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Principles of cosmology and gravitation
The frontispiece (overleaf) shows types of galaxy
(reading from top to bottom)
Elliptical: left: NGC4406; right: NGC3115
Normal spiral: left: NGC3031; right: NGC5457
Barred spiral: left: NGC2217; right: NGC1300
Irregular: left: NGC3034; right: NGC3109
(Photographs from the Hale Observatories)
The frontispiece (overleaf) shows types of galaxy
(reading from top to bottom)
Elliptical: left: NGC4406; right: NGC3115
Normal spiral: left: NGC3031; right: NGC5457
Barred spiral: left: NGC2217; right: NGC1300
Irregular: left: NGC3034; right: NGC3109
(Photographs from the Hale Observatories)
© lOP Publishing Ltd 1989

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the publisher. Multiple copying is permitted in accordance with the terms
of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency under the terms of its
agreement with the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals.

First published 1976 by Cambridge University Press

Reprinted 1978
First published 1989 by lOP Publishing Ltd
Reprinted 1991, 1993, 1996, 1998, 2001
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Berry, Michael, 1941-

Principles of cosmology and gravitation.
I. Astronomy. Cosmology
I. Title
523.1

ISBN 0-85274-037-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data are available

This impression reproduced from the first edition type by kind permission of
Cambridge Univ.ersity Press
Cover photograph of NGC 5457 reproduced courtesy of the Royal Astronomical
Society

First published under the Adam Hilger imprint by lOP Publishing Ltd
Reprinted under the Institute of Physics Publishing imprint, the book imprint of
the Institute of Physics, London, by lOP Publishing Ltd, Dirac House, Temple
Back, Bristol BS 1 6BE, UK
US Office: Institute of Physics Publishing, The Public Ledger Building, Suite
1035, 150 South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA
Printed in Great Britain at the University Press, Cambridge
 Contents

Preface to the 1989 reprint IX

Preface to the first edition X

l Introduction

2 Cosmography 3
2.1 What the universe contains 3
2.2 The cosmic distance hierarchy, and the determination of galactic
densities 5
2.2.1 Parallax 6
2.2.2 Distance from velocity measurements 8
2.2.3 Distance from apparent luminosity 9
2.2.4 Weighing galaxies 15
2.3 The red shift and the expansion of the universe 17

3 Physical basis of general relativity 23

3.1 The need for relativistic ideas and a theory of gravitation 23
3.2 Difficulties with Newtonian mechanics: gravity 26
3.3 Difficulties with Newtonian mechanics: inertial frames and
absolute space 30
3.4 Inadequacy of special relativity 34
3.5 Mach's principle, and gravitational waves 37
3.6 Einstein's principle of equivalence 41

4 Curved spacetime and the physical mathematics of general

relativity 47
4.1 Particle paths and the separation between events 47
4.2 Geodesics 55
4.3 Curved spaces 60
4.4 Curvature and gravitation 70

5 General relativity near massive objects 74

5.1 Spacetime near an isolated mass 74
5.2 Around the world with clocks 76
 Contents viii

5.3 Precession of the perihelion of Mercury 79

5.4 Deflection of light 85
5.5 Radar echoes from planets 88
5.6 Black holes 91
6 Cosmic kinematics 103
6.1 Spacetime for the smoothed-out universe 103
6.2 Red shifts and horizons 107
6.3 Apparent luminosity 111
6.4 Galactic densities and the darkness of the night sky 113
6.5 Number counts 115
7 Cosmic dynamics 119
7.1 Gravitation and the cosmic fluid 119
7.2 Histories of model universes 123
7.3 The steady state theory 133
7.4 Cosmologies in which the strength of gravity varies 136
8 In the beginning 140
8.1 Cosmic black-body radiation 140
8.2 Condensation of galaxies 145
8.3 Ylem 153
Appendix A: Labelling astronomical objects 159
Appendix B: Theorema egregium 160
Problems 165
Solutions to odd-numbered problems 168
Useful numbers 175
Bibliography 176
Index 177
 Preface to the 1989 reprint

The decision to make this book available again, after it has been out of
print for several years, was prompted by continuing requests from
students and teachers. I have taken the opportunity to make many minor
corrections, most of which were kindly supplied by readers.
Several new themes have entered the subject in the fifteen years since the
original writing. The link between cosmology and particle physics has
been strengthened by the development of inflationary theories, which
provide an explanation for the high degree of uniformity of the early
universe. Large-scale structure in the present universe has received
extensive attention, partly because of the discovery of giant voids in which
there are no galaxies and partly because of the application of fractal
mathematics to describe hierarchical galaxy clustering. And the
enthusiasm (in my view misplaced) for the anthropic principle reflects the
revival of the idea that the evolution of the universe as a whole, and of us
as a cosmologising species, are inevitably connected.
These are important developments, but I have not revis;:d the book to
incorporate them because I would not be able to do them justice. I hope
that the original material will still serve as a useful introduction at the
undergraduate level to gravitational relativity applied to the expanding
universe- subjects that continue to form the backbone of cosmology.

