Welding

Basic Grove Terminology

Angle of bevel Angle of bevel

Root
Radius

Root Face Root Face

Root Gap
Root Gap Land
Single Bevel Butt Single-J Butt
Basic Weld Zone Terminology

A Face B

Weld
metal
Weld
Heat Boundary
Affected
Zone

C D
Root
A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
Basic Weld Zone Terminology
Weld Face*
Actual Throat Thickness*
Weld Width*
1.2.3.4. Weld Toes* Design Throat Thickness*

1 2
A

B 3 4

HAZ* Fusion Boundary*

Weld Root* Fusion Zone*
A + B = Excess Weld Metal**
Fillet Weld Leg Length

b
a. = Vertical leg length
b. = Horizontal leg length
Note: Leg length should be approximately equal to the material
thickness
Fillet Weld Features

Excess
Weld
Metal
Vertical
Leg
Length Design
Throat

Horizontal leg
Length
Fillet Weld Throat Thickness

a
b
a = Design Throat Thickness
b = Actual Throat Thickness
Fillet welds - Shape

Mitre Fillet Convex Fillet

A concave profile
is preferred for
joints subjected to
Concave Fillet fatigue loading
 Heat Flow in Welding
Arc Energy (AE)

Arc energy is the energy supplied by the welding arc to the work piece. It is calculated by the
following equation:

V - voltage in volts
I – current in amperes
v is the travel speed of the welding torch, in distance per
where:
minute

(kJ/mm)
 Heat Flow in Welding
Heat Input (HI)

Heat input (relevant way of comparing arc welding processes) considers the effect on
process efficiency has on the energy that actually reaches the work piece to the weld.

HI = η AE
where: η is the process efficiency

Each arc welding process has a different efficiency rating.

Heat input (HI) and arc energy (AE) are both measures of how much energy been supplied to the
work-piece to form a weld. Units of energy per unit length kJ/mm, .

Process Efficiency Factor

SAW 1.0

SMAW/FCAW/GMAW 0.8

TIG/PAW 0.8
Manual Metal Arc Welding
(MMA)
or
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)
Manual Metal Arc Introduction
First developed in the late 19th century using bare
wire consumables.
• MMA is a simple process
• AC, DC+ or DC-
• Manual process and need high skill of welder.
• Widely used throughout shop and site working
conditions
MMA - Principle of Operation
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Process Capabilities:
1. Versatile
2. Indoor & Outdoor
3. Multi-position
4. Simple & portable
5. Best repair welding

Limitations:
1. Less Productive
2. Electrode length fixed
3. De-slag
4. Less metal deposition
5. Not for heavy fabrication
6. Requires more number of welders
7. Distortion control difficult
8. Continuous / automatic not possible
SMAW Process Information
• Electrode length – 220 mm to 450 mm, may be up to 900 mm.
• Diameter – 1.6 mm to 8.0 mm.
• Arc initiates - voltage difference between positive and negative.
• Voltage drop across arc is about 16 v to 40 v & current range is up
to 20 amps to 550 amps.
• AC or DC
• Electrode can be with positive or negative.
MMA Welding
Main features:

• Shielding - decomposition of flux

• Electrode consumable
• Manual process
• AC or DC

Welder controls:

• Arc length
• Angle of electrode
• Speed of travel
• Amperage settings
Manual Metal Arc Basic Equipment

Control panel Power source

(amps, volts)

Electrode Holding oven

oven
Electrodes Inverter power
source
Return lead
Electrode holder
Welding visor
filter glass Power cables
MMA Electrode Holder

“Tongs” type with

Collet or twist type spring-loaded jaws
Current – Voltage Curve
Voltage (V)
OCV Large variation in voltage lead to
small variation for welding
current  consistent penetration

Long arc
Arc voltage
Short arc

Welding
current
Current (A)

Static characteristic:
 MMA Welding Variables
Voltage:

• Arc voltage measured as close to the arc.

• Variable with a change in arc length

O.C.V: (Open Circuit Voltage)

• Voltage required to initiate electrical arc and will change with the
type of electrode being used e.g 70-90 volts

Current:
• Depends on the choice of electrode, diameter and material and
thickness.
• Has most effect on penetration.

Polarity:
• DC +ve, DC –ve or AC
MMA SOP Checks
OCV open circuit volts:
•Ensure that equipment can produce OCV required by the consumable.

Current & polarity:

•Check should be made to ensure the current type and range is as detailed on the
WPS

Other variables:
•Correct electrode angle, arc gap and travel speed

Safety:
•Current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of the equipment and all electrical
insulation is sound.

•Extraction systems should be in use to avoid exposure to toxic fume.

MMA SOP Checks
Welding equipment: Visual check on the equipment to ensure it in

good working order

Electrodes: Ensure correct specification of electrode is being

used, Electrode is the correct diameter and in good condition.

Basic: Ensure correct heat treatment is carried out before use.

Rutile: Do not require pre-baking but be stored in a dry condition.

Cellulosic: Should not be dried

Welding Current
• DC +ve (or) DC –ve (or) AC +ve (or) AC –ve

• DC provides steady arc, smooth metal transfer than AC

• DC provides good wetting ability and uniform weld bead.

