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Nonverbal Communication

2nd Edition

Judee K. Burgoon, Valerie Manusov,

and Laura K. Guerrero
Second edition published 2022
by Routledge
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and by Routledge
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© 2022 Judee K. Burgoon, Valerie Manusov, and Laura K. Guerrero
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identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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First edition published by Routledge 2010
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Burgoon, Judee K. author. | Manusov, Valerie Lynn, author. |
Guerrero, Laura K., author.
Title: Nonverbal communication / Judee K. Burgoon, Valerie Manusov,
Laura K. Guerrero.
Description: 2nd edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021009073 (print) | LCCN 2021009074 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367557386 (pbk) | ISBN 9780367558789 (hbk) | ISBN
9781003095552 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Body language. | Nonverbal communication.
Classification: LCC BF637.N66 B86 2021 (print) | LCC BF637.N66 (ebook) |
DDC 153.6/9—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021009073
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021009074

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Contents

List of Boxes xii

List of Figures xiv
List of Tables xv
Preface and Acknowledgments xvi

PART 1
Foundations 1

1 Introduction and Overview 3

The Importance of Nonverbal Communication 4
Definitional Issues 11
Defining Communication 11
Defining Nonverbal Communication 13
Determining Communicative Content 16
Overview of Nonverbal Codes 22
Overview of Functions 23
Skills and Abilities Associated With Nonverbal Communication 25
Forms and Importance of Skills 26
Overall Claims About Skills 28
General Abilities 29
General Deficits 32
Research Streams 34
Social Science Experiments 35
Observational Research 35
Ethological Studies 35
Discourse Studies 36
Ethnography 36
Self-Reports/Surveys 37
Summing Up 37

2 Bio-Evolutionary Influences on Nonverbal Communication 43

Biology and Evolution in the Study of Nonverbal Communication 43
The Evolutionary Approach 44
Natural Selection 44
Applications to Human Behavior 46
vi Contents
The Biological/Physiological Approach 47
Psychophysiology 47
How Nonverbal Behaviors Are Affected by Evolution and Biology 50
Facial Displays 50
Touch 54
Vocalics 59
Pupil Dilation 60
Olfactics 63
Physical Appearance 65
Summing Up 69

3 Sociocultural Influences on Nonverbal Communication 76

Defining Culture 78
Characteristics of Culture 81
Individualism and Collectivism 82
Contact/Noncontact and Immediate/Non-Immediate 85
Power Distance 87
High and Low Context 88
Gender Orientation 90
Cultural, Cross-Cultural, and Intercultural Interaction 91
Culture-Specific Studies 91
Cross-Cultural Studies 93
Intercultural Studies 97
Challenges and Opportunities 101
Emphasizing Differences Over Similarities 102
Stereotypes and Overgeneralization 102
Implicit Bias and Microaggressions 103
Viewing Cultural Norms as Static 103
Viewing Cultures Through an Ethnocentric Lens 105
Summing Up 106

4 The Visual and Auditory Codes: Kinesics and Vocalics 112

Kinesics 112
Scope and Importance of Kinesics 112
Origins and Acquisition of Kinesics 114
Features of the Kinesics Code 118
Kinesic Norms and Expectations 129
Vocalics 132
Scope and Importance of Vocalics 132
Origins and Acquisition of Vocalics 133
Features of the Vocalics Code 135
Vocalic Norms and Expectations 142
Communication Potential of Kinesics and Vocalics 143
Summing Up 144
 Contents vii
5 The Contact Codes: Haptics and Proxemics 149
Haptics 149
The Importance of Touch 150
Dimensions of Touch 153
Functions of Touch 154
Moderators of Touch Use and Perception 164
Proxemics 166
The Importance of Space and Territory 167
Types of Territory 171
Conversational Distances 174
Moderators of Personal Space and Territoriality Use and
Perceptions 175
Summing Up 179

6 The Body as a Code: Appearance and Adornment 185

The Importance of Physical Appearance and Adornment 186
Perceptions Associated With Physical Attractiveness 187
Physical Attractiveness in Relationships 189
Physical Attractiveness in Professional Contexts 194
What Makes a Face Attractive? 196
Koinophilia 196
Facial Neoteny and Sexual Maturity 196
Symmetry 198
The Body 199
Body Symmetry 200
Body Stereotypes 200
Body Image 202
Coloring 204
Adornment Cues 206
Cosmetics 206
Body Modifications 209
Clothing 211
Perfume 213
Summing Up 213