Bristol 1988 Michael Berry

 Preface to the first edition

Modern scientific cosmology is one of our grandest intellectual adven-

tures. It is also physics, uninhibited, applied on the largest scale. Indeed,
many people are first 'turned on' to physics by popular books or films
about cosmology. What a pity, then, that the subject is rarely taught in
universities. Perhaps this is because a suitable textbook is Jacking. There
are many advanced treatises for the specialist, and many elementary ex-
positions for the lay reader, but at the undergraduate level there is a gap.
This book is designed to fill that gap, and so promote teaching of cos-
mology in universities. The aim is to describe the universe as revealed by
observation, and to present a theoretical framework powerful enough to
enable important cosmological formulae to be derived and numerical
calculations performed.
Any serious treatment must grasp the nettle of Einstein's general theory
of relativity, because this gives the best description of the behaviour of
matter and light under the influence of gravity; it forms the basis of cur-
rent 'standard cosmology', and is employed constantly in the interpreta-
tion of observations. Here we avoid an elaborate and formal discussion
based on the tensor calculus. Of course it is necessary to introduce the
general expression for the separation (or interval) between two events, and
this involves the metric tensor of spacetime. However, it is possible in the
case of the highly symmetrical spacetimes of elementary general relativity
and cosmology to determine the metric tensor by employing Gauss's
formula for the curvature of an ordinary two-dimensional surface instead
of using the general Einstein field equations. The curvature of a surface is
a concept that makes no demands on the credulity of a student, so that this
approach is a convenient way to introduce the geometrical interpretation of
gravity.
A previous exposure to the ideas of special relativity is assumed, as is a
knowledge of calculus, including partial differentiation. This book is,
therefore, a suitable text for the final year of an undergraduate physics
 Preface XI

course. Experience shows that the material can be covered comfortably in

twenty-four lectures. Problems of varying difficulty are included, together
with solutions.
In writing this book I have used a great variety of sources, and it is
impossible to acknowledge them all. The works I found most helpful are
included in the bibliography, as recommended additional reading. I am
most grateful to Dr P. G. Drazin, Dr M.S. Longair and Professor J. F.
Nye for critically reading the manuscript and correcting a number of errors
(they are, of course, not responsible for any that remain).
Finally, I would like to thank my students for their gentle responsiveness
to this introduction of cosmology into their curriculum. It will not help
them get a job, nor will it help them serve the military-industrial complex
or increase the gross national product. But it will, I hope, contribute to
the revival of the old idea that physics should be, above all, 'natural
philosophy'.

Bristo/1974 Michael Berry

1 Introduction

It is customary to start with definitions, which are often all too glib and
rob a subject of its richness. Nevertheless it can help to fix our ideas if we
do have a definition, providing we do not take it too seriously. Accord-
ing to Chambers's Dictionary, cosmology is 'the science of the universe as a
whole'. Again, it is customary to divide a subject into neatly-separated
sections, even though this can obscure the richness of their interconnections.
Nevertheless, it does help to distinguish three main aspects of cosmology.
Firstly, we have cosmography: cataloguing the objects in the universe
andchartingtheir positions and motions. Unlike geographers, weare restric-
ted to one vantage-point - the Earth - where we sit and receive electro-
magnetic radiation. All our information about the universe is contained in
the directional distribution of this radiation (a star here, a galaxy there) and
in its spectral composition (light, X-ray, radio, etc.). By comparison, we
have learned very little from the analysis of cosmic rays and meteorites
(objects falling in from space), or from our first toddling steps outside the
Earth.
Secondly, there is theoretical cosmology, where we search for a frame-
work within which to comprehend the information from cosmography.
Even here the tidy scheme breaks down, because it is not possible to discuss
even the simplest observations without a theoretical framework -for
example, 'the distance of an object' can have at least five different mean-
ings, depending on how it is measured. Theoretical cosmology employs the
physical laws established on and near the Earth, and makes the outrageous
extrapolation that they apply throughout the universe. But physics, even
extrapolated, is not enough; to escape from the prison of our single van-
tage-point we need something more: a 'cosmological principle'. This is
essentially philosophical in nature; it does not follow from the laws of
physics. In simple terms, the cosmological principle says: 'There is nothing
special, cosmologically, about the Earth; therefore our large-scale observa-
tions are the same as those which would be made by observers anywhere
I 1I
 Introduction 2