• Idle for vertical and over head position.

• Best for thin section how ever effected by arc blow

MMA Welding Parameters
Welding current
– Approx. 35 A/mm of diameter
– Governed by thickness, type of joint and welding position

Welding
Too low Too high
current

•Poor starting
•Spatter
•Slag inclusions
•Excess
•Weld bead contour too penetration
high
•Undercut
•Lack of
•Burn-through
fusion/penetration
MMA Welding Parameters
Arc length = arc voltage
Arc
Too low Too high
voltage
•Spatter
•Arc can be extinguished
•Porosity
•“Stubbing”
•Excess
penetration
•Undercut
•Burn-through

Polarity: DCEP generally gives deeper penetration

MMA Welding Parameters
Travel speed

Travel
Too low Too high
speed

•Wide weld bead contour •Lack of root fusion

•Lack of penetration •Incomplete root
penetration
•Burn-through
•Undercut
•Poor bead profile,
difficult slag removal
MMA - Troubleshooting

MMA quality (left to right)

Current, arc length and travel speed normal;

Current too low;
Current too high;
Arc length too short;
Arc length too long;
Travel speed too slow;
Travel speed too high
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
Advantages:

• Field or shop use

• Range of consumables
• All positions
• Portable
• Simple equipment

Disadvantages:

• High welder skill required

• High levels of fume
• Hydrogen control (flux)
• Stop/start problems
• Uneconomic when compared with other processes
MMA Covered Electrodes
Electrodes – AWS Specifications
Carbon-manganese steel electrodes AWS A5.1

Stainless steel electrodes AWS A5.4

Low alloy steel electrodes AWS A5.5

Copper & Copper alloy electrodes AWS A5.6

Aluminum & Aluminum alloy electrodes AWS A5.10

Nickel & Nickel alloy covered electrodes AWS A5.11

Hard facing electrodes AWS A5.13

Covered electrodes for cast iron AWS A5.15

Welding consumables for MMA:

• Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm in

length and from 2.5-6mm in diameter
• The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating
• The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying and
refining agents in the flux coating
• The flux coating contains many elements and compounds
that all have a variety of functions during welding
Function of the Electrode Covering:

• Generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air
contamination
• De-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag
• Protective slag blanket over the solidifying and cooling weld
metal
• Provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal
properties
• Aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable freezing
temperature to support the molten weld metal)
• Control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)
MMA Welding Consumables
The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding

• Cellulosic - Deep penetration/fusion

• Rutile - General purpose
• Basic - Low hydrogen
MMA Welding Consumables

Plastic foil sealed cardboard box

•Rutile electrodes
•General purpose basic electrodes

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Tin can
•Cellulosic electrodes

Vacuum sealed pack

•Extra low hydrogen electrodes
 TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
BS EN 499 AWS A5.1
•Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
•Rutile E XX X R EXX12
EXX13
•Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16 EXX18
AWS A 5.1 & A 5.5
Example AWS electrode flux types:

• Cellulosic: Flux-ends in 0 - 1
Examples: E6010, E6011, E7010, E8011
• Rutile: Flux-ends in 2 - 3 - 4
Examples: E5012, E6012, E6013, E6014
• Basic: Flux-ends in 5 - 6 - 7 - 8
Examples: E6016, E7017, E8018, E9018
Cellulosic Use straight from the
box - No baking/drying!
electrodes

Rutile If necessary, dry up to

120°C- No baking!
electrodes

Basic Use straight from the pack

within 4 hours - No
electrodes re-baking!
(vacuum
packed)
 Baking in oven 2 hours
Basic electrodes
at 350°C!

Limited number of After baking, maintain in

rebakes! oven at 150°C

If not used within 4

Use from quivers at
hours, return to oven Weld
75°C
and rebake!
 Cellulosic Electrodes

Disadvantages:
Advantages:
• High in hydrogen
• Deep penetration/fusion
• High crack tendency
• Suitable for welding in all
positions • Rough weld appearance
• High spatter contents
• Fast travel speeds
• Low deposition rates
• Large volumes of shielding
gas
• Low control
 Rutile Electrodes

Advantages: Disadvantages:
•Easy to use •High in hydrogen
•Low cost / control •High crack tendency
•Smooth weld profiles •Low strength
•Slag easily detachable •Low toughness values
•High deposition possible
with the addition of iron
powder
 Basic Electrodes

Advantages Disadvantages
•High toughness •High cost
values
•High control
•Low hydrogen
•High welder skill
contents
required
•Low crack tendency
•Convex weld profiles
•Poor stop / start
properties
BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes

Mandatory

Optional

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd

 AWS 5.5

E - Electrode
E8018-B1H4R R - Moisture Resistant

80 - 80,000 Psi H - Hydrogen Content

1 - All position SUF %Mn %Ni %Cr %Mo %V
1-F,H,V,OH 2-F,H 4-F,H,VD,OH
A1 1/2
0 Cellulose sodium DCEP
B1 ½ ½
1 Cellulose potassium AC or DC
2 Titanium sodium AC or DCEN B2 1- ¼ ½
3 Titanium potassium AC or DCEP B3 2-1/4 1
4 Iron powder titanium AC or DC
C1 2-1/2