7 Place and Time Codes: Environment, Artifacts,

and Chronemics 222
Environment and Artifacts 222
Origins and Acquisition of the Environmental and Artifactual Code 224
Features of the Environment and Artifactual Code 225
Norms, Expectations, and Standards for the Environmental and Artifactual Code 233
Communication Potential of the Environmental and Artifactual Code 236
Chronemics 238
Origins and Acquisition of the Chronemic Code 238
viii Contents
Features of the Chronemic Code 242
Norms and Expectations for Chronemics 244
Communication Potential of the Chronemic Code 251
Summing Up 252

PART 2
Functions 257

8 Displaying Identities, Managing Images, and Forming Impressions 259

Identity Displays 260
National Culture Identifiers 260
Ethnicity and Race Identifiers 262
Sex and Gender Identifiers 265
Additional Identifiers 268
Summary 270
Image or Impression Management 270
Theories of Image Management 271
Summary 275
Impression Formation 276
Perception 276
Stereotyping 278
Expectancies 279
Cognitive Biases 282
Accuracy and Consistency of Impressions 284
Forms of Impressions and Relevant Nonverbal Cues 285
Summary 290
Summing Up 291

9 Expressing Emotion 299

The Nature of Emotional Experience 299
Emotions as Adaptive Responses to Events 299
Emotions as Affective Responses 300
Emotions as Physiological Responses 300
Emotions as Cognitive Responses 301
Approaches to Understanding Emotional Experience 301
The Basic Emotions Approach 301
The Emotion Prototypes Approach 303
Dimensional Approaches 304
The Nature of Emotional Expression 305
Emotional Expression as a Biological Response 305
Emotional Expression as a Social and Relational Response 306
The Link Between Emotional Experience and Emotional Expression 310
The Universalistic Perspective 310
The Neuro-Cultural Perspective 313
The Behavioral Ecology Perspective 314
 Contents ix
Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion 315
Facial Cues of Emotion 315
Vocal Cues of Emotion 318
Body and Activity Cues of Emotion 319
Skill in Encoding and Decoding Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion 321
Emotional Intelligence 321
Decoding Ability 323
Encoding Ability 324
Summing Up 325

10 Relational Messages: Developing and Expressing Closeness 332

Intimacy as a Relational Message 332
Expressing Intimacy and Closeness 334
Affection and Liking 337
Positive Involvement/Immediacy 343
Patterns of Interaction 345
Similarity and Reciprocity 345
Synchrony 347
Nonverbal Cues in Relationships 348
“Romantic” Relationships 348
Families 359
Friendships 361
Workplace Relationships 362
Summing Up 365

11 Relational Messages: Power, Dominance, and Status 373

Defining Power and Related Terms 374
Power 374
Dominance 375
Status 379
Principles of Power, Dominance, and Status 380
Principles of Physical Potency 381
Principles of Resource Control 389
Principles of Interaction Control 393
Dyadic Power Theory 400
Summing Up 401

12 Coordinating Interaction 407

Choosing Interaction Partners 407
Propinquity 407
Gaze 409
Physical Attractiveness 409
Setting the Stage for Interaction 409
Aspects of the Framing Process 410
x Contents
Situation and Context 411
The Case of Privacy 412
Managing Conversations 417
Listener Cues 418
Principles of Conversation Management 420
Beginning, Changing, and Ending Conversations 422
Initiating Interaction 422
Topic Management and Exchange 424
Terminating Interaction 424
Models of the Turn Exchange Process 425
Interaction Adaptation Patterns 426
The Patterns Defined 427
Research Evidence of Interpersonal Adaptation 429
Theories of Interaction Adaptation 430
Effects of Interaction Adaptation 433
Coordinating One’s Own Behavior 435
Summing Up 436

13 Influencing Others 443

Social Influence Motives 445
The Relative Importance of Nonverbal Signals in Influence 446
Estimates of Influence 446
Analogic Versus Digital Signals 447
Compresence 448
Factors That Influence Persuasion 448
Source Factors 449
Message Factors 459
Channel Factors 471
Summing Up 472

