Open Source Interconnect (OSI) model. It is commonly used in describing network communications.

The data
communications between different networks are not possible if there are no common rules for transmitting and receiving the
packets of data. These rules are known as protocols, among which the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)/Internet
Protocol (IP) is one of the most widely used. The TCP/IP model is popularly used in network description and is older than the
OSI model. They both have many layers, what’s the difference between them?

OSI Reference Model Layers

OSI model is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes how different software and hardware components
involved in a network communication should divide labor and interact with one another. It has seven layers.

Figure 1: seven layers of the OSI model.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The application layer of OSI model interacts directly with software applications to provide communication functions as
required, and it is the closest to end users. Functions of application layer typically include verifying the availability of
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communication partners and resources to support any data transfer. This layer also defines protocols for end applications,
such as domain name system (DNS), file transfer protocol (FTP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), Internet massage
access protocol (IMAP), post office protocol (POP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP), and Telnet (a terminal emulation).

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer checks the data to ensure it is compatible with the communications resources. It translates the data
into the form that the application level and lower levels accept. Any needed data formatting or code conversion is also
handled by the sixth layer, such as converting an Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) coded text
file to an American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) coded text file. It functions for data compression and
encryption as well. For example, video calls will be compressed during the transmission so that it can be transmitted faster,
and the data will be recovered at the receiving side. For the data that has high security requirements, such as a text message
containing your password, it will be encrypted at this layer.

Layer 5: Session Layer

The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages, maintains and
ultimately terminates the connections between the local and remote application. Layer 5 software also handles authentication
and authorization functions. It verifies the data is delivered as well. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in
application environments that use remote procedure calls.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer provides the functions and means of transferring data sequences from a source to a destination host via
one or more networks, while maintaining the quality of service (QoS) functions and ensure the complete delivery of the data.
The integrity of the data can be guaranteed via error correction and similar functions. It can also provide explicit flow control
function. Though not strictly conforming to the OSI model, the TCP and User Datagram Protocols (UDP) are essential
protocols in layer 4.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer handles packet routing via logical addressing and switching functions. A network is a medium to which
many nodes can be connected. Every node has an address. When a node needs to transfer messages to other nodes, it can
merely provide the content of the message and the address of the destination node, then the network will find the way to
deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing through other nodes. If the message is too long, the network
may split it into several segments at one node, sending them separately and reassembling the fragments at another node.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides node-to-node transfer—a link between two directly connected nodes. It handles packaging and
unpacking the data in frames. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically
connected devices, such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). The data link layer is generally divided into two sublayers—media
access control (MAC) layer and logical link control (LLC) layer. MAC layer is responsible for controlling how devices in a

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network gain access to media and permission to transmit data. LLC layer is responsible for identifying and encapsulating
network layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame synchronization.

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. For example, the layout of pins of
the connector, the operation voltages of an electrical cable, optical fiber cable specifications, and the frequency for wireless
devices. It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a physical medium. Bit rate control is
done on the physical layer. It is the layer of low-level networking equipment and is never concerned with protocols or other
higher-layer items.

TCP/IP Model Layers

TCP/IP model is also a layered reference model, but it is a four-layer model. Another name for it is Internet protocol suite. It is
commonly known as TCP/IP because the foundational protocols are TCP and IP, but not only these two protocols are used in
this model.

Application Layer

The application layer of TCP/IP model provides applications the ability to access to services of the other layers, and defines
the protocols that applications use to exchange data. Most widely-known application layer protocols include HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, Telnet, DNS, SNMP and Routing Information Protocol (RIP).

Transport Layer

The transport layer, also known as the host-to-host transport layer, is responsible for providing the application layer with
session and datagram communication services. The core protocols of this layer are TCP and UDP. TCP provides a one-to-
one, connection-oriented, reliable communications service. It is responsible for sequencing and acknowledgment of packets
sent, and recovery of packets lost in transmission. UDP provides one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliaable
communications service. UDP is used typically when the amount of data to be transferred is small (such as that data would fit
into a single packet).

