UNIT 1

1 Define Research? Explain the four objectives of Research.

• Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge
in a new and creative way to generate new concepts, methodologies, and understandings.
• Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. It is an art of scientific
investigation.
• According to Clifford Woody, research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing, and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
• Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
Four objectives of Research:
1 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
2 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or a group
3 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else.
4 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.

2 What are the characteristics of Research?

a. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data.
Rules and procedures are an integral part of the process that set the objective.
Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or
drawing conclusions.
b. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
c. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in natural
settings.
d. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
e. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
opportunities for research.
f. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
g. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research.
h. The information that is obtained should be accurate and true to its nature.
For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data.
Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and
the result of the experiment.

3 Write a short note on research methodology.

• Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem.
• It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out.
• Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing,
explaining, and predicting phenomena are called research methodology.
• It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained.
• Its aim is to give the work plan of research.

4 Write short note on Research Method.

• Research method refers to all those methods, which a researcher employs to undertake
research process, to solve the given problem.
• The techniques and procedure, that are applied during studying research problem are known as
the research method.
• It encompasses both qualitative and quantitative method of performing research operations,
such as survey, case study, interview, questionnaire, observation, etc.
5 Differentiate between Research Process and Research Methodology.

6 What is scientific research?

• Scientific Research is the systematic investigation of scientific theories and hypothesis
• Scientific Research –
o A process of rigorous reasoning based on interactions among theories methods, and
findings
o Builds on understanding derived from the objective testing of models or theories
o Accumulation of scientific knowledge is laborious(difficult), plodding(slow),and indirect
Scientific knowledge is developed and improved through critique contested findings,
replication and convergence
o It is developed through sustained efforts
o Scientific inquiry must be guided by fundamental principles
• Experimental research is more “scientific” than descriptive or qualitative research –
A study is deemed to be “scientific” when –
o There are a clear set of testable questions underlying the design;
o The methods are appropriate to answer the questions and falsify competing hypothesis
and answers
o The study of explicitly linked to theory and previous research
o The data are analyzed systematically and with the appropriate tools
o The data are made available for review and criticism
7 Explain using a labeled diagram the Research Process.

• Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps.
• There are various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are
separate and distinct.

• Following are the steps: (fed pd ceah gp)

1. Formulating the research problem;
2. Extensive literature survey;
3. Developing the hypothesis;
4. Preparing the research design;
5. Determining sample design;
6. Collecting the data;
7. Execution of the project;
8. Analysis of data;
9. Hypothesis testing;
10. Generalisations and interpretation,
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.

8 List and explain the criteria of a good research. /

What are the qualities of good research?

1. Good research is systematic:

It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well-defined set of rules.

2. Good research is logical:

This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of
induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of
reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some
premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes
research more meaningful in the context of decision making.

3. Good research is empirical:

It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals
with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

4. Good research is replicable:

This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis for decisions.
9 Give an Example of following types of research:
a. Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive Research
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different types.
• The main objective of this type of research is to describe the state of information as it exists at
present.
• The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables;
he can only report what has happened or what is going on.
• In this type of research, all kinds of survey method are utilized including comparative and co-
relational method.

Analytical Research
• The researcher uses the facts and information which are available.
• After collecting these data the researcher can analyze and make a critical evaluation on the
materials in the method of analytical research.
• Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking skills and the
evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted.
• It is a critical evaluation based on information that is available and primarily concerned with
testing hypothesis; specifying and interpreting relationships by analyze the facts or existing
information.

b. Applied vs. Fundamental

Applied Research
• It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing by society or an
industrial/business organization.
• This research aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of it.

Fundamental Research
• It is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of it.

c. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative Research
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
• It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
• The Quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and
hypothesis pertaining to natural phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
• Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper
surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face- to-face interviews, telephone interviews,
longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.
• Statistics, tables and graphs are often used to present the results of these methods.