else in the universe'. How fickle our intellect is! To mediaeval man it was
complete~y natural to consider the Earth as being at the centre of the uni-
verse, yet here we are, a mere few centuries later, elevating anti-anthro-
pocentrism to the level of a basic principle. The cosmological principle is
immensely powerful: it enables us to select from all the complicated
solutions of the equations of physics those which have certain simple
symmetries.
What kind of physics does cosmology require? I am afraid it is a pretty
rich stew, whose basic ingredient is a theory of gravitation, since that is the
dominant force on the cosmic scale. The best description of gravity that we
have is Einstein's 'general theory of relativity', and this will form the core
of our account of cosmology. To flavour the stew there will be a bit of
electromagnetism, some thermodynamics, and even a dash of particle
physics. The proof of any stew lies in the eating, which in this case means
comparison with observation. We shall see that theoretical cosmology
based on general relativity is capable of explaining the observations. How-
ever, these are not yet precise enough or extensive enough to indicate which
of a range of' universe models' applies to our actual world.
The third aspect of cosmology is cosmogony; this is the study of the
origin (or perhaps the infinitely distant past) of the universe. Here our
arrogance will be extreme, for we shall extrapolate the laws of physics to the
most distant times as well as places. We shall find ourselves interpreting
the most modern radio-astronomical observations as giving detailed in-
formation about conditions in the chaos of a 'big bang' ten thousand
million years ago. Distinguishing the distant past from the distant future
involves the nature of time itself, especially its reversibility, and this leads
to connections - still mysterious - between cosmology and laboratory
physics.
2 Cosmography

2.1 What the universe contains

On the very largest scale, the universe consists of clusters of
galaxies. About 1011 galaxies can be seen in the largest optical telescopes.
From a cosmological point of view galaxies are the' atoms' of the universe,
and their distribution, motion and origin must be determined and ex-
plained. However, galaxies are of course complicated gravitationally-
bound structures, each consisting of up to 1011 stars as well as gas clouds.
These are often distributed throughout a disc-shaped region with a central
core and spiral arms; however, many other forms are possible (see the
frontispiece), and these are beautifully illustrated in the Hubble atlas of
galaxies (see the bibliography). Each of the component stars is a nuclear
powerhouse whose detailed behaviour is the concern of astrophysics. Our
Sun is a typical star, situated about halfway out towards the edge of the
disc of our galaxy. The projection of the plane of our galaxy can be seen
in the sky as the faint white stripe called the 'Milky Way'. The Earth is
one of a few planets gravitationally bound to the Sun. It is not known
what fraction of stars have planetary systems, because no planets have
been observed outside our solar system (although several have been
inferred) and because the mechanism of planet formation is not understood.
However, even if the mechanism relies on an improbable event like the
near-collision of two stars (although this is now thought unlikely) the
vast numbers of stars make it virtually certain that there are many planets
in the universe not too dissimilar from our own. Therefore we can hardly
claim our vantage-point to be exceptional; on the contrary, it is likely to
be typical.
What about distances? It used to be common to illustrate the immensity
and emptiness of space with imaginary scale models. For example, if the
Sun were a watermelon in Piccadilly Circus, the Earth would be a grape
pip a hundred metres away, and the nearest star would be another water-
melon in Australia. Our imagination rapidly loses its grip on such models,
[ 31
 Cosmography 4

Table l
Mean Earth-Moon distance =
r~ = 3.84 x lOS m = 1.28 light-seconds
Mean Earth-Sun distance =
r® = 1.496 x 1011 m = 8.3light-minutes
9.46 x 10 15 m = I light-year= 0.307 pc
3.26 light years = 1 pc
Distance to nearest star ~ 4 light years ~ 1.2 pc
Diameter of our galaxy ~ 105 light-years ~ 3 x 104 pc
Distance of nearest large galaxy ~ 2 x lOS light-years ~ 6 x lOS pc
Distance of farthest galaxy seen "' 3 x l09 light-years ~ 109 pc
optically

and in this preliminary survey of cosmic distances we instead make use of

light time. The speed of light in vacuo is
c = 2.998 x 108 m s-t. (2.1.1)

Light travels seven times round the Earth in one second, so that the cir-
cumference of the Earth is about' one-seventh of a light-second'. Table I
shows cosmically important distances measured in light time (the final
column gives the distance in a different unit, the parsec (pc), which we
shall introduce in section 2.2.1).
There may well be other matter in the universe besides the galaxies we
see, for instance galaxies that have ceased to radiate, black holes of all
sizes (see section 5.6), and intergalactic dust and gas, but firm experi-
mental evidence for this is lacking. However, a whole range of exotic
astronomical objects has been discovered, most puzzling being the quasi-
stellar objects (QSO's); these appear to be as distant and as bright (both
optically and at radio frequencies) as galaxies, but they are very compact-
at most a few thousand light-years across. Their nature is unknown.
Ignoring these complications, the mass density Pgal due to galaxies has been
estimated to be