5 Low hydrogen sodium DCEP C2 3-1/4

6 Low hydrogen AC or DCEP C3 1
potassium
7 Iron powder iron oxide AC or DC D1& 1.2 - 0.15 .25 -
D2 2.0 .35
8 Iron powder low AC or DCEP
G 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.10
hydrogen
 BS EN ISO 2560
A E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
Impact at 47J & YS
Covered Electrode
Yield Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition
Flux Covering MANDATORY
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
OPTIONAL
BS EN ISO 2560
Electrodes classified as follows:
• E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Tensile strength 440 - 570 N/mm2
• E 38 - Minimum yield strength 380 N/mm2
Tensile strength 470 - 600 N/mm2
• E 42 - Minimum yield strength 420 N/mm2
Tensile strength 500 - 640 N/mm2
• E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
Tensile strength 530 - 680 N/mm2
• E 50 - Minimum yield strength 500 N/mm2
Tensile strength 560 - 720 N/mm2
BS EN ISO 2560
Recovery and type of current Welding position
designation designation
Weld metal Type of Symbol Welding position
Symbol
recovery (%) current
1 All positions
1 ≤105 AC/DC
2 All positions except
2 ≤105 DC vertical down
3 >105 ≤125 AC/DC 3 Flat butt/fillet,
4 >105 ≤125 DC horizontal fillet

5 >125 ≤160 AC/DC 4 Flat butt/fillet

6 >125 ≤160 DC 5 Flat butt/fillet,

horizontal fillet,
7 >160 AC/DC vertical down
8 >160 DC
AWS A5.1
E 60 1 3

Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
AWS A5.5
E 70 1 8 M G

Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
Moisture Control
Alloy Content
Moisture pick-up as a function of: •Temperature
•Humidity
 Up to 180% for iron powder electrodes

Mass of weld metal deposited

Electrode Eficiency =
Mass of core wire melted

75-90% for usual electrodes

Electrode treatment

Baking oven:
• Need temperature control
• Requires calibration

Heated quivers:
• Only for maintaining
moisture out of electrodes
after baking
Covered electrode inspection
1: Electrode size (diameter and length)

2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and concentricity

3: Electrode designation

EN 499-E 51 3 B

Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)

See BS EN ISO 544 for further information
MMA Typical defects
Caused by a lack of welder skill, the incorrect settings of the
equipment or the incorrect use and treatment of electrodes

Typical Welding Defects:

•Slag inclusions
•Arc strikes
•Porosity
•Undercut
•Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc.)
Process involved in Repair Station

• Identification of defect by RT
• Marking and remove the defect by gouging
• Grinding process followed by gouging for chipping
• MMA carried out to deposit the weld metal
Gouging process
Air carbon arc cutting diagram
Submerged
Arc
Welding
(SAW)
SAW Principle of Operation
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Introduction

• SAW developed - Soviet Union - 2nd world war for the welding of
thick section steel.

• SAW - mechanized.

• SAW – amps - range of 100 to over 2000 - very high current

density - producing deep penetration and high dilution welds.

• Flux supplied separately via a flux hopper in the form of either

fused or agglomerated.

• Arc not visible as it is submerged beneath the flux layer - no eye

protection is required.
 SAW
Filler wire spool
Flux hopper
Power
supply

- +

Slide rail
Wire electrode

Flux
SAW Basic Equipment

Transformer/
Rectifier
Power return
cable Welding carriage
Power control control unit
panel
Welding carriage

Granulated flux Electrode wire

reel

Granulated flux
Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW chemical composition
and mechanical properties required for the weld deposit
• Thickness of base metal to be welded
• Joint accessibility
• Position in which the weld is to be made
• Frequency or volume of welding to be performed

SAW methods

Semiautomatic Mechanised Automatic

SAW Equipment
Power sources can be:
• Transformers for AC
• Transformer-rectifiers for DC
Static characteristic can be:
• Constant Voltage (flat) - most of the power sources
• Constant Current (drooping)
SAW equipment

Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources:

• Most commonly used supplies for SAW
• Can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
• Self-regulating arc
• Simple wire feed speed control
• Applications for DC are limited to 1000A due to severe arc blow
(also thin wires!)
SAW equipment
• Over 1000A - very fast, speed required - control of burn off rate
and stick out length
• Can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
• Not self-regulating arc
• Must be used with a voltage-sensing variable wire feed speed
control
• More expensive due to more complex wire feed speed control
• Cannot be used for high-speed welding of thin steel
SAW Equipment
Welding heads Wire reel

Flux recovery system

Slides

Flux
hopper

Wire feed
Feed roll motor
assembly
Torch
assembly
Tracking
system Contact tip
Courtesy of ESAB AB
SAW Equipment
Welding heads can be mounted on a:
Tractor type carriage
• Provides travel along straight or gently
curved joints
• Can ride on tracks set up along the
joint (with grooved wheels) or on the
Courtesy of ESAB AB
work piece itself
• Can use guide wheels as tracking
device
• Due to their portability, are used in
field welding or where the piece
cannot be moved
Courtesy of ESAB AB
SAW Equipment
Welding heads can be mounted on a:

Column / Beam carriage

•Provides linear travel only

•Are capable of linear motion in 3 axes

•Because work piece must be brought to

the weld station, they are use mostly in
the workshop

Courtesy of ESAB AB
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic

OCV Small change in voltage =

large change in amperage
Large arc gap

Small arc gap

The self adjusting

Volts arc.