Qualitative research
• Qualitative research is concerned with the qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomena relating to
or involving quality or kind.
• Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and the
reason that govern such behaviour.
• While discussing on the investigation of human behaviour we can use the term “motivation
research”, which is an important type of qualitative research.
 • Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse
the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make
people like or dislike a particular thing.
• Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.

d. Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual Research
• Conceptual research is a type of research that is generally related to abstract ideas or theory.
• It doesn’t particularly involve any practical experimentation. However, this type of research
typically involves observing and analyzing information already present on a given topic.
• Philosophical research is a generally good example of conceptual research.
• Conceptual research can be used to solve real-world problems. Conceptual frameworks, which
are analytical tools researchers use in their studies, are based on conceptual research.

Empirical Research
• Empirical research based on evidence verifiable by observation or experience rather than
theory or pure logic.
• Thus, empirical research is research studies with conclusions based on empirical evidence.
• Empirical research studies are observable and measurable.
• Empirical questions can be answered by giving facts or information.
• In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess
as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts to prove or disprove his
hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons
or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
• Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under
study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.

10 Write a note on Literature Review.

• A literature review is a summary of a subject field that supports the identification of specific
research questions.
• A literature review needs to draw on and evaluate a range of different types of sources including
academic and professional journal articles, books, and web- based resources.
• A literature review, in academic writing, is the process used by the researcher to:
• Learn what has been done on a topic.
• Determine who is writing on the topic.
• Establish opinions about the topic.
• Analyze the information presented on the topic
.
functions of Literature Review:

• It provides a theoretical background to your study.

• It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and what has
already been studied.
• It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of knowledge in
your profession.
• It helps you to integrate your research findings into the existing body of knowledge.
 What is the role of Literature Review in Research:

• The literature review is an integral part of the research process and makes a valuable
contribution to almost every operational step.
• It is important before the first step, that is, when the researcher or readers is thinking about a
research question that must be found out to find answers to the research journey.
• In the initial stages of research, it helps you to establish the theoretical roots of your study,
clarify your ideas and develop your research methodology.
• Later in the process, the literature review serves to enhance and consolidate your own
knowledge base and helps you to integrate your findings with the existing body of knowledge.
• It places your study in perspective to what others have investigated about the issues.
• It help to improve the research methodology

11 What do you mean by Hypothesis? How to formulate it?

• According to Kerlinger “A hypothesis is conjectural statement of the relationship between two or
more variables”
• Black and Champion define a hypothesis as “A tentative statement about something the validity
of which is usually unknown”
• Bailey defines it as “A proposition that is stated in a testable form and that predicts a particular
relationship between two or more variables”
• In quantitative research constructing a hypothesis is an important consideration in formulating
of a research problem.
• A hypothesis brings clarity, specificity and focus to a research problem.
• Hypotheses are scientifically reasonable predictions.
• They are often stated in terms of if-then sentences in certain logical forms.
• A hypothesis should provide what we expect to find in the chosen research problem.
• That is, the expected or proposed solutions based on available data and tentative explanations
constitute the hypothesis.
• One of the important considerations in the formulation of a research problem in quantitative
research is the construction of a hypothesis.

Formulating a Hypothesis
• Hypothesizing is done only after survey of relevant literature and learning the present status of
the field of research.
• It is based on previous research and observation carried out by other researchers.
• To formulate a hypothesis the researcher should acquire enough knowledge in the topic of
research and a reasonably deep insight about the problem.
• Hypothesis is due to an intelligent guess or for inspiration which is to be tested in the research
work rigorously through appropriate methodology.
• Testing of hypothesis leads to explanation of the associated phenomenon or event.