Pgal ~ 3x J0-28 kg m-3. (2.1.2)

The universe also contains radiation, apparently at all frequencies. Some

of this radiation is directional: it comes from localized objects, and indeed
that is how we see them. This leads us to the simplest cosmological observa-
tion: the sky is dark at night. The significance of this has been stressed by
Bondi: it tells us that the universe cannot consist of a static, infinitely-old,
infinitely-extended arrangement of galaxies, because if it did every line
 What the universe contains s
drawn outwards from the Earth would terminate on the surface of a star,
so that the whole sky would blaze as brightly as the Sun. Absorption by
interstellar matter would not prevent this, because the matter would
eventually reach thermal equilibrium with the radiation and re-emit with
the same intensity as it absorbed. Nevertheless, there are a number of
ways out of what used to be called 'Olbers' paradox'. For example, the
universe may be infinite in extent, but not infinitely old; then the light
from distant stars would not yet have reached us. An alternative escape
route from the 'paradox' is the 'expansion of the universe', which we
shall discuss in section 2.3. (See also section 6.4.)
The universe also contains isotropic background radiation, that is, radia-
tion which is not directional. Energetically, the dominant background
radiation is in the microwave region (wavelengths of order I mm), and
does not come from discrete sources. It seems to have a black-body dis-
tribution, which means that it is, or was, in thermal equilibrium with
matter; the black-body temperature is 2.7 K. The mass equivalent of this
radiation is negligible in comparison with the galaxies; in fact its density
(from E = mc2) is
Prad ~ IQ-S Pgal· (2.1.3)

Orders of magnitude weaker still are X-ray, y-ray and radio isotropic
backgrounds; these are thought to come from discrete sources, very
numerous and too distant to be resolved. Thus if mass dominates the
dynamics of the universe (as we believe), then it is safe to neglect the radia-
tion at the present time. But we shall see in chapter 8 that there is good
reason to believe that the universe was radiation-dominated in the past,
and that the observed microwave background is a fossil remnant of those
ancient times.

2.2 The cosmic distance hierarchy, and the determination of galactic

densities
How do we know the distances and densities just quoted? The
Universe is charted by a sequence of techniques, each of which takes us out
to a greater range of distances - to the next level of the 'cosmic distance
hierarchy'. Each level is less reliable than the last, so that there is consider-
able uncertainty about measurements of very great distances.
Before going into the details of these methods of measuring cosmic
distances, we employ the 'parable of the city' to illustrate the methods
involved. A Martian lands in the dead of night on the flat roof of a build-
ing in London. 'He' wishes to make a map of the city, but is confined to
 Cosmography 6

A B

Figure I. Distance from parallax measurement.

the roof, on which he can see the faint outlines of objects. Outside, only
lights are visible - street lights, traffic lights, late-burning room lights, etc.
Distances between objects on the roof can be found by direct comparison
with any convenient standard, such as the length of the Martian's foot.
Distances of lights in the immediate neighbourhood can be found by tri-
angulation using a baseline joining any two points on the roof. But the
size of the roof is limited, so that to map more distant lights he must devise
another method. In fact he employs the decrease in their apparent lumin-
osity with distance: the assumption is made that lights with the same
epectral characteristics (such as the red-orange-green of traffic lights, or
the yellow of sodium lamps) are physically identical, so that the inverse-
square law can be used to determine distances. Provided there are 'stan-
dard candles' available for calibration in the triangulable 'near zone', this
method works out to distances at which the lights are so faint as to be
barely visible. Farther away, the only visible objects are accumulations of
lights - apartment blocks, outlying villages - whose distances can again be
determined from luminosity measurements, provided the nearest such
objects contain visible traffic lights, etc., whose distances are known. Thus
the Martian maps the city by using a hierarchy of methods of overlapping
applicability, and thus transcends the limitations imposed by his restricted
vantage-point.

2.2.1 Parallax
This is triangulation using a baseline A B whose length 2d is
known (figure I), oriented so that the perpendicular from 0, the object
whose distance Dis to be measured, joins AB at its midpoint. As we move
from A to B, the direction of 0 will change. This can be observed as an
 The cosmic distance hierarchy and galactic densities 7

apparent displacement of 0 relative to objects far more distant (whose

direction hardly alters). If the angular displacement of 0 is 2¥, then D
follows by elementary trigonometry as

