Computer Network - Unit 4

Topic: TCP/IP Protocol

TCP/IP, or Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is like the language that
computers use to talk to each other over the internet. It's made up of two main
parts: TCP and IP.
First, let's talk about TCP. Think of TCP as the careful messenger that ensures your
data arrives safely. It breaks your informa on into small packets and sends them
across the internet. Then, it checks to make sure all the packets arrive at their
des na on. If any packet gets lost or arrives out of order, TCP asks for it to be sent
again un l everything arrives correctly. This way, you can be sure your message gets
through intact.
Now, let's move on to IP. IP is like the postal system of the internet. It's responsible
for addressing and rou ng your data packets to the right des na on. Every device
connected to the internet has its own unique IP address, similar to a house address.
When you send data, IP makes sure it gets to the correct device, no ma er where
it is in the world.
Together, TCP/IP forms the backbone of the internet, allowing computers to
communicate reliably and efficiently. Whether you're sending emails, browsing
websites, or streaming videos, TCP/IP ensures that your data travels safely across
the vast network of interconnected devices that make up the internet.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Imagine the TCP/IP protocol suite as a toolbox full of tools that help computers
communicate over the internet. It's like a set of rules and procedures that guide
how data is transmi ed and received.
At the core of the TCP/IP suite are two main protocols: TCP and IP. TCP, or
Transmission Control Protocol, is like a careful messenger that ensures your data
packets arrive safely at their des na on. It breaks down your informa on into small
pieces called packets, sends them across the internet, and then checks to make sure
they all arrive correctly.
IP, or Internet Protocol, is like the postal system of the internet. It's responsible for
addressing and rou ng your data packets to the right des na on. Every device
connected to the internet has its own unique IP address, similar to a house address.
IP makes sure your data gets to the correct device, no ma er where it is in the
world.
In addi on to TCP and IP, the TCP/IP suite includes other protocols that handle tasks
like email (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), and web browsing (HTTP). Together, these
protocols form the founda on of internet communica on, allowing computers to
exchange data reliably and efficiently across the world.