12 What are the characteristics of a good hypothesis?

• A hypothesis should be simple, specific and conceptually clear. There is no place for
ambiguity in the construction of a hypothesis, as ambiguity will make the verification of your
hypothesis almost impossible
• A hypothesis should be capable of verification. Methods and techniques must be available
for data collection and analysis.
• A hypothesis should be related to the existing body of knowledge. It is important that your
hypothesis emerges from the existing body of knowledge, and that it adds to it, as this is an
important function of research. This can only be achieved if the hypothesis has its roots in the
existing body of knowledge.
• A hypothesis should be operationalizable. This means that it can be expressed in terms that
can be measured. If it cannot be measured, it cannot be tested and, hence, no conclusions can
be drawn
13. Explain the flow diagram of Hypothesis Testing.
 UNIT 2
1. What is a research design? What are the features of a good research design?
• “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.”
• the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
a. the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study;
b. the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
c. the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed;
d. the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

Features / Characteristics of good research design:

• A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical, and so on.
• Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analysed is considered a good design.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design
in many investigations.
• Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and
efficient design in respect of many research problems.
• Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research
problem and with the nature of the problem to be studied.
• A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
(i) the means of obtaining information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work.
• If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one, wherein the
major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most
appropriate must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many different aspects
of a phenomenon.
• But when the purpose of a study is accurate description of a situation or of an association
between variables (or in what are called the descriptive studies), accuracy becomes a
major consideration and a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the evidence collected is considered a good design.

2. Variables:

• A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. Weight,
height, income are all examples of variables.
• Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are
called ‘continuous variables’. But all variables are not continuous.
• If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in
statistical language ‘discrete variables’.
 a. Dependent Variable & Independent Variable
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is
termed as an independent variable.

b. Extraneous variable
• Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
• Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts.
• In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a
dependent variable.
• Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related
to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an
extraneous variable.
• Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable because of extraneous variable(s) is
technically described as an ‘experimental error’.
• A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is
attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or
variables.

c. Treatments
• The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually
referred to as ‘treatments’.
• In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the usual studies programme and
the special studies programme.
• Similarly, if we want to determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three
varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers
will be treated as three treatments.

3. Describe the methods of research designs in case of exploratory research studies.

• Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.

• The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.
• The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.
• Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are
talked about:
a. the survey of concerning literature;
b. the experience survey and
c. the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.

a) The survey of concerning literature

• It happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the
research problem or developing hypothesis.
• Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research.
• It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis.
• In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by
others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to
review the available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.
• Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in one’s area of interest
may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem.
 b) Experience survey
• It means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be
studied.
• The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables
and new ideas relating to the research problem.
• For such a survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be
carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of
experience.
• The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator.
• The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of
informants.
• Generally, the experience collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few
hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be
discussed to the respondents well in advance.

c) Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples

• It is also a fruitful method for suggesting hypotheses for research. It is particularly
suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide.
• This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in
which one is interested.
• For this purpose, the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured
interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted.
• Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to
draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features
which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.

Basic Principles of experimental designs : Replication, Randomization, local control

4. Explain the principle of Replication.
• According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than once.
• Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one.
• By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
• For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose,
we may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in
the other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that
basis.
• But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field
into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining
parts.
• We can then collect the data of yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the
same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw
without applying the principle of replication.
• The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results.

5. Explain the principle of Randomization.

• The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against
the effect of extraneous factors by randomization.
• In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a
way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general
heading of “chance.”
• suppose, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and the other
variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in
the first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic.
• In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field
based on some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and
protect ourselves against the effects of the extraneous factors (soil fertility differences in the
given case).
6. Explain the principle of Local Control
• The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs.
• Under it the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over
as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it
causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.
• This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two- way
analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components
attributed to treatments (varieties of rice in our case), the extraneous factor (soil fertility in our
case) and experimental error.
• In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several
homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to
the number of treatments.
• Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. Dividing the field into
several homogenous parts is known as ‘blocking’.
• In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factor fixed, so that we can
measure its contribution to the total variability of the data by means of a two-way analysis of
variance.
• In brief, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous
factor(s) from the experimental error.

7. While developing a sampling design, the researcher generally follows some steps.
Briefly explain the steps in developing sampling design.