D = d cot y;::; d/lfr

since in practical cases vis a very small angle. The angle lfr (not 2ljr) is
called the parallax of 0 relative to AB.
In this way distances within the solar system can be measured, using
baselines on the Earth, whose lengths can be established by direct measure-
ment with flexible tapes, or by laser or radar ranging (measurement of the
time delay between the emission of a pulse from A and its reception after
reflexion from B), or by local triangulation using smaller baselines. Hip-
parchus measured the Moon's distance by parallax in I29 B.c., and in 1672
Cassini and Richer measured the distance to Mars, using a baseline of
about 104 km between Paris and Cayenne in South America. This measure-
ment enabled the distance r0 from the Earth to the Sun to be calculated,
using gravitational theory and the periods T(B and Tcs of orbital revolution
of the Earth and Mars. Nowadays distances within the solar system can be
measured more accurately using radar.
The mean Earth-Sun distance r0 is called the astronomical unit (a.u.);
it provides the scale for the fundamental baseline from which we can step
outside the solar system. This baseline is the diameter of the Earth's orbit,
and enables the distances of nearer stars to be determined by measuring
their parallax after six months, using the distant stars (whose parallax is
negligible) as a background. The basic cosmic distance unit is defined in
terms of parallax: one parsec ('parallax-second') is the di'stance of an
object whose parallax ¥ is one second of arc. Thus

) 1 a.u 3600 X I80

I parsec ( pc = I".m ra d"1ans ----a.u.
11

= 206265 a.u.
= 3.086 x 1016 m
= 3.26 light-years.

It was in 1837 that Bessel measured the first stellar parallax, of 0.3", for
the star 6I Cygni (for a brief description of astronomical nomenclature,
see Appendix A); the distance of 61 Cygni from us is 1/0.3 ,...., 3.3 pc. The
parallax of the nearest star is 0.8". The smallest parallax that can be
 Cosmography 8

v,

V.L =Dw

Earth
Figure 2. Distance from velocity measurement.

measured is determined by the resolving power of the largest telescopes,

and this limits us to stars closer than about 30 pc. A sphere of this radius
includes many thousands of stars.

2.2.2 Distance from velocity measurements

The 'fixed stars' in fact move, with velocities V which can con-
veniently be resolved into two components: a radial velocity V,. along the
line of sight (figure 2) and a transverse velocity VJ_ perpendicular to the
line of sight. The magnitude of V rarely exceeds 100 km s-1 . We can mea-
sure V,. by the Doppler shift ~A of a spectral line of' rest wavelength' A in
the light from the star. A is identified by comparison with patterns of lines
observed in terrestrial laboratories. Then, in the non-relativistic limit,

V,. = c~A/A. (2.2.1)

A positive V,. (recession) is indicated by a shift of the lines towards the red
end of the spectrum, and a negative V,. (approach) is indicated by a blue
shift. It is not possible to measure ~ directly, but for nearer stars we can
observe the angular velocity w which is due to ~; in fact

Dw = ~' (2.2.2)

where D is the unknown distance of the star. w is called the proper motion
of the star; over thousands of years these motions lead to changes in the
appearance of the constellations.
D cannot be determined simply by measuring V,. and w, but there are
two limiting cases where extra information is available. In the first, we use
clusters of stars which all have approximately the same velocity V. This
parallel motion can be recognised by the convergence of the proper
motions on a point (direction) in the sky. The angle ifJ between this direc-
 The cosmic distance hierarchy and galactic densities 9

tion and the line of sight to the cluster is the angle between V, and V, and
we have
tan ¢ = ~IV,. = Dw/V,..
Therefore
D = V,. tan if;fw, (2.2.3)
involving three measurable quantities. This moving cluster method works
best for open clusters; it has been applied to only a few cases, including
the Hyades (in Taurus) whose 100 stars have been found to lie at a mean
distance of 40.8 pc from us.
The second limiting case employs groups of stars with no overall motion,
where the stars appear to have random velocities like the molecules in a
gas. Then it is assumed that the random motion is 'isotropic', that is, that
(2 v;)av = ( VDav, otherwise we would be in a privileged position relative
to the group, which is unlikely. Thus
(2V;)av = (Vi)av = D 2(w2)av,
and
(2.2.4)
involving averages over the measured V,. and w for a sample of stars in the
cluster. This method of statistical parallaxes takes us out to several hundred
parsecs (still well within our galaxy).
Real clusters generally lie between these extremes; there is some random
motion, and the centre of mass of the cluster has some motion relative to us.