Internet Architecture Board

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is like a group of smart people who help make
important decisions about how the internet works. It's kind of like the brain behind
the scenes that helps keep everything running smoothly.
The IAB oversees the technical evolu on of the internet and sets standards to
ensure that different parts of the internet can talk to each other properly. It's
responsible for things like deciding how data should be transmi ed, how devices
should connect to the internet, and how security and privacy should be maintained.
Think of the IAB as a group of experts who collaborate with other organiza ons and
communi es to shape the future of the internet. They work together to address
challenges, improve technologies, and ensure that the internet remains a reliable
and accessible resource for everyone.
TCP/IP Protocol:-
1. TCP
TCP, or Transmission Control Protocol, is like a careful guide that ensures your data
travels safely and reliably across the internet. It's one of the main protocols used
for communica on between devices on the internet.
Here's how TCP works: Imagine you're sending a message to a friend. TCP breaks
your message into smaller pieces called packets. These packets are like ny
envelopes containing parts of your message. TCP then sends these packets across
the internet to your friend's computer.
But TCP doesn't just send the packets and hope for the best. It also checks to make
sure they all arrive at their des na on. If any packets get lost along the way or arrive
out of order, TCP asks for them to be sent again un l everything arrives correctly.
This way, your message gets through intact, even if there are bumps in the road.
Important Features / Func ons of TCP
1. Breaking Down Data: TCP takes the informa on you want to send, like a
webpage or an email, and breaks it into small pieces called packets. These
packets are like individual pieces of a puzzle.
2. Sending Packets: TCP sends these packets across the internet to their
des na on. It's like sending small parcels through the mail.
3. Ensuring Delivery: TCP keeps track of all the packets it sends and makes sure
they arrive at their des na on. It checks if any packets are missing or arrive
out of order and asks for them to be sent again un l everything arrives
correctly. This ensures that your message gets through intact, even if there
are bumps along the way.
4. Verifica on: Once all the packets arrive, TCP verifies that everything is in the
right order and puts them back together. It's like assembling the pieces of a
puzzle to reveal the complete picture.
2. UDP
UDP, or User Datagram Protocol, is a simple and speedy way for computers to
communicate over the internet. Unlike some other protocols, UDP doesn't worry
too much about making sure data gets to its des na on perfectly. Instead, it focuses
on sending data quickly, even if it means some data might get lost or arrive out of
order.
One of the key things about UDP is that it's connec onless. This means that it
doesn't need to establish a connec on before sending data, which makes it faster
than protocols like TCP. Think of it like sending a message in a bo le – you just toss
it into the ocean and hope it gets to the right place.
UDP is o en used for real- me applica ons where speed is more important than
reliability. This includes things like video streaming, online gaming, and VoIP (Voice
over Internet Protocol) calls.
Explain the frame format of UDP.
UDP's frame format is like a basic template for sending data over the internet.
Imagine you're sending a le er. In UDP, each le er has four important parts:
1. Source Port: This is like wri ng your name on the le er. It tells the receiver
who sent the data.
2. Des na on Port: Just like wri ng the recipient's address, this tells the
receiver where the data should go.
3. Length: This part says how long the le er is, including both the actual
message and the address parts.
4. Checksum: Think of this like a secret code at the end of the le er. It helps the
receiver check if the le er got damaged during delivery.
So, UDP's frame format is a simple structure that makes it easy to send data quickly
over the internet, although it doesn't have all the fancy features of other protocols
like TCP.
TCP vs UDP
1. How They Send Data: TCP makes a connec on first and sends data carefully
to ensure it arrives reliably. UDP just sends data without making a
connec on, focusing on speed over reliability.
2. Reliability: TCP guarantees data arrives and in the right order. UDP doesn't
guarantee either, so data might arrive out of order or not at all.
3. Error Checking: TCP checks for and fixes errors, while UDP doesn't bother
much with that.
4. Controlling Speed: TCP controls how fast data is sent to avoid overload. UDP
just sends data as fast as it can.
5. Extra Stuff: TCP has more extra stuff to ensure reliability, making it slower.
UDP is faster because it doesn't have all that extra stuff.
6. Where They're Used: TCP is for things like websites and email, where it's
important that data arrives reliably. UDP is for stuff like online games and
video calls, where speed ma ers more than reliability.
7. Example: TCP is like sending a registered le er to make sure it gets there
safely. UDP is like sending a quick postcard, not worrying too much if it gets
there perfectly.
Explain TCP Segment Format in detail with the help of suitable diagramma c
representa on.
1. Source Port: This is like a return address on an envelope. It tells the recipient
where the data is coming from.
2. Des na on Port: Similar to an address label on the envelope, this tells the
recipient where the data should go.
3. Sequence Number: Think of this as a unique number assigned to each piece
of data. It helps the recipient put everything in the right order, like assembling
a puzzle.
4. Acknowledgment Number: This is like a receipt or confirma on from the
recipient saying they received the data. It helps the sender know if everything
arrived safely.
5. Data Offset: This tells the recipient where the actual message begins in the
TCP segment. It's like marking the start of the le er in a long document.
6. Flags: These are special signals that indicate different condi ons, such as
whether the segment contains important or urgent data.
7. Window Size: Imagine this as the size of a mailbox. It tells the sender how
much data the recipient can accept at once.
8. Checksum: This is like a digital fingerprint that helps detect if any errors
occurred during transmission, ensuring the data's integrity.
9. Urgent Pointer: If there's something urgent in the data, this points to its
loca on, like highligh ng a crucial sec on in a document.
10.Op ons and Data: This is the actual content being sent, such as a message
or file. It's what the sender wants the recipient to receive.
3. IP
IP, or Internet Protocol, is like the postal service of the internet, ensuring data gets
from one place to another. Every device connected to the internet, like your
computer or smartphone, has a unique IP address, similar to a house address. This
address helps routers and servers know where to send data.
When you send data over the internet, like browsing a website or sending an email,
IP breaks it into smaller pieces called packets. Each packet contains part of the
original data along with informa on like the sender's and recipient's IP addresses.
These packets travel through the internet, hopping from one router to another, un l
they reach their des na on.
Important Features / Func ons of IP
1. Addresses: Just like every house has a unique address, every device
connected to the internet has a unique IP address. This address helps routers
and other devices know where to send data.
 2. Rou ng: When you send data over the internet, it doesn't always travel in a
straight line. IP helps routers decide the best path for the data to take to
reach its des na on. It's like planning the most efficient route for a delivery
truck.
3. Packets: IP breaks down data into smaller pieces called packets. Each packet
contains a part of the original data, along with informa on like the sender's
IP address and the packet's sequence number. This makes it easier to
transmit data across different networks.
4. Delivery: Once the data is broken into packets, IP takes care of sending them
from the sender to the recipient. It ensures that each packet reaches its
des na on, even if they take different paths or arrive out of order.
5. Reliability: While IP does its best to deliver data accurately, it doesn't
guarantee that every packet will arrive or arrive in order. That's where other
protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) come in to ensure reliable
communica on.