14 Deceiving and Detecting Deception 481

An Ancient Art 481
Modern Detection 481
Defining Our Quarry 482
The Pervasiveness of Deception 483
The Nature of Nonverbal Deception 487
Perspectives on and Theories of Deception 488
Physiognomic Perspective 488
Evolutionary Perspective 488
The Leakage Hypothesis 490
Four-Factor Theory 494
Interpersonal Deception Theory 495
Self-Presentation Theory 496
Motivation Impairment Effect 497
Cognitive Load Theory 498
Truth-Default Theory 499
 Contents xi
Actual and Perceived Indicators of Deceit 499
Moderator Variables Influencing Deception Displays 502
Detecting Deception 506
Accuracy in Detecting Deceit 506
Stereotypes, Biases, and Heuristics 507
Accuracy in Detecting Suspicion 509
Factors Influencing Detection Accuracy and Credibility Attributions 509
New Methods of Detecting Deception 513
Summing Up 515

Author Index 525

Subject Index 542
Boxes

1.1 Books as Backdrops 6

1.2 Intentional Disregard 9
1.3 Do Definitions Matter? 16
1.4 A New Use for an Old Gesture 20
2.1 Natural Selection at a Glance 45
2.2 Why Do Zoom Calls Fatigue Us? 49
2.3 Universal Expressions of Pride 51
2.4 Why We Cry 54
2.5 A General Theory of the Biology of Nonverbal Communication 68
3.1 Why Do Arab Men Hold Hands? 79
3.2 The Sounds of Appalachia 92
3.3 Global Interpretations of Selected US Gestures 96
4.1 A Zen Parable 113
4.2 Hands and Fingers Do the Talking in Rome 123
4.3 What’s in a Blob? 124
4.4 Emblems and the Savvy Traveler 125
4.5 Bringing Up Baby 134
4.6 Speaking Naturally (or Do Neither as I Say nor as I Do) 136
5.1 The Magic of Touch 150
5.2 Virtual Interpersonal Touch 155
5.3 Doing the High Five 160
5.4 Sex Differences in Touch 164
5.5 Personal Space in the Modern World 168
5.6 When Western Ways Collide With Local Mores in Doctor-Patient
Interviews in Trinidad 178
6.1 Dating Really Is Like a Meat Market 190
6.2 Blue-Eyed Men Have Clear View of Their Ideal Partner 205
6.3 Glamour and Beauty Through the Ages 208
7.1 The Harkness Method 228
7.2 Pink Jails and Inmate Violence 231
7.3 Making a House a Home 234
7.4 Human Chronotypes 241
7.5 Learning Time 242
7.6 Time Orientations and Your Career 246
8.1 Arab Hijab: A Sign of Oppression or Pride? 263
8.2 Race and Caste 273
8.3 The Implicit Association Test 278
 Boxes xiii
8.4 Is Beauty Better Than Brains? 280
9.1 Emotional Contagion in the News 308
9.2 The Facial Affect Coding System 311
10.1 A Middle Schooler’s Touch 340
10.2 Nonverbal Immediacy in the Classroom 343
10.3 Nonverbal Immediacy in Doctor-Patient Relationships 344
10.4 Touch in the Workplace 363
11.1 The Dominance Behavioral System 376
11.2 Sex Differences in Power and Dominance: Subordination or Social Skill? 381
11.3 The #MeToo Movement 392
11.4 Contrasting Snapshots From Two Powerful Politicians 398
11.5 Dominance-Nondominance Coding 399
12.1 Getting the Floor When You Want It 419
12.2 Socially Distant Greetings 422
13.1 The Dangerous Fallout of Some Forms of Persuasion 443
13.2 Attractiveness and Survival in the “Organizational Jungle” 450
13.3 The Spillover Effect of Touch and Trust 453
13.4 “Shaping Ability” in Politics 455
13.5 CEO Image Can Make or Break Firm 458
13.6 Effective Nonverbal Communication During Employer-Customer
Interactions 463
13.7 Do Voices Persuade? 467
14.1 King of Sting 483
14.2 Deception in Nature 485
14.3 The World of Spies 491
14.4 Will Mind Reading Replace Human Deception Detection? 514
Figures

1.1 The value hierarchy for communication behavior 21

4.1 A sampling of resting, standing, and seated postures from Hewes’s
anthropological classification 117
4.2 Birdwhistell’s kinemes for the brows, eyes, and mouth 120
4.3 Sample gestures from Poggi’s Gestionary 122
4.4 A spectrogram showing how the spoken words “nineteenth century”
are graphed 140
7.1 When do you have the most and least energy? Which type are you? 241
9.1 Structure of the prototype approach 303
9.2 The two-dimensional model 304
9.3 The three-dimensional model 305
9.4 Examples of facial action units 311
9.5 The neuro-cultural model 313
11.1 Dominant/submissive and affect styles 399
14.1 Samples of (supposed) physiognomic indicators of (a) honesty,
(b) genuineness, and (c) deceptiveness from Vaught’s Practical
Character Reader (1910) 489
Tables