2.2.3 Distance from apparent luminosity

Suppose we know the absolute luminosity L of a star or galaxy;
this is defined as the total power radiated, in watts. Suppose also that we
measure the apparent luminosity I; this is defined as the power travelling
across unit area at the observer, normal to the line of sight. Then, if there
has been no absorption in space we may use the conservation of energy to
derive the inverse-square law for I in terms of L and the distance D:
L = lx41TD 2,
therefore
D = .J(L/477/). (2.2.5)
Thus D can be found from measurements of /, provided L is known; the
trouble is that generally it is not. However, there are certain classes of
objects for which we do know L, usually not very accurately, and all
 Cosmography 10

higher levels of the cosmic distance hierarchy are based on these 'standard
candles'.
To introduce the method in its simplest form, we repeat an argument
used by Newton to estimate the distance of the nearest stars. He assumed
that all stars are as bright as the Sun, so that the nearest are the brightest.
These are about 1011 times fainter than the Sun. Therefore

Dstar/re = (/ef/star)! = (1011)!

and
Dstar :.:::: 3 x 105 a.u. :.:::: 1.5 pc :.:::: Slight-years.
By what is really a coincidence, based on the fact that the nearest stars
happen to be similar to the Sun, this is nearly right (although Newton
himself made a numerical error of a factor of 100).
To proceed further, it is necessary to explain that astronomers do not use
the power I as a measure of apparent brightness. Rather, they use a loga-
rithmic measure, the apparent magnitude m. This is greater, the fainter the
object, and is defined so that two objects whose luminosities /1 and /2
differ by a factor of 100 differ in apparent magnitude by 5, that is,
(2.2.6)
We still have to fix the zero point of the magnitude scale. Historically,
m ~ 1 corresponded to the brightest few visible stars, while m = 6 stars
are those just visible with the naked eye. Nowadays it is necessary to be
more precise, and the zero point is defined by
/(m=ol =2.52 x 10- 8 W m-2 (2.2.7)
(with this definition, I is the total power received, integrated over all wave-
lengths). The apparent magnitude of the Sun is m 0 = -26.85.
The absolute magnitude M of an object is the apparent magnitude that
the object would have at a distance of 10 pc. Thus, measuring D in pc,
/m X 47T D 2 = /M X 47T102•
Therefore
10QW-ml/5 = l02fD2,
.... D = 10[1+(m-111)/5J

m-M = 5log 10 (D/10). (2.2.8)

The Sun has an absolute magnitude M 0 = 4. 72, fairly typical for a star.
Bright galaxies have Mgai ~ -22, so that the absolute luminosities L 0 and
 The cosmic distance hierarchy and galactic densities 11

-6

-4

~
-2
.,"
::l 0
~
"'
E +2

'">
~ +4

:;" +6
]
.n
--< +~

+10

+ 12
27 000 10 400 7200 6000 5120 3750
Surface temperature ( K)
Figure 3. Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (schematic).

Lgal (which are proportional to the apparent luminosities at 10 pc) are

related by
L /L = 1oouu0-1li,.1l/5 = 100(4.72+22)/5 ~ 5 x 1o1o
~ 0 '
a result consistent with our earlier assertion that large galaxies contain
about 10 11 stars. The quantity m- M is called the distance modulus (for
the Sun, its value is - 31.57).
M, m, L and I have been defined in terms of the total power emitted or
received at all wavelengths. However, analogous quantities can be defined
in terms of the power per unit wavelength or frequency interval.
We h:lVe some knowledge of M for several classes of object, and we
shall discuss just four: main-sequence stars, Cepheid variables, novae,
and brightest galaxies in clusters.

Main-sequence stars. For nearby stars whose distances can be found by

parallax or velocity measurements, Hertzsprung and Russell found in 1910
that for many stars (the 'main sequence') L (or M) and spectral type
(roughly the colour, which corresponds to the surface temperature T) are
strongly correlated (figure 3); the cooler stars are fainter. Thus if we know
that a given star is in the main sequence, we simply measure its apparent
magnitude m and determine its spectral type; the latter gives us the abso-
lute magnitude M, from the Hertzsprung-Russell relation, and from the
distance modulus m- M we infer D. The method works best for clusters,
 Cosmography 12

Figure 4. Light curve of 8 Cephei.

where all stars are roughly at the same distance, so that the main sequence
can be identified in a statistical way, as follows: the apparent magnitudes
m are plotted against spectral type, and it is often found that the points lie
near a curve similar to that resulting from the Herzsprung-Russell relation;
any star on the curve is therefore a member of the main sequence. Com-
plications arise, however, because there are (roughly speaking) two main
sequences: population I stars (like the Sun) in open clusters like Hyades,
and population II stars in globular clusters like M 13 in Hercules; great
care must be taken to avoid confusing these populations. Main-sequence
stars are rather faint (at least where the colour-luminosity relation is
reliable) and this limits the distances which can be determined. The largest
telescope cannot detect stars fainter than about m = 22.7. If such a star is
seen to have the same colour as the Sun (M = 4.7) then the distance modu-
lus is 18, and the actual distance is
D = 101+18/5 pc = 10u pc ~ 4 x 104 pc.
This is comparable with the diameter of our galaxy, so that even this giant
step up to a new level in the hierarchy has not taken us out to cosmologic-
ally interesting distances.