IP Packet Format
1. Version: This tells us which version of IP is being used, like whether it's IPv4
or IPv6.
2. Header Length: It shows how long the header of the packet is, which helps
devices know where the actual data starts.
3. Type of Service: This helps priori ze packets based on their needs, like
whether they need to arrive quickly or if they can wait.
4. Total Length: This tells us how big the en re packet is, including both the
header and the actual data.
5. Iden fica on: Each packet gets a unique ID number, which helps devices
piece together fragmented packets if they're split up during transmission.
6. Flags: These are like instruc ons for handling the packet, indica ng if it can
be split up or if it's the last part of a split packet.
 7. Fragment Offset: If a packet is split, this tells us where each piece fits in the
original packet.
8. Time to Live (TTL): This sets a limit on how many routers the packet can pass
through before it's discarded to prevent it from looping endlessly.
9. Protocol: It tells us what kind of data the packet is carrying, like if it's for web
browsing (TCP) or sending emails (SMTP).
10.Header Checksum: This is like a digital fingerprint that helps detect if there
are any errors in the header of the packet.
11.Source IP Address: This is the address of the device that sent the packet, like
the return address on an envelope.
12.Des na on IP Address: This is where the packet is going, like the address of
the recipient on an envelope.
13.Op ons: Some mes, extra informa on is included in the header for special
purposes, like security or me stamping.
14.Padding: If needed, extra space is added to make sure the header is a certain
size, typically a mul ple of 32 bits.
(Same diagram of TCP Segment Format)

4. ARD
An Augmented Reality Device (ARD) is like wearing special glasses or using a device
that adds cool stuff to what you see around you. It mixes digital things, like pictures
or videos, with the real world you're looking at. So, imagine seeing helpful signs or
fun characters right in front of you as you walk around.
These devices use smart technology, like cameras and sensors, to understand where
you are and what's around you. Then, they add virtual stuff that looks like it's part
of the real world. For instance, you could use an ARD to see arrows showing you
where to go while walking or to play games where creatures pop up in your living
room.
People use ARDs for lots of things, from playing games and watching videos to
learning and working. They make things more fun and give you useful info right
when you need it. As technology gets be er, ARDs will become even more common,
changing how we see and interact with the world around us.

Physical Addressing
Physical addressing is all about making sure each device on a network has its own
special iden fier. Just like how every house has its own unique address, every
device, like computers, printers, or phones, gets its own dis nct code called a MAC
(Media Access Control) address.
Now, this MAC address isn't something you can change; it's like a built-in serial
number that's unique to each device. Imagine it as a fingerprint that iden fies each
device separately from all the others on the network.
When data needs to be sent from one device to another, like sending a message
from your computer to a printer, the sender includes the MAC address of the printer
along with the data. Think of it like addressing an envelope with the recipient's
house address. Then, devices called routers and switches use these MAC addresses
to guide the data along the right path, just like how postal workers use house
addresses to deliver mail to the correct homes.
In essence, physical addressing ensures that data packets find their way to the
correct devices on a network by using these unique MAC addresses, much like
house addresses ensure mail gets to the right houses. It's a fundamental part of
how devices communicate and share informa on in computer networks.