Amps
SAW Operating Variables

•Welding current
•Current type and polarity
•Welding voltage
•Travel speed
•Electrode size
•Electrode extension
•Width and depth of the layer of flux
Process Parameters - its effect on the Weld Quality

Variables If Increased If Decreased

Current Undercut Unstable Arc

Voltage Wider Bead, Less Narrow Bead, Deep

Penetration Penetration

Welding speed Undercut, Porosity High Heat Input, Slag

Inclusions

Stick out distance Excess Reinforcement Improper Bead

Polarity : DCEP- High penetration; DCEN- High deposition

AC Square-Balanced penetration/deposition
SAW Operating Variables
Welding Current

•Controls depth of penetration and the amount of base metal melted  dilution
Effect of Current

Bead
width Penetration

Current Current

400 A 550 A 700 A 900 A

Current Type & Polarity

• AC
Most resistant to arc blow

• DC + Greater penetration
Better resistance to porosity
Smother weld

• DC -

Higher deposition rate +30%

Less penetration
To get a similar bead shape, increase the
voltage by 4 V
Current Type & Polarity

α β

Better wetting
DC + DC -

1/3 2/3

2/3 1/3
DC + Greater penetration DC -

DC -
DC +
Higher deposition rate +30%
Greater penetration Less penetration
Better resistance to porosity To get a similar bead shape, increase the
Smother weld voltage by 4 V
Current Type & Polarity
DCEP DCEN •DCEP - deep penetration, better
resistance to porosity

•DCEN increase deposition rate

but reduce penetration
(surfacing)

•AC used to avoid arc blow; can

give unstable arc
Welding Voltage
•Welding voltage controls arc
length
Increase in voltage
•Flat and wider bead
•Increase flux consumption
•Reduce porosity
•Bridge an excessive root gap
•Increase pick-up of alloying
elements from an alloy flux
Voltage :
Increasing V Longer arc length
Little change in the penetration
Wider bead
Higher flux consumption
Less burn through

V V V
Effect of Voltage

Bead
width Penetration

Voltage Voltage

28 V 34 V 38 V 42 V
Travel Speed

•Increase in travel speed  Decrease heat input  Less filler metal 

Less weld metal  Smaller weld bead
Electrode Size

•At the same current, small electrodes have higher current density  higher
deposition rates
Effect of welding speed

Bead
width Penetration

Welding Welding
speed speed

400 A 550 A 700 A 900 A

Electrode Extension

•Increased electrode extension adds resistance in the welding circuit 

increase in deposition rate  decrease in penetration and bead width

•To keep a proper weld shape, when electrode extension is increased,

voltage must also be increased
•Excessive electrode extension  it is more difficult to maintain the
electrode tip in the correct position
Electrical Stick Out (ESO)
•For single wire, tandem, or multi arcs applications
ESO = 20 to 30 mm
•This length have to be defined regarding

Wire and Welding current

Wire diameter
contact tip
Travel speed
Weld pool size
Flux •Examples : small weld pool ESO = 20mm or less
Large weld pool ESO = 30 mm or more

ESO
Flux
height
Flux Height :
• The Flux height :
• Just enough to cover the arc light

Wire and • Height too low Flashes

contact tip Porosity
Suppression of the arc
Flux • Height too deep Narrow bead
Poor slag removal

Flux height :
• For single wire
ESO
20 to 35 mm
Flux •For Tandem
height
30 to 50 mm
Effect of Travel Angle

Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Tendency to undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
SAW Variants •Two electrodes are feed into the
Twin Wire SAW welding
same weld pool

•Wire diameter usually 1,6 to 3,2 mm

•Electrodes are connected to a single

power source  a single arc is
established

•Normally operate with DCEP  arc

blow

•Increased deposition rate up to 80%

compared to single wire SAW
SAW variants

Wires can be oriented for

maximum or minimum
penetration
SAW variants
•Usually DCEP on lead and AC on
Tandem arc SAW process
trail  reduce arc blow

•Requires two separate power

sources

•The electrodes are active in the

same puddle but there are 2
separate arcs

•Increased deposition rate by up to

100% compared with single wire
SAW
 SAW variants
SAW tandem arc
with two wires

Courtesy of ESAB AB
 SAW Variants

Single pool - highest deposition rate

Twin pool - travel speed limited by undercut; very resistant to

porosity and cracks
 SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process - multiple wires
•Only for welding thick sections
(>30 mm)

•Not suitable for use in narrow

weld preparations (root passes)

•One 4 mm wire at 600 A  6,8

kg/hr

•Tandem two 4 mm wires at 600

A  13,6 kg/hr

Courtesy of ESAB AB
SAW variants
Strip cladding •Requires a special welding head
(sometime problems with arc
stability)