Cepheid variables. Many stars vary regularly in brightness, with periods P

of the order of days. Typical is 8 Cephei, whose 'light curve' is shown in
figure 4. These variable stars are therefore called 'Cepheids' (they should
not be confused with pulsars, which are radio sources and whose periods
are much shorter). It was observed by Leavitt in 1912 that m and P are
approximately linearly related for the Cepheids in the Small Magellanic
Cloud (now known to be a 'satellite' sub-galaxy of our own). Since these
stars are all roughly at the same distance from us, she concluded thl:.t m
was uniquely related to M, and hence M to P, thus giving an absolute
luminosity versus period relation. Because all Cepheids with the same
 Figure 5. Cepheids as standard candles. (By kind permission of Professor
G. C. McVittie.)

period have the same M, these stars may be employed as 'standard

candles' for distance determination, once the relation has been calibrated
by establishing M for Cepheids within the galaxy, using a lower level of the
distance hierarchy. Unfortunately, there are only a few galactic Cepheids
in clusters whose distance is known, and this reduces the accuracy of the
method. Figure 5 shows some actual data.
Thus a Cepheid with period 10 days (log P = 1) has an absolute magni-
tude M :::= - 3 (i.e. L{L 0 ,...., 103). In the Magellanic Cloud a physically
similar object (same M) has an apparent magnitude m of about 16. There-
fore the distance modulus m-M is about 19, and the distance is
D = 101+1915 pc = 102415 pc :::= 6 x 104 pc.
At last we are outside the galaxy, but only just!
Now Cepheids are intrinsically rather bright (up to M ,...., -6, i.e.
L/L0 ,...., I04), and they can be resolved in a number of external galaxies as
well as our own. In 1923 Hubble discovered Cepheids in M31 (the Andro-
meda nebula) and measured their periods. Their faintness proved con-
clusively that 'spiral nebulae' are galaxies outside our own but similar to it
-i.e. 'island universes' -and thus settled a long controversy, establishing
our presently-held picture of the universe as an assembly of galaxies.
However, his value of the distance D was 2.8 x 105 pc, and this was too
small by a factor of more than two, as was shown by Baade in 1952, be-
cause Hubble had confused two different types of variable star. Hubble's
erroneous value led to the puzzling conclusion that all other galaxies are
 Cosmography 14

much smaller than our own, which would give us a privileged status as ob-
servers; but the new value gives our galaxy an unembarrassingly typical size.
Cepheids can be seen out to about 4 x 106 pc, which includes the galaxies
of the 'local group' - the cluster of galaxies containing our own.

Novae. In each large galaxy close enough to be studied in detail, about

forty stars are observed each year to flare up suddenly and become up to
six magnitudes brighter than they were before. Then they gradually fade,
over a period of days. These are novae, or 'new stars'. They can also be
observed in our own galaxy, and their distances determined by methods
lower down the hierarchy. Thus the absolute magnitudes M are known.
These vary with time, of course, and it is found that the maximum bright-
ness Mmax is fairly well correlated with the fading time t 2 (conventionally
defined as the time for the star to grow two magnitudes dimmer, that is
from M max to M max+ 2). Thus novae can be used like Cepheids, to infer D
from measurements of t 2 and the apparent maximum brightness mmax· The
results of the method for neighbouring galaxies agree reasonably well
(within 10 per cent) with distances deduced from Cepheid observations.
However, novae are much brighter than Cepheids, so they constitute
another level of the hierarchy. How far does this take us? The brightest
novae reach Mmax "'-9.3, and we can currently detect mmax"' 22.7,
so that the limiting distance with this method is
D = 1ot+[22.6-(-9.3)J/5 pc = Ioast5 pc = 4 x 107 pc.
We have now reached out beyond the nearest galaxies outside our local
group; these lie in the Virgo cluster, which contains about 2500 galaxies.
Extra checks on the estimation of distances on this level of the hierarchy
are obtained by using globular clusters of stars, and HII regions (clouds
of ionised hydrogen surrounding hot stars) as standard candles.