Logical Addressing
Logical addressing is like giving devices on a network virtual addresses so they can
communicate with each other. It's similar to how people use phone numbers or
email addresses to contact each other, regardless of their physical loca on.
In computer networks, devices are assigned logical addresses called IP (Internet
Protocol) addresses. These addresses are made up of numbers and are used to
iden fy devices on the network. Unlike physical addresses (MAC addresses), which
are hard-coded into the device's hardware, IP addresses can be assigned
dynamically or manually and can change over me.
When data needs to be sent from one device to another on the network, the sender
uses the recipient's IP address to route the data to the correct des na on. Routers
and switches on the network use these logical addresses to direct the data to the
appropriate device, regardless of where it physically resides. Think of it like using
someone's email address to send them a message, regardless of where they are in
the world.
In summary, logical addressing allows devices on a network to communicate with
each other using virtual addresses (IP addresses) rather than physical iden fiers. It
enables data to be routed efficiently across the network, regardless of the physical
loca ons of the devices involved, making it a crucial aspect of network
communica on.

Physical vs Logical Addressing

1. Nature of Addressing:
 Physical addressing is like giving each device its own permanent ID
number, stamped into its hardware.
 Logical addressing is more like giving devices virtual phone numbers
for communica on, which can be changed or assigned as needed.
2. Level of Abstrac on:
 Physical addressing deals with the actual hardware of devices, like
their built-in ID numbers.
 Logical addressing is higher up, focusing on easier-to-handle virtual
addresses for communica on.
3. Uniqueness:
  MAC addresses are like fingerprints; they're unique to each device and
never change.
 IP addresses are unique in a network but can be reassigned or change
dynamically.
4. Usage:
 Physical addressing is used mainly for communica on within a specific
place, like a building or campus.
 Logical addressing lets devices communicate across different places or
networks, like connec ng to the internet.
5. Rou ng and Forwarding:
 MAC addresses help devices find each other within the same network
segment.
 IP addresses guide data across different networks, helping it find the
right path to its des na on.
6. Network Layer Dependency:
 Physical addressing is like a house number, belonging to the Data Link
Layer.
 Logical addressing is more like an area code, opera ng at the Network
Layer.
7. Scope:
 Physical addressing is like knowing your neighbors' house numbers; it's
limited to your immediate area.
 Logical addressing lets you call or connect with people from different
neighborhoods or even countries.
8. Flexibility and Scalability:
 MAC addresses are like a stamp; once it's there, it's hard to change or
expand.
 IP addresses are more like a phonebook; they can be updated or
expanded easily to accommodate growth or changes in the network.
What is IP Addressing Scheme ? How many classes are there with addressing
schemes ? Explain.
An IP addressing scheme is a method used to allocate and manage IP addresses
within a network. IP addresses are numerical labels assigned to devices connected
to a network, allowing them to communicate with each other. The IP addressing
scheme defines how IP addresses are structured and assigned, ensuring efficient
and organized communica on within the network.
There are two main types of IP addressing schemes: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4, which
stands for Internet Protocol version 4, is the most widely used IP addressing
scheme. It uses a 32-bit address space, allowing for approximately 4.3 billion unique
addresses. However, due to the rapid growth of the internet and increasing number
of connected devices, IPv4 addresses are becoming scarce.
To manage IPv4 addresses more efficiently, they are divided into classes based on
the range of IP addresses they contain. There are five classes of IPv4 addressing
schemes, namely Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E. Each class has a
different range of IP addresses, determined by the structure of the IP address itself.
1. Class A Addresses: Class A addresses are used for large networks, with the
first octet (the first 8 bits) reserved for network iden fica on and the
remaining three octets for host iden fica on. The first bit of a Class A address
is always set to 0, indica ng that it belongs to Class A. The range of Class A
addresses is from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255.
2. Class B Addresses: Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks,
with the first two octets reserved for network iden fica on and the
remaining two octets for host iden fica on. The first two bits of a Class B
address are always set to 10, indica ng that it belongs to Class B. The range
of Class B addresses is from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.
3. Class C Addresses: Class C addresses are used for small networks, with the
first three octets reserved for network iden fica on and the last octet for
host iden fica on. The first three bits of a Class C address are always set to
110, indica ng that it belongs to Class C. The range of Class C addresses is
from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
 4. Class D Addresses: Class D addresses are reserved for mul cast addresses,
used for one-to-many communica on. The first four bits of a Class D address
are always set to 1110, indica ng that it belongs to Class D. The range of Class
D addresses is from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
5. Class E Addresses: Class E addresses are reserved for experimental and
research purposes, and their use is not recommended for general use. The
first four bits of a Class E address are always set to 1111, indica ng that it
belongs to Class E. The range of Class E addresses is from 240.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255.
These classes help organize and allocate IP addresses efficiently within a network,
ensuring that each device has a unique iden fier for communica on purposes.