(i) Type of universe:

• The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically
called the Universe, to be studied.
• The universe can be finite or infinite.
• In a finite universe, the number of items is certain, but in the case of an infinite universe, the
number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items.
• The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory, and the like are examples of finite
universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio program, throwing of
a dice, etc., are examples of infinite universes.

(ii) Sampling unit:

• A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting the sample.
• The sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a construction
unit such as a house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as a family, club, school, etc., or it
may be an individual.
• The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his study.

(iii) Source list:

• It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which the sample is to be drawn.
• It contains the names of all items of a universe. If the source list is not available, the researcher
has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable, and appropriate.
• It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the population as possible.

(iv) Size of sample:

• This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This is
a major problem before a researcher.
• The size of the sample should neither be excessively large nor too small. It should be optimum.
• An optimum sample is one that fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability,
and flexibility.
• While deciding the size of the sample, the researcher must determine the desired precision as
also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
• The size of the population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The
parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view while deciding the size of the
sample. Cost constraint must be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.
 (v) Parameters of interest:
• In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of the specific population
parameters that are of interest.
• For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some
characteristic in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other
measure concerning the population.
• There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to make
estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we would accept.

(vi) Budgetary constraint:

Cost considerations, from a practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to
not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample.
This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

(vii) Sampling procedure:

• Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use, i.e., he must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
• In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several sample
designs out of which the researcher must choose one for his study.
• Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a
smaller sampling error.

8. What are the characteristics of a good sample design?

a. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
b. Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
c. Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
d. Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
e. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

9. Convenience and purposive sampling

Convenience Sampling
• Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.
• This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the universe.
• When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of
access, it can be called convenience sampling.
• If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number
of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations.
• This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers.
• At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not
homogeneous.

Purposive Sampling:
• Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample.
• Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as Deliberate sampling,
Purposive sampling, and Judgement sampling.
• In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his
choice concerning the items remains supreme.
• For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state are to be studied, a few towns
and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle that they can be
representative of the entire state. Thus, the judgement of the organisers of the study plays an
important part in this sampling design.
 • In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering the selection of the sample.
The investigator may select a sample which shall yield results favourable to his point of view
and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated. Thus, there is always the danger of bias
entering into this type of sampling technique.
• But in the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the necessary experience to
take sound judgement, the results obtained from an analysis of deliberately selected sample
may be tolerably reliable.
• However, in such a sampling, there is no assurance that every element has some specifiable
chance of being included.

10. Write a short note on

1. Random sampling
• Probability sampling is also known as ‘Random sampling’ or ‘Chance sampling’.
• Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample.
• Thus, it is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process.
• Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected.
• The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of
probability.
• Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of sample selection which
gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked up and each
item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample.
• This applies to sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is selected for the sample, it
cannot appear in the sample again
• In brief, the implications of random sampling (or simple random sampling) are:
o It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample;
and all choices are independent of one another.
o It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.

2. Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the
clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
• Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders.
It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450.
For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150
card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly.
• The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same
level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other
sources of error is usually accentuated.
• The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and
increase the efficiency of field work, especially in the case of personal interviews.

11. List the merits of Telephonic Interview.

• This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is
not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.

• The chief merits of such a system are:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
 5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-responseis
generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one
reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

12. What are the advantages of data collection through Questionnaire?

• In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request
to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
• A questionnaire consists of several questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set
of forms.
• The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.
The respondents must answer the questions on their own.
• The Merits / advantages of data collection through questionnaire:

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.