•Can be applied on complicated

shapes (e.g. dished heads)

•Higher productivity and smaller

dilution than twin arc process

•Strip electrode more expensive

than wire
SAW variants
Strip Cladding
SAW variants
Narrow groove welding

max. 8°

Courtesy of ESAB AB
SAW variants
Narrow gap welding
SAW Variants
SAW with metal powder addition SAW with metal powder addition
•Forward-feed powder addition •Magnetic attachment of powder
SAW

Internal Welding Process External Welding Process

ID OD
Machine Setup - ID Height sensor unit Flux
hopper

Guide
wheel
Flux
suction
pipe Welding
head
(
3-head)
Machine Setup - OD Flux
hopper

Straighten
er

Laser
Welding pointer
head
( 3-
head) Laser
scanne
r
SAW Consumables
Welding wires
•Supplied on coils, reels or drums
•Random or line winding

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Coil (approx. Reel (approx. Drum (approx.

25 kg) 300 kg) 450 kg)
Wire/flux combination designation acc. AWS A-5.17:
Temperature for
impact test
Minimum UTS of
weld metal (10 ksi)
Standard number

AWS A-5.17 F 6 A 2-EM12K

SAW welding flux
Heat treatment
conditions
Chemical composition
of wire electrode
Welding wires can be used to weld:
•Carbon steels
•Low alloy steels
•Creep resisting steels
•Stainless steels
•Nickel-base alloys
•Special alloys for surfacing applications

Welding wires can be:

•Solid wires
•Metal-cored wires
Welding wires:

•Carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated

•Stainless steel wires are not coated

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

•Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
Copper coating functions:

•To assure a good electric contact between wire

and contact tip
•To assure a smooth feed of the wire through the
guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease
contact tube wear)
•To provide protection against corrosion
Welding Fluxes:
• Are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various
formulations
• Shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere
• Can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal
• Prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone
• Influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action)
• Can be fused, agglomerated or mixed
• Must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity
Welding flux:
•Supplied in bags/pails (approx. 25 kg) or bulk bags
(approx. 1200 kg)
•Might be fused, agglomerated or mixed

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

SA Welding Flux:
• Must be kept warm and dry
• Handling and stacking requires care
Fused Fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can
hold surface moisture
• Only drying
Agglomerated Fluxes contain chemically bonded water
• Similar treatment as basic electrodes
• For high quality, agglomerated fluxes can be recycled with
new flux added
• If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly
• Cannot be recycled indefinitely
Fused Flux
• Flaky appearance
• Lower weld quality
• Low moisture intake
• Low dust tendency
• Good re-cycling
• Very smooth weld
profile

Fused Flux:
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour,
cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and
tends to be of the acidic type
Fused welding fluxes
Components
Components are melted in Charge is
are dry mixed an electric cooled by:
furnace

Shooting the
melt through a
Product is stream of water
crushed and
screened for Pouring melt
size onto large chill
blocks
Fused fluxes advantages:
•Good chemical homogeneity
•Easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
•Normally not hygroscopic  easy storage and
handling
•Readily recycled without significant change in
particle size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
•Difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys
•High temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit
the range of flux compositions
Agglomerated Flux
• Granulated appearance
• High weld quality
• Addition of alloys
• Lower consumption
• Easy slag removal
• Smooth weld profile

Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, friable,
(easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements, moisture
absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
Agglomerated welding fluxes

Components The wet

Components
are powdered mix is
are bonded
and dry mixed pelletized

Pellets are broken

Pellets are
up and screened
baked
for size
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
• Easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
• Usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
• Colour identification

Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:

• Tendency to absorb moisture
• Possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
• Possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles
Electrode Specification

EM12K (Trail wire, AC square/sinus

wave)

E - Electrode
M- Medium Mn
(i.e. % of Mn )
12- 0.12% of Carbon
K - Killed steel like Al, Si etc.

LNS140TB (Lead wire, DCEP)

 Flux Specification
Agglomerated flux.

F8A4 or F9A2 ( P223 or 995N)

F - Submerged arc welding flux

8 - 80,000 psi Min. Tensile strength
A - As welded condition mechanical test
were carried out
4 - Temp in -40°C at or above which
impact strength of the weld metal exceeds
27J.
Flux Storage
• Welding fluxes, packed in plastic bags, require controlled ware house
conditions as per manufacturer recommendation.
• As per Lincoln- Room temperature 15-35°c. Humidity max 70%.
Flux Pre-Heating Oven
SAW - Common Defects
1. LOF
2. Slag
3. Porosity
4. LOP
5. Crack
6. Undercut
7. Under fill
 Porosity

LOF
 Under fill

Zigzag
SAW - Defects - Causes and Remedies
Defect Causes Remedies

Porosity Entrapment of gas Optimizing welding speed,

preheating flux

Lack of fusion Improper Groove Maintain groove by proper

grinding
Lack of penetration High Arc length, Optimizing the welding
High welding speed parameters

Slag Inclusion Improper Groove, Maintain groove , proper

Improper offset correction offset correction

Undercut Improper wire position, Optimizing the welding

High current parameters

Under fill Improper joint design proper joint design

Submerged Arc Welding

Advantages Disadvantages
• Low weld-metal cost • Restricted welding positions

• Easily automated • Arc blow on DC current

• Low levels of ozone • Shrinkage defects

• High productivity • Difficult penetration control

• No visible arc light • Limited joints

• Minimum cleaning
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
or
Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
or
Metal Active Gas
MIG / MAG / GMAW - Principle of operation
GMAW Overview

Initially developed in the USA in late 1940s for the welding of

aluminum alloys.