Classful Addressing / IP Address Classes

Classful addressing is a method used in the early days of the internet to assign IP
addresses to devices connected to a network. It divides the available IP address
space into five classes, labeled A through E, based on the range of IP addresses they
contain. Each class has a different structure and range of addresses, allowing for
efficient alloca on of addresses based on the size of the network.
In classful addressing, the class of an IP address is determined by the value of the
first few bits of the address. The class also dictates how the remaining bits of the
address are divided between the network and host por ons. For example, Class A
addresses have the first bit set to 0, Class B addresses have the first two bits set to
10, and Class C addresses have the first three bits set to 110. Classes D and E have
specific bit pa erns reserved for mul cast and experimental use, respec vely.
1. Class A Addresses:
 Class A addresses are like big neighborhoods. They have a lot of space
for devices to live.
 These addresses start with a number from 1 to 126 in the first part.
 Class A addresses are used for large networks with lots of devices, like
big companies or internet service providers.
  They can have up to 16 million devices connected to them.
2. Class B Addresses:
 Class B addresses are like neighborhoods with medium-sized houses.
 They start with numbers from 128 to 191 in the first part.
 These addresses are for networks that are smaller than Class A, but s ll
pre y big, like universi es or big offices.
 They can have up to 65,000 devices connected to them.
3. Class C Addresses:
 Class C addresses are like neighborhoods with small houses.
 They start with numbers from 192 to 223 in the first part.
 These addresses are for smaller networks, like homes or small
businesses.
 They can have up to 254 devices connected to them.
4. Class D Addresses:
 Class D addresses are special; they're not for regular houses.
 They start with numbers from 224 to 239 in the first part.
 These addresses are used for something called mul cast, where one
device sends messages to lots of other devices at once.
 They're not used for regular internet connec ons.
5. Class E Addresses:
 Class E addresses are like empty lots; they're not really used.
 They start with numbers from 240 to 255 in the first part.
 These addresses are reserved for experimental purposes, so you won't
see them much in real networks.
Classless Addressing
Classless addressing is like having more freedom in how we hand out addresses on
the internet. Instead of being stuck with strict address classes like big, medium, and
small neighborhoods, we can now customize addresses to fit the size of our network
more precisely.
With classless addressing, we don't have to follow rigid rules about how many
addresses are in each neighborhood. Instead, we use something called subnet
masks to decide which part of an address belongs to the network and which part
belongs to devices within that network.
Think of subnet masks like a fence dividing a big yard into smaller sec ons. Each
sec on can have its own group of devices, and we can adjust the size of the sec ons
based on how many devices we need to connect. This flexibility makes it easier to
manage addresses and design networks that can grow and adapt over me.