13. Explain the Primary data collection through schedules and observation.
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character.

a) Schedules:
• This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with
little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are
being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
• These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the
proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the
same in the proforma.
• In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help
them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules.
• Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and remove the difficulties which any
respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or
concept of difficult terms.
• This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents
to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected.
• The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the
investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the
implications of different questions put in the schedule.
• Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross-examination to find out
the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have patience and
perseverance.
• This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to reliable results.
• It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental
agencies or by some big organisations. Population census all over the world is conducted through
this method.
b) Observation method:
• The observation method is the most used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences.
• In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it
serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned, and recorded and is subjected to
checks and controls on validity and reliability.
• However, observation method has various limitations.
Firstly, it is an expensive method.
Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for
this method to collect data effectively.
• While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like:
What should be observed?
How the observations should be recorded?
Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style
of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of observation and the selection of
pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured observation.
• But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the
same is termed as unstructured observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate in
descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be
relatively unstructured.

14. characteristics of secondary data.

• Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analysed by someone else.
• Before using secondary data, the researcher must see that they possess following characteristics:

1. Reliability of data:
The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data?
(b) What were the sources of data?
(c) Were they collected by using proper methods
(d) At what time were they collected?
(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?

2. Suitability of data:
The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry.
Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by the researcher.
In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinise the definition of various terms and units
of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally.
Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be studied.
If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and
should not be used.

3. Adequacy of data:
If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry,
they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher.
The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either
narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
15. What factors a researcher must keep while selecting a method of data collection.
a) Nature, scope, and object of enquiry:
This constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a particular method.
The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the
researcher.
This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are to be
used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.

b) Availability of funds:
Availability of funds for the research project largely determines the method to be used for the collection
of data.
When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively
cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other costly method.
Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher must act within this limitation.

c) Time factor:
Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method of data collection.
Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected in a
comparatively shorter duration.
The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by which the data
are to be collected.

d) Precision required:
Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of selecting the method
of collection of data.
 UNIT 3

1) Difference between field editing and central editing

• Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys)
to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible

2) Time Series Analysis:

• In the context of economic and business researches, we may obtain quite often data relating to
some time period concerning a given phenomenon.
• Such data is labelled as ‘Time Series’.
• More clearly it can be stated that series of successive observations of the given phenomenon
over a period of time are referred to as time series.
• Such series are usually the result of the effects of one or more of the following factors:

i Secular trend or long term trend that shows the direction of the series in a long period of
time. The effect of trend (whether it happens to be a growth factor or a decline factor) is
gradual, but extends more or less consistently throughout the entire period of time under
consideration. Sometimes, secular trend is simply stated as trend (or T).
ii Short time oscillations i.e., changes taking place in the short period of time only and such
changes can be the effect of the following factors:

a. Cyclical fluctuations (or C) are the fluctuations as a result of business cycles and are
generally referred to as long term movements that represent consistently recurring
rises and declines in an activity.
b. Seasonal fluctuations (or S) are of short duration occurring in a regular sequence at
specific intervals of time. Such fluctuations are the result of changing seasons.
Usually these fluctuations involve patterns of change within a year that tend to be
repeated from year to year. Cyclical fluctuations and seasonal fluctuations taken
together constitute short-period regular fluctuations.
c. Irregular fluctuations (or I), also known as Random fluctuations, are variations which
take place in a completely unpredictable fashion.
 For analysing time series, we usually have two models:
• multiplicative model;
• additive model.

Multiplicative model assumes that the various components interact in a multiplicative manner to
produce the given values of the overall time series and can be stated as under:

Y=T×C×S×I
where
Y = observed values of time series,
T = Trend,
C = Cyclical fluctuations,
S = Seasonal fluctuations,
I = Irregular fluctuations.

Additive model considers the total of various components resulting in the given values of the overall
time series and can be stated as:

Y=T+C+S+I

3) Write note on Regression & Simple Regression Analysis.

• Regression is the determination of a statistical relationship between two or more
variables.
• In simple regression, we have only two variables, one variable (defined as
independent) is the cause of the behaviour of another one (defined as dependent
variable).
• Regression can only interpret what exists physically i.e., there must be a physical
way in which independent variable X can affect dependent variable Y.
• The basic relationship between X and Y is given by
$ Y = a + bX

• $ where the symbol Y denotes the estimated value of Y for a given value of X.
• This equation is known as the regression equation of Y on X (also represents the
regression line of Y on X when drawn on a graph)
• The regression analysis is a statistical method to deal with the formulation of
mathematical model depicting relationship amongst variables which can be used for
the purpose of prediction of the values of dependent variable, given the values of the
independent variable.