American term GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding)

• Uses a continuously fed wire electrode

• Weld pool is protected by a shielding gas

• Semi-automatic welding process but may be fully

automated

• Electrode can be bare/solid wire or flux cored hollow wire

Equipment for GMAW

External wire
feed unit Transformer/
Rectifier
Internal wire
feed system

Power control Power cable &

panel hose
assembly
15kg wire spool
Liner for wire
Power return Welding gun
cable assembly
Wire Drive System
Internal wire Plain top roller
drive system

Half grooved
bottom roller Wire guide
Wire Drive System

Types of wire drive systems:

2 roll wire drive 4 roll wire drive

Wire Drive System

Close wound
stainless Teflon
steel spring liner
wire liner
Welding Gun

Goose neck
type

Push-pull type
Welding Gun Assembly
Welding gun assembly Welding gun body
(less nozzle)
On/Off switch

Spatter
protection Hose
port

Nozzles or Spot welding

shrouds spacer
Gas diffuser Contact tips
Welding Gun Assembly

The Push-Pull gun

Contact Gas
tip diffuser

Union nut

Trigger WFS remote

Gas
control
nozzle
potentiometer
Handle
TACK Welding
Name:
Continuous tack welder.
Make:
Himalaya m/c ltd., vadodara, india.
Welding system
• Lincoln and ( U&S) Germany.
• Power source – 2000 amp single wire dc.
• Seam tracking –Automatic laser tracking
Capacity:-
• Filler wire size – Ǿ 1.6 mm - Ǿ 3.15 mm
• Pipe dia. – 16” to 60” o.d.
• Length- 12.50 meters.
Gas used:-
Co2 + Argon
GMAW Automatic:

• TACK welding by GMAW

Specification
• Current : A
• Voltage :V
• Speed : m/min
• Wire speed : inch/min
• Polarity :DCEP
• Stick out : 15mm to 18mm
• Nozzle orifice: 30mm
• Gas flow rate: 40 Lpm
(90%Co2+10%Ar)
• Metal transfer: Globular
Welding Head Setup
Gas (Co2+Ar)
Water Inlet Pipe inlet

Water
Outlet Fume
Pipe Suction
Pipe

Cooling
Cap Jacket
Accessories of the Welding Head:

• Water-cooling system

• Laser scanner for groove tracking

• Automatic Vertical & horizontal movements slide system

• Manual vertical & horizontal setting of the laser system

• Pneumatic & electrical motor drive for the head adjustment

 Wire feeding motor
Wire Feeding Unit ( CV principle
WFR constant )

3-roller Filler Wire

Straighten Through
er Cap

Idle Roll
Liner
Assembly

www.welspun.com
Laser Tracking System to Track the Groove

Laser
scanner
Power Source
• DC 2000 Amp { 1000 Amp (Master), 1000 Amp (slave) }
• MAKE: Lincoln electric- U&S
• Constant voltage method
AWS Specifications - GMAW Wire

AWS A5.18 - Carbon Steel Electrodes

AWS A5.28 - Low Alloy Steel Electrodes
Wire Specification:
ER70S6, DIA 3.15 mm
Make: Precision.
Examples:-
SFA=5.18 ( Carbon steel)
SFA=5.28 (Low alloy steel)
Common type:-
ER70S-2, ER70S-3, ER70S-6
As per SFA 5.18

Wire Drum
Wire Specification:
ER70S6, DIA 3.15 mm
Make: Precision.

ER70S-6: stands for

E : Electrode
R : Rod
70 : 70000 psi (tensile strength)
S : solid wire
6 : Chemical; polarity; position
Specification & Parameter

Wire specification: ER70S6 DIA: 1.2 mm

Parameters:
Current : 270 amps
Voltage : 27 volts
Speed : 0.8 m/min
Flow rate : 20 lpm
Stick out : 12 mm
Polarity : DCEP
Metal transfer: GLOBULAR
Shielding Gas

Type of material Shielding gas

Carbon steel CO2 , Ar+(5-20)%CO2

Stainless steel Ar+2%O2

Aluminium Ar
Shielding Gas

• Inert Gas is required for All Non-ferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Ni)

• Most common inert gas is Argon

• Argon + Helium used to give a ‘hotter’ arc - better for thicker

joints and alloys with higher thermal conductivity
Shielding Gas
Active gases used are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
• Typical active gases are Ar + 20% CO2 For
C-Mn & low alloy steels Ar + 2% O2 For stainless steels
100% CO2 Can be used for C - steels
Shielding Gas
Shielding Gas

Shielding gas can affect

▪ Weld bead shape

▪ Arc heat, stability, and
starting
Ar Ar-He He CO2 ▪ Surface tension
▪ Drop size
▪ Puddle flow
▪ Spatter
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic Used With
MIG/MAG, ESW & SAW < 1000 amps

O.C.V. Arc Voltage.