Internet Layer

The Internet layer is responsible for host addressing, packaging, and routing functions. The core protocols of the Internet
protocol layer are IP, Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group
Management Protocol (IGMP). The IP is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing, routing, and the fragmentation
and reassembly of packets. The ARP is responsible for the discovering the network access layer address such as a
hardware address associated with a given Internet layer access. The ICMP is responsible for providing diagnostic functions
and reporting errors due to the unsuccessful delivery of IP packets. The IGMP is responsible for the management of IP
multicast groups. In this layer, the IP adds header to the packets, which is known as IP address. Now there’s both IPv4 (32-
bit) address and IP Ipv6 (128-bit) address.

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 Figure 2: IPv4 address and IPv6 address examples.

Network Access Layer

Network access layer (or link layer) is responsible for placing the TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receiving
TCP/IP packets off the network medium. TCP/IP is designed to be independent of the network access method, frame format,
and medium. In other words, it is independent from any specific network technology. In this way, TCP/IP can be used to
connect different network types, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, X.25, Frame Relay, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM).

How Does TCP/IP Work?

TCP ensures reliable end-to-end communication by guaranteeing data delivery and preserving the order of transmission. IP
handles packet routing between hosts, striving to deliver them efficiently. TCP/IP follows the client-server model, where
clients request services from servers. It is widely used on the Internet, LANs, and WANs. While TCP/IP is stateless, treating
each client request as new, the transport layer maintains a connection until all packets are received and reassembled.
Overall, TCP/IP enables seamless and efficient communication between connected hosts.

How Is Data Processed in OSI Layers and TCP/IP Layers?

In a layered system, devices of a layer exchange data in different format, which is known as protocol data unit (PDU). The
table below shows the PDUs in different layers.

Table: protocol data unit (PDU) being processed in different layers.

Model Type OSI Layers Protocol Data Unit TCP/IP Layers

(PDU)
Host Layers Application Layer Data Application Layer
Presentation Layer

Session Layer
Transport Layer Segment (TCP) / Transport Layer
Datagram (UDP)

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 Media Layers Network Layer Packet Internet Layer
Data Link Layer Frame Network Access
Physical Layer Bit Layer
For example, when a user requests to browse a website on the computer, the remote server software firstly gives the
requested data to the application layer, where it is processed from layer to layer down with each layer performing its
designated functions. The data is then transmitted over the physical layer of the network until the destination server or
another device receives it. At this point, the data is passed up through the layers again. Each layer performs its assigned
operations until the data is used by the receiving software.

Figure 3: data flows down from upper layers to lower layers and each layer adds header/footer to the PDU.

During the transmission, each layer adds a header, or footer, or both to the PDU coming from the upper layer, which directs
and identifies the packet. This process is called encapsulation. The header (and footer) and the data together form the PDU
for the next layer. The process continues until reaching the lowest-level layer (physical layer or network access layer), from
which the data is transmitted to the receiving device. The receiving device reverses the process, de-encapsulating the data at
each layer with the header and footer information directing the operations. Then the application finally uses the data. The
process is continued until all data is transmitted and received.

The Significance of TCP/IP and OSI to Troubleshooting

With the knowledge of division of layers, we can diagnose where the problem lies when a connection fails. The principle is to
check from the lowest level, rather than from the highest level. Because each layer serves for the layer higher than it, and it
will be easier to deal with lower-layer problems. For example, if your computer cannot connect the Internet, the first thing you
should do is checking if the network cable is plugged your computer, or if the wireless access point (WAP) is connected to
the switch, or if the pins of the RJ45 connectors are in good condition.

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TCP/IP Model vs. OSI Model
The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model. The following figure shows corresponding relationship of their layers.

Figure 4: OSI model vs. TCP/IP model, and TCP/IP protocol suite.

Comparing the layers of the TCP/IP model and the OSI model, the application layer of the TCP/IP model is similar to the OSI
layers 5, 6, 7 combined, but TCP/IP model does not have a separate presentation layer or session layer. The transport layer
of TCP/IP encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI transport layer and some of the responsibilities of the OSI session
layer. The network access layer of the TCP/IP model encompasses the data link and physical layers of the OSI model. Note
that the Internet layer of TCP/IP does not take advantage of sequencing and acknowledgment services that might be present
in the data link layer of OSI model. The responsibility is of the transport layer in TCP/IP model.