Classful vs Classless Addressing

1. Structure:
 Classful addressing is like having set sizes for neighborhoods; each
class (A, B, C, etc.) has a fixed size.
 Classless addressing is more like customizing neighborhoods to fit
exactly how many houses you need, without being restricted to preset
sizes.
2. Flexibility:
 Classful addressing doesn't allow for much flexibility; you're stuck with
the size of the neighborhood dictated by the class.
 Classless addressing is way more flexible; you can adjust the size of
your neighborhood (network) as needed using subne ng.
3. Address Management:
  With classful addressing, you might end up with too many addresses
in a neighborhood or not enough, leading to wastage or scarcity.
 Classless addressing lets you manage addresses more efficiently by
using only what you need, avoiding waste and ensuring you have
enough for everyone.
4. Representa on:
 Classful addressing doesn't use any special nota on to show the size
of the neighborhood; you just have the class (A, B, C, etc.).
 Classless addressing uses something called CIDR nota on, which
makes it super easy to see how big each neighborhood is and how
many houses it can have.
5. Scalability:
 Classful addressing struggles when you need to expand or shrink
neighborhoods because you're limited by the fixed sizes.
 Classless addressing is much be er for scaling up or down; you can
adjust the size of your neighborhoods easily without being constrained
by predefined rules.

Subne ng
Subne ng is like dividing a big neighborhood into smaller blocks to be er organize
and manage the houses within it. In computer networks, subne ng allows us to
break down a large network into smaller, more manageable parts called
subnetworks or subnets. This helps improve network performance, security, and
efficiency.
Imagine you have a big neighborhood with lots of houses, but they're all sca ered
around with no clear organiza on. Subne ng lets you group houses together based
on their loca on or specific needs. Each subnet has its own unique address range
and can be managed independently. For example, you might group houses on one
street into one subnet and houses on another street into another subnet. This way,
you can control traffic flow and allocate resources more effec vely.
Subne ng also enhances security by crea ng boundaries between different parts
of the network. It allows you to apply security measures, such as firewalls or access
control lists, to specific subnets, protec ng them from unauthorized access or
a acks. Overall, subne ng is a powerful tool that helps op mize network
performance, streamline management, and enhance security in computer
networks.

Superne ng
Superne ng is like combining several smaller neighborhoods into one big
community to simplify management and rou ng in a network. In computer
networks, superne ng involves aggrega ng mul ple smaller subnets into a larger,
more efficient address space. This allows for easier rou ng and reduces the number
of rou ng table entries needed in routers, making network opera ons more
streamlined.
Think of superne ng as merging adjacent neighborhoods with similar
characteris cs or needs. By grouping these subnets together, you create a larger
address space that encompasses all the individual subnets. This simplifies rou ng
because routers only need to know about the larger supernet address instead of
each individual subnet, reducing the amount of rou ng informa on they need to
store and process.
Superne ng also helps conserve IP address space by minimizing the number of
addresses wasted on unnecessary subdivisions. Instead of assigning separate
address ranges for each subnet, you can allocate a single address range for the
en re supernet, op mizing address u liza on. Overall, superne ng is a useful
technique for organizing and op mizing network addressing, improving rou ng
efficiency, and conserving IP address resources.
Note:- Je difference aya ta doha de defini on hi likh deyo “while” use krke.
Subnet Mask
Subnet masking is like pu ng on a pair of glasses that helps computers see which
part of an IP address belongs to the network and which part belongs to the specific
device. In computer networks, subnet masking is used in conjunc on with IP
addresses to define the boundaries of subnets within a larger network. It involves
using a subnet mask, which is a special set of numbers that helps determine the
network por on of an IP address.
Imagine you have a big street with many houses, and you want to divide it into
smaller blocks or subnets. The subnet mask acts like a guide that tells each house
which block it belongs to. It does this by using a series of binary digits (0s and 1s)
to represent the network and host por ons of the IP address. The subnet mask is
applied to the IP address using a process called bitwise AND opera on, which helps
determine the network address.
Subnet masking allows network administrators to create smaller, more manageable
subnetworks within a larger network. This helps improve network efficiency,
security, and performance by organizing devices into logical groups and controlling
the flow of traffic.