Brightest galaxies in clusters. Beyond the Virgo cluster it is not easy to

resolve individual stars, and the final level of the distance hierarchy em-
ploys whole galaxies as distance indicators. It appears that the distribution
of apparent galactic brightnesses within a cluster has a rather sharp upper
limit. For the Virgo cluster we know the distance, and hence the absolute
magnitude M of the brightest galaxy; its value is -21. 7. If we assume the
brightest galaxy in a distant cluster and has the same M, then we can find
D simply by measuring the apparent magnitude m. This takes us out to
D = J01+[22.7-(-21.7)J/5 pc ~ 8 x J09 pc,
which at last includes a large fraction of cosmologically interesting objects.
 The cosmic distance hierarchy and galactic densities 15

But there is a snag: suppose that the distribution of galactic brightnesses

has a small 'tail' instead of a sharp cut-off, that is, that there is a small
fraction of extraordinarily bright galaxies. Then as we probe to greater
distances, and choose increasingly rich clusters, we shall inevitably en-
counter these exceptional galaxies whose absolute brightness exceeds
M = -21.7, and thus underestimate all their distances. This is the 'Scott
effect', pointed out in 1957; its existence is still controversial. A more
detailed discussion of the cosmic distance hierarchy (with references) may
be found in Weinberg's Graritation and cosmology (see the bibliography).
At this point it is convenient to draw attention to two conceptual
problems that will occupy us a great deal later on. The first problem con-
cerns the simple distance formulae given by the parallax, velocity and
luminosity methods. The formulae involve elementary trigonometric
relations between angles and distances for systems of straight lines. These
are based on ordinary Euclidean geometry, together with the identification
of light rays with straight lines. This is known to apply very accurately
in the solar system, because the various very precise methods for deter-
mining distance agree with one another. But can we extrapolate to galactic
or intergalactic distances? There are, after all, various systems of non-
Euclidean geometry, such as that which must be used on the surface of a
sphere (in this geometry angles of a triangle do not add up to 180°, circles
of radius r have circumferences less than 2TTr, etc.). It is a question not of
mathematics but of physics to ask which geometry applies in the actual
world. We shall find strong evidence that 'space may be curved', and this
will require us to talk very carefully about distance. However, within the
'local group' of galaxies and even a little beyond (i.e. out to many mega-
parsecs) any corrections for possible non-Euclidicity are negligible.
The second conceptual problem concerns time. The cosmic hierarchy
takes us out to billions of light-years. Thus we are seeing light emitted in
the remote past. What is the universe like now? This question assumes that
distant events can uniquely be considered simultaneous, and it is known
from the special theory of relativity that events simultaneous in one frame
of reference will not be so in others: there is no unique 'now'. Thus we
must take great care in our description of the Universe on a large scale,
particularly since we believe it to be evolving as time proceeds.

2.2.4 Weighing galaxies

In the models of the universe we shall derive from general rela-
tivity, the mass density p is a vitally important quantity. At present the
mass seems to occur principally in the form of galaxies, and we have quoted
 Cosmography 16

a value Pgal of 3 x I0- 28 kg m- 3 ; how has this figure been arrived at? By
employing the distance hierarchy and counting galaxies, the number den-
sity (galaxies per unit volume) can be found. Thus it is necessary to find
the average mass of a single galaxy. There are several ways of doing this, all
based on the (far from obvious) assumption that galaxies, or clusters of
galaxies, are gracitationally-bound systems in dynamical equilibrium. The
parts of such a gravitationally-bound system must be in relative motion,
otherwise its contents would fall in towards the centre of mass. Indeed
galaxies are observed to rotate: points equidistant from the axis of galaxies
seen almost edge-on have different spectral shifts, that is, different Doppler
velocities. The average of these gives the mean velocity of the galaxy as a
whole, while half their difference gives the rotational velocity V(r) about
the centre, which varies with radial distance r.
The mass M g of a galaxy can be estimated as follows: this mass, acting
as though it were concentrated at the galactic centre, determines the motion
of the outermost parts of the galaxy, whose radius is rg, say. (Strictly, this
would apply only to a spherically-symmetrical galaxy, but we are only
making rough estimates here.) If galaxies are stable, the orbits of stars in
them will approximate to closed curves. If we assume these are circles,
then, for a star of mass m on the edge, we have, from Newton's law:

Mass x acceleration inwards = mV~frg = inward force

= mMgGfr~,

that is

Mg = rg V~/G, (2.2.9)
where G is Newton's gravitation constant and Ji~ stands for V(rg). Both
rg and Vg are measurable, so M g can be found. The equation applies also
(and more strictly!) to the motion of the Earth round the Sun, so that
(2.2.9) can be written alternatively as

(2.2.10)

where r 0 is the Earth-Sun distance (- 5 x I0- 6 pc) and Vs the Earth's

orbital speed (- 30 km s- 1 ). (Note that the symbol M here stands for
mass, not magnitude as before.)
Let us apply this to our own galaxy: we have rg- 2 x 104 pc, and the
Sun's orbital speed about the galactic centre is about 200 km s- 1 (this is
obtained by a statistical analysis of the Doppler shifts and proper motions
of a large number of stars). The Sun is about halfway out, so we take
Vg - 200/.J2 km s- 1 (this assumes the galaxy to be fairly concentrated near
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