33

32

31
Small Voltage
Change.
Voltage
Large Current Change

100 Amperage 200 300

MAG Welding Variable Parameters

Wire feed speed:

Increasing the wire feed speed automatically increases the
current in the wire

Voltage:
Voltage is the most important setting in the spray transfer mode,
as it controls the arc length. In dip transfer it controls the rise in
current

Current:
Current is automatically increased as the wire feed is increased.
Current mainly affects penetration
 Process Variables

Welding current

•Increasing welding current

•Increase in depth and width
•Increase in deposition rate

Polarity
 Process Variables
Arc voltage

•Increasing arc voltage

•Reduced penetration, increased width
•Excessive voltage can cause porosity,
spatter and undercut

Travel speed •Increasing travel speed

•Reduced penetration and width, undercut
Process Variables
Electrode
orientation

Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum

Electrode
extension
•Increased extension
MODES OF METAL TRANSFER
Current and voltage determine the way molten droplets of weld
metal transfer from the tip of the wire to the weld pool.

3 principle modes of droplet transfer

•Dip transfer
•Spray transfer
•Pulsed transfer
MODES OF METAL TRANSFER
Dip Transfer: (Voltage < 22) / (Amperage < 200)
• Thin materials positional welding

Globular Transfer: Between Dip & Spray Transfer

• Limited commercial, Used only in some mechanized
MAG process using CO2 shielding gas

Spray Transfer / Short Circuit : (Voltage > 27) / (Amperage > 220)
• Thicker materials, limited to flat welding positions, high
deposition
Pulse Transfer: Both spray and dip transfer in
• Frequency range 50-300 pulses/second
• Positional welding and root runs
Mode of Metal Transfer
Dip Transfer
Advantages
• Low energy conditions allow welding in all positions.
• Can be used for root run on single-sided welds.
• Can be used for welding thin materials.

Disadvantages
• Frequently gives lack of fusion and may not be allowed in
semi-automatic mode for high-integrity applications.
• Tends to give spatter.
Pulsed (Spray Type) Transfer
Advantages
• Good fusion

• Small weld pool allows all-position welding

Disadvantages
• More complex & expensive power source

• Difficult to set parameters - requires power source

manufacturer to provide pulse programmes to suit wire type,
dia. and type of gas
Setup for different Metal Transfer Modes
Set-up for dip transfer Set-up for spray
transfer

Contact tip Electrode

Contact tip
Electrode recessed extension
extension
extension (3-5 mm) 19-25 mm
(0-3 mm)
6-13 mm
Typical Defects

Caused by lack of welder skill, or incorrect settings of the

equipment

• Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up, or transfer
• Bad power connections cause loss of voltage in the arc
• Silica inclusions due to poor inter-run cleaning
• Lack of fusion (in dip transfer)
• Porosity (from loss of gas shield)
• Solidification defects (cracking, centerline crack, crater) on deep
narrow welds
Common Defects & its causes
Porosity
a. Gas flow too high or too low
b. Blocked nozzle.
c. Leaking gas line.
d. Draughty conditions.
e. Nozzle to work distance too long.
f. Painted, wet or oily pipe surface
g. Damp or rusty wire.
Undercut
a. Speed too high
b. Current too high
c. Irregular surface
d. Wrong torch angle
Spatter
a. Inadequate choke
b. Voltage too low
c. Rusty or primed plate
Common Defects & its causes
Offset
a. Improper crimping process

Excess penetration ( lumps)

a. Due to gap in the weld joint

Lack of penetration
a. Current too low.
b. Preparation to narrow. Lump
c. Root face too thick.
d. Root gap too small.
e. Worn tip causing irregular arcing.
f. Irregular wire feed.
g. Poor technique.
h. Mismatched joint.
TACK Repair Station
Steps involved in TACK repair,

• Initially the pipe is visually inspected.

• If any defect found like porosity, MAG down & offset it will be rectified there
itself. If offset is found then it has been rectified by using hydraulic jack
• End grinding has to be done
• Further, the pipe has to been cleaned by air & it is collected separately in
the dust collector
• Finally spatters have to be cleaned by chipping
• Then pipe has to be forward to I.D station
TACK repair by manual GMAW

Wire
Co2
Spool
cylind Transforme
er r

Welding CO2 Welding

Torch Machine

www.welspun.com
GMAW Equipment
Control Panel

Wire Spool

Welding
Tip Holder Torch

Contact
Wire Feed
Tip
Motor

Cap
Process in TACK repair

AUTO TACK
welding
defect
identified

Remove the
defect
By grinding
Process in TACK repair,

Manual CO2
welding

Bach chipping
(Making groove for
OD SAW
Manually by grinding
machine)
Offset Correction

Identify the
offset portion
in pipe
(1.6mm mm
allowed)

Cut the offset

portion
by grinding m/c
with
cutting wheel
Offset Correction

By using Jack
push the offset
plate &
match with the
other plate

Then manual
welding on OD side
and
subsequently
chipping
Reference

After Removal
of defect
By grinding

Manual CO2
Repair
welding
Errors in TACK Repair & its effect on subsequent process