TCP/IP Service Protocol

1. FTP
FTP, or File Transfer Protocol, is like a virtual mailman that helps you send and
receive files over the internet. It's a common way to move files between computers,
servers, and other devices. With FTP, you can upload files from your computer to a
server or download files from a server to your computer.
Using FTP is a lot like using a filing cabinet. You have folders to organize your files,
and you can move files in and out of these folders as needed. When you want to
send a file using FTP, you connect to an FTP server using special so ware or tools.
Once connected, you can browse through the files on the server, select the ones
you want to transfer, and then upload them to the server or download them to your
computer.
FTP is widely used for sharing files, upda ng websites, and accessing remote files
and data. It's a simple and reliable way to transfer files over the internet, making it
an essen al tool for businesses, developers, and individuals who need to move files
between computers and servers.

2. SMTP
SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, is like a digital postal service for sending
emails across the internet. It's the technology behind how emails are delivered from
one computer to another. When you hit "send" on your email, SMTP is the system
responsible for rou ng your message to its intended des na on.
Think of SMTP as a courier service for emails. When you compose an email, your
email client uses SMTP to communicate with a mail server. The server then
processes your email, determines its recipient, and forwards it to the recipient's
mail server. From there, the recipient's mail server stores the email un l the
recipient checks their inbox.
SMTP works behind the scenes to ensure that your emails are delivered quickly and
reliably. It's a fundamental protocol for electronic communica on and is used by
email providers, businesses, and individuals worldwide to send and receive
messages. Without SMTP, sending emails across the internet would be much more
complicated and unreliable.

3. TELNET
TELNET, short for Telecommunica on Network, is like a virtual window that allows
users to access and control remote computers or devices over a network. It's a
protocol that enables users to establish interac ve text-based communica on
sessions with computers or devices located elsewhere, as if they were directly
connected to them.
Think of TELNET as a remote control for computers. With TELNET, users can log into
a remote computer or device from their own computer and perform tasks as if they
were physically present. This can include running programs, execu ng commands,
retrieving files, or even configuring se ngs.
Using TELNET is straigh orward. Users ini ate a TELNET session by specifying the
hostname or IP address of the remote device they want to connect to. Once
connected, they can interact with the remote system by typing commands or
inpu ng text, which is then transmi ed to the remote device. The remote device
processes the commands and sends back responses, which are displayed on the
user's terminal screen.
TELNET is commonly used for tasks such as remote administra on, troubleshoo ng,
and accessing resources on servers or network devices. It provides a convenient
and efficient way for users to manage and control remote systems without needing
physical access to them. However, TELNET sessions are unencrypted, meaning that
data transmi ed over TELNET connec ons is suscep ble to intercep on, making it
less secure compared to modern alterna ves like SSH (Secure Shell).

4. DNS
DNS, or Domain Name System, acts like a huge directory for the internet. When you
type a website's name (like "google.com") into your browser, DNS is what translates
that name into the actual address that computers understand, called an IP address
(like "192.0.2.1").
Think of DNS as a giant phonebook. When you want to call someone, you don't dial
their phone number directly; instead, you look up their name in the phonebook to
find their number. Similarly, when you want to visit a website, your computer looks
up the website's name in the DNS directory to find its IP address, so it knows where
to go on the internet.
DNS works in a hierarchy, with different levels of servers handling different parts of
the process. At the top are the root servers, then there are servers for specific
domains (like ".com" or ".org"), and finally, there are servers for individual websites.
When you type a website's name, your computer checks with these servers to find
the right IP address, allowing you to connect to the website and access its content.
In simple words, when you type a website's name into your browser, like
"facebook.com" or "youtube.com," your computer doesn't know where these sites
are located. It needs to translate these names into specific numerical addresses,
called IP addresses, which computers understand. That's where DNS comes in. It's
like the internet's naviga on system, conver ng these human-friendly names into
the numeric addresses computers use to locate websites.