1.1 Assessing Your Communication Competence 30

2.1 A Measure of Posttraumatic Growth 48
3.1 Self-Construal Measure 84
3.2 Regions and Cultural Dimensions 91
4.1 Taxonomy of Gestures and Facial Expressions 128
4.2 Structural Features of Vocalics 139
4.3 Measuring Liking and Voice 141
5.1 The Social Touch Questionnaire 165
6.1 Exhibitionism Measure 189
7.1 Types of Solitude Experiences 223
8.1 Responses to Intentional Touch 268
9.1 The Emotional Contagion Scale 307
9.2 Common Cultural Display Rules 309
9.3 Common Interpretations of Facial Expressions According to
the Universalistic and Behavioral Ecology Perspectives 315
9.4 Rapid Signals Associated With Various Emotions 317
9.5 Vocal Characteristics of Emotional Expressions 319
9.6 Synthetic Compilation of Acoustic Patterns of Basic Emotions 319
10.1 The Affectionate Communication Index 338
10.2 Nonverbal Communication and Flirting Styles 353
10.3 The Nonverbal Perception Scale 356
11.1 10 Outrageously Successful Leaders Who Were Introverts 377
12.1 Flight, Freeze, or Fight Questionnaire 415
12.2 Termination Cues 425
13.1 Behavioral Manifestations of Vices and Virtues 454
14.1 The Many “Faces” of Deception 482
14.2 Motives for Deception 487
14.3 Online Deception 493
14.4 Sample Propositions of Interpersonal Deception Theory 496
14.5 Stereotypical (Perceived) and Objective Indicators of Deceit 501
Preface and Acknowledgments

This text follows a long lineage of books by Judee K. Burgoon. When she developed the idea
for the first version of a nonverbal textbook, The Unspoken Dialogue, there were no textbooks
on nonverbal communication. By the time it was published, however, two books were already
on the market, and several others soon followed. Now there are upwards of 60 books, both
popular and scholarly, dedicated to this topic, attesting to the intense interest that nonverbal
communication has attracted.
Judee soon realized that tackling the literature on nonverbal communication would require
a team effort and invited Thomas Saine to join her in writing the first book. Thomas was not
primarily a nonverbal communication scholar, but he was a scholar whose deep interest in
interpersonal communication topics led him to take a leap of faith to team up with a junior
author whose interest was deeply steeped in nonverbal communication. We are all deeply
grateful to his recognition that this area would bear so much fruit.
When it came time to revise The Unspoken Dialogue, Thomas, who had moved on to new
interests, was replaced by two new scholars who, as former PhD advisees, matched Judee’s
tireless interest in this topic and whose extensive research efforts had taken them into many
applied facets of nonverbal communication. The new team of Judee K. Burgoon, David B.
Buller, and W. Gill Woodall authored three editions of Nonverbal Communication: The Unspo-
ken Dialogue that greatly expanded the coverage of the functions of nonverbal communication
and introduced extensive comparison of verbal to nonverbal signals. To Dave and Gill, we are
indebted for further solidifying our theoretical and research foundations and for taking us into
many important applications.
As new interests drew Dave and Gill to different research opportunities, it was time to
reconstitute the team. This time, Judee was joined by two veteran nonverbal communication
scholars, Laura K. Guerrero and Kory Floyd, who brought to the first edition of Nonverbal
Communication the broadening of the bio-evolutionary and sociocultural underpinnings of
nonverbal communication as well as a deep understanding of interpersonal communication
that further strengthened our foundations. We thank Kory deeply for the substantial insights
he brought to the volume, in particular to the biological, physiological, and evolutionary
aspects of nonverbal communication. Like his predecessors, Kory found himself in demand
elsewhere, which opened the possibility of adding a new author to the team, hence the addi-
tion of another long-time nonverbal expert, Valerie Manusov.
This new version of Nonverbal Communication continues our commitment to a research-
rich but student-engaging approach to the ever-growing, multidisciplinary area of nonverbal
communication. This edition is a significant update of the last one, removing one chapter, com-
bining two others, and adding a third. It reflects significant technological and social changes
in our world and includes more scholarship from researchers around the globe. Chapters
offer measures to allow students to be a part of the research we cite and include nonverbal