4) Explain correlation analysis.

5) Write short note on:
i Null Hypothesis

ii Alternative Hypothesis

iii Level of significance

• This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis testing.
• It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen wit great care, thought and
reason.
• In case we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that H0 will be rejected

*If a hypothesis is of the type µ µ= H0 , then we call such a hypothesis as simple (or specific)

hypothesis but if it is of the type µ ≠ µH0 or µ > µH0 or µ < µH0 , then we call it a composite (or

nonspecific) hypothesis.

• when the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring
if H0 is true.
• In other words, the 5 per cent level of significance means that researcher is willing to take as
much as a 5 per cent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true.
• Thus the significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is true
and is usually determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.
iv Decision rule to test hypothesis
• Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis Ha, we make a rule which is known as
decision rule according to which we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha) or reject H0 (i.e., accept Ha).
• For instance, if (H0 is that a certain lot is good (there are very few defective items in it) against Ha)
that the lot is not good (there are too many defective items in it), then we must decide the number
of items to be tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
• We might test 10 items in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there are none or only 1
defective item among the 10, we will accept H0 otherwise we will reject H0 (or accept Ha). This sort
of basis is known as decision rule.

v Type I and Type II Error

• In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two types of errors we can make.
• We may reject H0 when H0 is true and we may accept H0 when in fact H0 is not true.
• The former is known as Type I error and the latter as Type II error.
• In other words, Type I error means rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted
and Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected.
• Type I error is denoted by α (alpha) known as α error, also called the level of significance of test;
• and Type II error is denoted by β (beta) known as β error.
• In a tabular form the said two errors can be presented as follows:

Decision

Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 (true) Correct Type I error
decision (α error)

H0 (false) Type II error Correct

(β error) decision
 Unit 4
1. What is Copyright?
• Copyright is the exclusive legal right to reproduce, publish, and sell the matter and form of a
literary or artistic work.
• Copyright protects original forms of expression but not the ideas being expressed.
The data you are presenting are not protected by copyright; however, the collection of the data
and the way you have presented them are protected.
• if your paper includes illustrations or other materials that have been published elsewhere, you
will need permission to republish them unless you hold the copyright. Second, you may need to
transfer the copy right for your paper to the journal
• Fair use of copyrighted material, according to the 1976 Copyright Act, allows you to copy and
distribute small sections of a copyrighted work.
• It does not allow you to copy complete articles and republish them without permission, whether
for profit or otherwise.

2. Ethics in scientific publication

• Ethics are guidelines which aim to promote the integrity, transparency, and reliability of scientific
research, ensure that it is conducted ethically and with appropriate rigor, and prevent any
misconduct or ethical violations.
• Before writing a scientific paper and submitting it to a journal and indeed, before embarking on
your research you should know the basic ethical norms for scientific conduct and scientific
publishing. Some of these norms may be obvious, others not.
• Some of the norms are:
o AUTHENTICITY AND ACCURACY
o ORIGINALITY
o CREDIT
o ETHICAL TREATMENT OF HUMANS AND ANIMALS
o DISCLOSURE OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

• AUTHENTICITY AND ACCURACY:

o That research reported in a journal should actually have been done may seem too
obvious to mention.
o Yet cases exist in which the author simply made up data in a paper, without ever doing
the research.
o Clearly, such “dry-labbing,” or fabrication, is unethical.
o For research that includes statistical analysis, reporting accurately includes using
appropriate statistical procedures, not those that may distort the findings.

• ORIGINALITY:
o The findings in a scientific paper must be new.
o Except in rare and highly specialized circumstances, they cannot have appeared
elsewhere in the primary literature.
o To republish a paper permission normally must be obtained from the journal that
originally published the paper.

