes in the bird’s fossilized feather. Choice C is incorrect because the text
never suggests that the scientists were seeking to explain why the melanosomes in the feather were so well preserved.
Rather, the text indicates that the scientists were seeking to identify an extinct bird’s colors, and the text strongly suggests
that the scientists hypothesized that they could achieve their goal by examining the shapes of the melanosomes in the bird’s
fossilized feather. Choice D is incorrect because the text suggests only one method of identifying the colors of extinct
animals: by examining the shapes of melanosomes found in fossils. The text doesn’t discuss other methods for learning the
colors of extinct animals and therefore provides no support for the idea that the scientists could identify the colors of extinct
animals whose fossils lack melanosomes.

Question Difficulty: Easy

Question ID df654a2b
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: df654a2b
Zines are small-scale, self-printed magazines. They have been around since the Black literary zine Fire!! was created in the
1920s. Since then, zines have appealed to creators looking for an inexpensive form of expression to share with a select
audience. Zine creators often mix art with social commentary and challenge mainstream culture. At first, the internet
appeared to replace the zine, but this old form persists. Today, there are enough zines in the United States to support annual
zine festivals. This suggests that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. creators can reach a larger audience by posting online.

B. zines are still a meaningful form of expression.

C. creators can continue to explore new art forms.

D. zines are good sources of mainstream culture.

ID: df654a2b Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer because it most logically follows from the text’s point about zines today. The text describes
zines as a form of expression that goes back to the 1920s and asserts that "this old form persists." The text then indicates
that multiple zines exist in the US today and that they are popular enough to support annual festivals, a point that suggests
that people continue to view zines as a meaningful form of expression.

Choice A is incorrect because the text’s point about current interest in zines in the US doesn’t logically suggest that zine
creators can reach a larger audience by posting online. The text indicates that zines have long had an audience, and there’s
no indication that online posts have caused that audience to grow; there’s no mention of zine creators’ use of the internet at
all. Choice C is incorrect because the idea that zine creators can explore new art forms—while objectively true—isn’t logically
connected to the text’s discussion of zines as an existing form of expression (one that often includes art) or the point that
zines are still popular enough in the US to support annual festivals. Choice D is incorrect because the point that zines are
popular enough in the US today to support annual festivals doesn’t logically suggest that zines present mainstream culture
(or are themselves mainstream); moreover, the text states that zine creators often "challenge mainstream culture."

Question Difficulty: Medium

Question ID fc57d569
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: fc57d569
In dialects of English spoken in Scotland, the “r” sound is strongly emphasized when it appears at the end of syllables (as in
“car”) or before other consonant sounds (as in “bird”). English dialects of the Upland South, a region stretching from
Oklahoma to western Virginia, place similar emphasis on “r” at the ends of syllables and before other consonant sounds.
Historical records show that the Upland South was colonized largely by people whose ancestors came from Scotland. Thus,
linguists have concluded that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

the English dialects spoken in the Upland South acquired their emphasis on the “r” sound from dialects spoken in
A. Scotland.

emphasis on the “r” sound will eventually spread from English dialects spoken in the Upland South to dialects spoken
B. elsewhere.

C. the English dialects spoken in Scotland were influenced by dialects spoken in the Upland South.

D. people from Scotland abandoned their emphasis on the “r” sound after relocating to the Upland South.

ID: fc57d569 Answer

Correct Answer: A

Rationale
Choice A is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of English dialects spoken in Scotland
and the Upland South. The text indicates that these dialects share a feature: putting emphasis on the "r" sound when it
appears in certain positions in words. The text goes on to state that records indicate the Upland South was colonized largely
by people of Scottish ancestry. It is reasonable to assume that the English dialects spoken by these colonizers were
influenced by the English dialects spoken by their ancestors in Scotland. It follows, then, that the emphasis on the "r" sound
in the dialects in Scotland carried over into the Upland South dialects as they developed—that is, that the Upland South
dialects likely acquired it from dialects spoken in Scotland.

Choice B is incorrect because the text suggests that Scottish ancestry explains the origin of the emphasis on the "r" sound in
English dialects spoken in the Upland South, since that linguistic feature is also found in dialects spoken in Scotland; the text
doesn’t address any other dialects or suggest that the feature will spread elsewhere. Choice C is incorrect because the text
indicates that many Upland South colonizers were the descendants of Scottish people, suggesting that the English dialects
spoken by these colonizers had been influenced by the English dialects spoken by the colonizers’ ancestors in Scotland and
had acquired their emphasis on the "r" sound from those ancestors’ dialects—not the other way around. Choice D is incorrect
because the text indicates that the emphasis on the "r" sound is part of English dialects spoken in the Upland South today,
which almost certainly wouldn’t be the case if people from Scotland, who were the main colonizers of the Upland South, had
eliminated that linguistic feature from their dialects.
Question Difficulty: Medium
Question ID 5d20f560
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 5d20f560
Conventional theories of rhetoric hold that presenting information as coming from credentialed experts increases that
information’s credibility. When communications researcher Sungkyoung Lee and her colleagues tested messages seeking
volunteers for clinical trials, however, they found that participants in their study judged recruitment messages from former
trial volunteers as significantly more credible than messages from doctors (i.e., credentialed experts). One reason for this
may be that the doctors’ status as credentialed experts wasn’t ignored but rather was outweighed by participants’ views of
the experiential relevance of the two types of messengers; that is, participants may have reacted the way they did because
______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