Considering the meanings of the two reference models, the OSI model is just a conceptual model. It is mainly used for
describing, discussing, and understanding individual network functions. However, TCP/IP is firstly designed to solve a
specific set of problems, not to function as a generation description for all network communications as OSI model. OSI model
is generic, protocol independent, yet most protocols and systems adhere to it, while TCP/IP model is based on standard
protocols which the Internet has developed. Another thing should be noted in OSI model is that not all layers are used in
simpler applications. While the layers 1, 2, 3 are mandatory for any data communication, the application may use some
unique interface layer to the application instead of the usual upper layers in the model.

TCP/IP Model OSI Model

TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
Based on practical protocols and requirements. Based on theoretical layered structure and standardization.
Emphasizes practical applications of Internet Emphasizes theoretical aspects and generality of
communication. communication protocols.

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 Mainly used in the Internet and wide area Widely used in various network environments.
networks.
Widely used in practical applications, especially in Primarily used for teaching, research, and network
the Internet. standardization.
Summary
The TCP/IP and OSI models are used to describe network communications. TCP/IP is important for Internet
operations. Network switches facilitate seamless communication and efficient data transfer at different layers. They enhance
network performance and security. Visit FS.com for high-performance switches.

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 TCP/IP and OSI Models
Model Layer TCP/IP OSI Protocols Protocol Meaning Description Data Flow & Data Forms
Protocols
Application HTTP, FTP, HTTP, FTP, HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol Application-level protocols for direct Data flow: Messages or data
SMTP, DNS SMTP, DNS, FTP - File Transfer Protocol interaction with end-users for network to/from applications
SNMP, POP3, SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol services, like web browsing, file Data forms: User data or messages
IMAP DNS - Domain Name System transfer, email. such as web pages, files, or emails
Presentatio N/A JPEG, PNG, SSL/TLS - Secure Sockets Manages data format translation, Data flow: Encodes, compresses, or
n SSL/TLS, ASCII Layer/Transport Layer Security encryption, and compression to ensure encrypts data
Application ASCII - American Standard Code for applications understand each other. Data forms: Encrypted, compressed
Information Interchange data as required by applications
Session N/A NetBIOS, PPTP, NetBIOS - Network Basic Input/Output Establishes, manages, and terminates Data flow: Maintains session-
RPC System sessions (connection-oriented specific information
PPTP - Point-to-Point Tunneling communication) between applications. Data forms: Session setup and tear-
Protocol down data
RPC - Remote Procedure Call
Transport TCP, UDP TCP, UDP, SCTP TCP - Transmission Control Protocol Provides end-to-end communication Data flow: Segments from higher
UDP - User Datagram Protocol and manages data transmission layers
Transport SCTP - Stream Control Transmission reliability, error checking, and flow Data forms: Segments (TCP) or
Protocol control. datagrams (UDP)
Network IP, ICMP, IP, ICMP, OSPF, IP - Internet Protocol Routes data packets across networks, Data flow: Packets across network
IGMP ARP ICMP - Internet Control Message determining the best path to reach the boundaries
Protocol destination. Provides logical Data forms: Packets containing
IGMP - Internet Group Management addressing. routing and control information
Internet Protocol
Data Link Ethernet, Ethernet, PPP, Ethernet - IEEE 802.3 (Local Area Handles error correction from physical Data flow: Frames within the same
PPP, Frame Frame Relay, Network protocol) transmission errors and provides network
Relay ARP PPP - Point-to-Point Protocol physical addressing (MAC addressing). Data forms: Frames, typically MAC-
ARP - Address Resolution Protocol addressed
Network Physical Ethernet, Ethernet, DSL, DSL - Digital Subscriber Line Manages transmission of raw bit Data flow: Bits on the physical
Access DSL, ISDN ISDN, SONET ISDN - Integrated Services Digital streams over physical media like medium
Network cables, radio frequencies, or fiber Data forms: Bits (binary)
SONET - Synchronous Optical Network optics.

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