• CREDIT:
o Good scientists build on each other’s work. They do not, however, take credit for others’
work.
o If your paper includes information or ideas that are not your own, be sure to cite the
source.
o Likewise, if you use others’ wording, remember to place it in quotation marks and to
provide a reference. Otherwise, you will be guilty of plagiarism.
o To avoid inadvertent plagiarism, be sure to include information about the source when
you copy or download materials others have written.
 • ETHICAL TREATMENT OF HUMANS AND ANIMALS:
o If your research involves human subjects or animals, the journal to which you submit
your paper is likely to require documentation that they were treated ethically.
o Before beginning your study, obtain all needed permissions with regard to human or
animal research.
o Then, in your paper, provide the needed statement(s) in this regard.

• DISCLOSURE OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:

o Authors of scientific papers sometimes have conflicts of interest that is, outside
involvements that could, at least in theory, interfere with their objectivity in the research
being reported.
o For example, they may own stock in the company making the product being studied, or
they may be consultants to such a company.
o Ethics requires honest reporting of conflicts of interest.

3. Scientific paper and it's organization

• A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results.
• A scientific paper must be written in a certain way, as defined by tradition, editorial practice,
scientific ethics, and the interplay of printing and publishing procedures.
• Abstracts, theses, conference reports, and many other types of literature are published, but such
publications do not normally meet the test of valid publication.
• publications such as newsletters, corporate publications, and controlled-circulation journals,
many of which are of value for their news or other features, generally cannot serve as
repositories for scientific knowledge.

ORGANIZATION OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER:

• A scientific paper is organized to meet the needs of valid publication.
• It is, or should be, highly stylized, with distinctive and clearly evident component parts.
• The most common labelling of the component parts, in the basic sciences, is introduction,
methods, results, and discussion (hence the acronym IMRAD).
• The heading “Materials and Methods” may be more common than the simpler “Methods,” but the
latter form was used in the acronym.
• Whether one is writing an article
• about chemistry, archaeology, economics, or crime in the street, the IMRAD format is often the
best choice.
• A scientific paper is not literature. The preparer of a scientific paper is not an author in the
literary sense. As an international colleague noted, this fact can comfort those writing scientific
papers other than in their native language.

4. Use of photographs in scientific paper cropping, arrows, lines on photography

• If your paper is to be illustrated with one or more photographs, there are several factors to keep
in mind.

Cropping
• Whatever the quality of your photographs, you want to have them published legibly.
• To some degree, you can control this process yourself if you use your head.
• If you are concerned that detail might be lost by excessive reduction, there are several ways you
might avoid this. Seldom do you need the whole photograph, right out to all four edges.
Therefore, crop the photograph to include only the important part.
• Commonly, photographs are cropped digitally. If you are submitting a print, you can write “crop
marks” on the margin to show where the photograph should be cropped.
 Arrows
• If you can’t crop down to the features of special interest, consider superimposing arrows or
letters on the photographs, In this way, you can draw the reader’s attention to the significant
features.
• Having arrows or letters to refer to can aid in writing clear, concise legends.
• Unless your journal requests that photographs and other illustrations be embedded in the text, it
is a good idea to indicate the preferred location for each illustration.
• In this way, you will be sure that all illustrations have been referred to in the text, in one-two-
three order, and the printer will know how to weave the illustrations into the text so that each one
is close to the text related to it.

Line Drawings
• In some fields (for example, descriptive biology), line drawings are superior to photographs in
showing important details.
• Such illustrations are also common in medicine, especially in presenting anatomic views, and
indeed have become virtually an art form.
• When illustrations are necessary, the services of a professional illustrator generally are required.
Such illustrators are available at many universities and other research institutions and can be
identified through associations of scientific and medical illustrators.

5. Creating demographic table

6. Prepare Covering letter for a paper to present in conference
7. How to add title, footnote and abbreviation in tables and research papers...