messages from former trial volunteers depicted clinical trials as being more positive experiences than did messages
A. from doctors.

participants did not have enough experience to evaluate the credibility of the doctors’ messages but did have enough
B. experience to evaluate the credibility of former trial volunteers’ messages.

the fact that former trial volunteers went through the same experience that participants were contemplating while
C. doctors did not was more important to participants than the doctors’ status as credentialed experts was.

participants regarded the experiences of both the doctors and former trial volunteers as relevant to the subject of clinical
D. trials but were skeptical of the doctors’ status as credentialed experts.

ID: 5d20f560 Answer

Correct Answer: C
Rationale
Choice C is the best answer because it presents the conclusion that most logically follows from the text’s discussion of how
participants considered messages from former trial volunteers and doctors. The text first establishes that information
coming from credentialed experts typically increases the credibility of that information. However, the text goes on to
describe a situation that goes against this expectation: the messages from previous trial volunteers were judged as more
credible than the messages from licensed doctors when recruiting clinic trial participants. The text then goes on to speculate
as to why this may have been the case, stating that participants likely considered the messages from the former trial
volunteers to be more convincing than the messages from the doctors because the former trial volunteers were perceived as
having undergone the same experience that the participants were considering. It is reasonable to infer, then, that participants
regarded the former trial volunteers’ direct experience as more important to their decision-making than the doctors’ status
as credentialed experts.

Choice A is incorrect because the text does not provide any indication as to the content or the tone of the messages
provided by either the doctors or the former trial volunteers regarding the clinical trials. Choice B is incorrect. Since the study
participants had not themselves participated in the clinical trial, they could not rely on their experience to evaluate the
credibility of either the former trial volunteers or the doctors. Choice D is incorrect. While the text does establish that the
participants likely considered the messages from both the doctors and the former trial volunteers, it does not suggest that
the participants doubted the doctors’ credentials. Rather, the text speculates that participants may have given the
experiences of the former trial volunteers more importance than the doctors’ credentials when considering the recruitment
messages.

Question Difficulty: Hard

Question ID 93cad661
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences

Ideas

ID: 93cad661
A main goal of the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM), an arts organization founded in 1965, is
to advance new works by Black musicians. The AACM achieves this goal in part by focusing on young artists. By having
established musicians and composers serve as mentors, the AACM gives young artists the benefits of expert technical
training and creative guidance. Numerous organizations offer similar kinds of support to new generations of painters,
writers, and other artists, suggesting that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. artists of all ages benefit more from technical training than from creative guidance.

many arts organizations recognize the importance of providing opportunities for young artists to learn from experienced
B. mentors.

C. most established artists could become even better artists by serving as mentors.

D. finding a mentor is more important for musicians than it is for painters, writers, and other types of artists.

ID: 93cad661 Answer

Correct Answer: B

Rationale
Choice B is the best answer because it presents the conclusion that most logically follows from the text’s discussion of the
relationship between the AACM’s use of mentors to support young Black musicians and similar support that other
organizations offer their young artists. According to the text, in service of AACM’s goal to support new works by Black
musicians, AACM mentors provide beneficial training and guidance to young artists. The text goes on to say that many other
art organizations support new artists in similar ways, suggesting that these organizations recognize the importance of
providing opportunities for young artists to learn from mentors who are established in their field.

Choice A is incorrect because the text gives no indication that technical training is more beneficial than creative guidance.
The text states that AACM mentors offer both technical training and creative guidance to young artists and that other arts
organizations offer similar kinds of support; however, nothing in the text suggests that young artists, or artists of any age,
benefit more from technical training. Choice C is incorrect because the text is mainly concerned with the fact that
established artists are mentoring young artists through AACM and other arts organizations. The text states that young
musicians benefit from AACM mentors but does not address what mentors gain from the relationship, so there is no reason
to conclude that most established artists could improve as artists by serving as mentors. Choice D is incorrect. Although the
text indicates that mentors are beneficial to young musicians and that young people pursuing other kinds of art (including
painting and writing) can also find mentors through arts organizations, the text gives no indication that mentors are more
important for musicians than for other types of artists.

Question Difficulty: Easy