Sr.no Improper function in tack repair welding Effect on subsequent

process
01. Excess Grinding i.e. too deep or wide Burn through (B/T)

02. If after welding grinding not done Lack of penetration (LOP)

03. Improper removal of slag during grinding Slag

04. Making of groove with very less groove angle Lack of fusion (LOF)

05. Improper cleaning of pipe Porosity

06. Improper cleaning of oily/Grease surface Porosity

07. Making groove with high depth during grinding Crack

08. Making groove with high width during grinding Under cut/Under fill/Slag
Equipment Checks
The welding equipment
•Visual check on equipment to ensure it in good working
order
•Electrodes
•Diameter, specification and the quality of the wire.
•Quality of the wire winding and the copper coating
should be inspected to minimize wire feed problems.
Equipment Checks
Wire liner
•Liner is the correct type and size for the wire being used - Steel
liners for steel and Teflon liners for aluminium.
•Contact tips
•Check the amount of wear. Excessive wear will affect wire speed
and electrical current pick-up
•Type of gas and the flow rate need to be checked to ensure they
comply with the WPS / SPO
•Other variables
•Check amps, volts and travel speed
Advantages
Deposition rates higher than SMAW

Productivity higher than SMAW with no slag removal and

continuous welding

Easily automated

Limitations
Expensive and complex than SMAW

Complex and more difficult to control

Restricted access

GMAW gun is larger than SMAW holder

Calibration of Welding
Equipment
When calibration it is required?

• Once a year unless otherwise specified

• Whenever there are indications that the instrument
does not register properly
• Whenever the equipment has been damaged, misused
or subject to severe stress

• Whenever the equipment has been rebuild or repaired

See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!

BS 7570: 1992 Covers the calibration and validation of
welding equipment.

Grade 1 (general purpose equipment) all parameters

should be +/- 10%.

Grade 2 (Automatic or automated equipment)

parameters should be +/- 2.5% for current and +/- 5% for
all other parameters.
Which parameters need calibration/validation?

• Depends on the welding process

• See BS EN ISO 17662 and BS EN 50504 (ex BS 7570)
for details

How accurate?
• Depends on the application
• Welding current - ±2,5%
• Arc voltage - ±5%
• Wire feed speed - ±2,5%
• Gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas flow
rate)
• Temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%
SMAW (or) MMA
• The equipment thus required would be:

• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Stop watch OR • PAMS unit
• Thermometer

All of the above equipment would require calibration;

any meters fitted to the power source or electrode
ovens would also require calibration.
GMAW (or) MIG
• Wire feed speed
• Amperage
• Voltage
• Travel speed
• Gas flow rate
 PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)

Purposes of
PAMS

For measuring For calibrating

and recording and validating
the welding the welding
parameters equipment
What does a PAMS measure?

Gas flow
Welding rate
current (Hall (heating
effect element
device) sensor)

Arc voltage
(connection Wire feed
leads) speed
Temperature (tachometer)
(thermocouple)
 Use of PAMS

Wire feed speed

monitoring
 Use of PAMS
Shielding gas flow
rate monitoring

Heating element
sensor
Arc Welding
Safety
Other safety factors to consider are:

Electric shock.

Heat & Light

Fumes & Gases

Noise

Tripping hazards

Injuries to eyes, hands, feet or other body parts

Heat & Light

Heat

•Arc welding generates great heat, sparks which can cause fires.
•All should know where all fire extinguishers are sited and First Aid.
•All personnel will wear the correct PPE for all operations undertaken to
prevent burns.
Light

•Electric arcs omit light radiation in three ways

Type Wavelength
(nanometres)
Infrared (heat) >700
Visible light 400-700
Ultraviolet radiation <400
Ultraviolet light

•Can cause severe sun burn to the skin

•Can also cause arc eye, sand in the eye symptoms

Visible light & Infrared Radiation

•Can cause eye damage over long periods

•Welders should have the correct lens fitted in their shields
for the job being done, to BS EN169
Fume

•Different amounts of fume are given out when welding it will depend upon
the welding process material being welded etc.
•The welding fume plum contains solid particles from consumables ,base
metal, base metal coatings.
•Galvanized steel gives off zinc fumes which cause flu like symptoms.
Cadmium gives off fumes which can be fatal.
Protection From Fumes & Gases

Occupational Exposure Limits. (OEL’s)

Maximum Exposure Limits. (MEL’s)
Workplace Exposure Limits (WEL’s)
Parts Per Million mg/mm³. (PPM).
 Protection From Fumes & Gases
• All shielding gases are asphyxiates and will displace oxygen in confined
spaces.
• Colour less and smell less.

Gases

•Welding involves the use of gases such as Argon, Carbon Dioxide etc.

•These are not toxic put can be fatal if oxygen depletion occurs.

Welding in confined spaces

•Extraction should be used at all times.

Noise levels of some welding processes

MMA: 80 – 89 dba

MIG / MAG 85 – 105 dba

Arc Welding Safety- summary
Thank You